Chapter 1: Composition and Structure of

the Atmosphere

‰ Composition
‰ Evolution
‰ Vertical Structure

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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Thickness of the Atmosphere
(from Meteorology Today)
‰ Most of the atmospheric mass
is confined in the lowest 100
90% km above the sea level.
70%
‰ The thickness of the
atmosphere is only about 2%
of Earth’s thickness (Earth’s
radius = ~6500km).

‰ Because of the shallowness of the atmosphere, its motions over large

areas are primarily horizontal.
ÎTypically, horizontal wind speeds are a thousands time greater than
vertical wind speeds.
(But the small vertical displacements of air have an important impact on
the state of the atmosphere.) ESS5
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
Composition of the Atmosphere
(inside the DRY homosphere)

Water vapor (0-0.25%)

(from The Blue Planet) ESS5

Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
Permanent and Variable Gases
Those gases that form a
constant portion of the
atmospheric mass.

Those gases whose

concentrations changes
from time to time and
from place to place. Some
of those gases are
important to weather and
climate.
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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Water Vapor (H2O)
‰ The most abundant variable gas.

‰ Water vapor is supplied to the atmosphere by evaporation from

the surface and is removed from the atmosphere by
condensation (clouds and rains).

‰ The concentration of water vapor is maximum near the surface

and the tropics (~ 0.25% of the atmosphere by volume) and
decreases rapidly toward higher altitudes and latitude (~ 0% of
the atmosphere).

‰ Water vapor is important to climate because it is a greenhouse

gas that can absorb thermal energy emitted by Earth, and can
release “latent heat” to fuel weather phenomena.
ESS5
Prof. Jin-
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 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
current Early spring maximum:
takes less CO2 due to
level slow plant growth in
winter plus produces y ear
r
CO2 from tree leave pe
decomposing. ppm
1. 8

Late summer minimum:

summer growth removes
(from
CO2 from the
Understanding
atmosphere.
Weather
& Climate)

‰ Carbon dioxide is supplied into the atmosphere by plant and

animal respiration, the decay of organic material, volcanic
eruptions, and natural and anthropogenic combustion.
‰ Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by
photosynthesis.
‰ CO2 is an important greenhouse gas. ESS5
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Ozone (O3)

“good” ozone
~ 15ppm

“bad” ozone
~ 0.15ppm

(from WMO Report 2003) ESS5

Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
‰ Methane
– A variable gas in small but recently increasing concentrations
– Released to the atmosphere through fossil fuel activities, livestock
digestion, and agriculture cultivation (esp. rice)
– As a very effective absorber of terrestrial radiation it plays an
active role in near surface warming

Annual increases in
atmospheric methane

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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Other Atmospheric Constituents

‰ Aerosols: small solid particles and liquid droplets in

the air. They serve as condensation nuclei for cloud
formation.

‰ Air Pollutant: a gas or aerosol produce by human

activity whose concentration threatens living
organisms or the environment.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Origins of the Atmosphere
‰ When the Earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago, Earth’s atmosphere
was probably mostly hydrogen (H) and helium (He) plus hydrogen
compounds, such as methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3).
Î Those gases eventually escaped to the space.

‰ The release of gases from rock through volcanic eruption (so-called

outgassing) was the principal source of atmospheric gases.
Î The primeval atmosphere produced by the outgassing was mostly
carbon dioxide (CO2) with some Nitrogen (N2) and water vapor (H2O),
and trace amounts of other gases.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 What Happened to H2O?
‰ The atmosphere can only small
fraction of the mass of water
vapor that has been injected into
it during volcanic eruption, most
of the water vapor was
condensed into clouds and rains
and gave rise to oceans.

Î The concentration of water

vapor in the atmosphere was
substantially reduced.
(from Atmospheric Sciences: An Introductory Survey)

ESS5
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 What happened to CO2?
‰ Chemical weather is the primary
process to remove CO2 from the
atmosphere.
Î In this process, CO2 dissolves in
rainwater producing weak
carbonic acid that reacts
chemically with bedrock and
produces carbonate compounds.

‰ This biogeochemical process

reduced CO2 in the atmosphere
(from Earth’s Climate: Past and Future)
and locked carbon in rocks and
mineral.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
Carbon Inventory

(from Atmospheric Sciences: An Introductory Survey)

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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 What Happened to N2?
‰ Nitrogen (N2):
(1) is inert chemically,
(2) has molecular speeds too slow to escape to space,
(3) is not very soluble in water.

ÎThe amount of nitrogen being cycled out of the atmosphere

was limited.

ÎNitrogen became the most abundant gas in the atmosphere.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Where Did O2 Come from?
‰ Photosynthesis was the primary
process to increase the amount of
oxygen in the atmosphere.
Î Primitive forms of life in oceans
began to produce oxygen through
photosynthesis probably 2.5 billion
years ago.
Î With the concurrent decline of CO2,
oxygen became the second most
abundant atmospheric as after
nitrogen.

(from Earth’s Climate: Past and Future)

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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Formation of Ozone (O3)

‰ With oxygen emerging as a

major component of the
atmosphere, the concentration
of ozone increased in the
atmosphere through a
photodissociation process.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
(from WMO Report 2003)
 Where Did Argon Come from?

‰ Radioactive decay in the planet’s bedrock

added argon (Ar) to the evolving atmosphere.

Î Argon became the third abundant gas in the

atmosphere.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
Composition of the Atmosphere
(inside the DRY homosphere)

Water vapor (0-0.25%)

(from The Blue Planet) ESS5

Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 ESS5
(from The Atmosphere) Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere

composition

temperature

electricity

80km

(from Meteorology Today)

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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Vertical Structure of Composition
up to ~500km
Dominated by lighter gases
Heterosphere with increasing altitude, such
as hydrogen and helium.
~80km

This part of the atmosphere

continually circulates, so that
the principal atmospheric
Homosphere gases are well mixed.
Î For most purpose, we
consider the homosphere
virtually the entire
atmosphere.
ESS5
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Vertical Thermal Structure
Troposphere (“overturning” sphere)
ƒ contains 80% of the mass
Standard Atmosphere ƒ surface heated by solar radiation
ƒ strong vertical motion
ƒ where most weather events occur
Stratosphere (“layer” sphere)
ƒ weak vertical motions
ƒ dominated by radiative processes
ƒ heated by ozone absorption of solar
ultraviolet (UV) radiation
ƒ warmest (coldest) temperatures at summer
(winter) pole
Mesosphere (“in-between” sphere)
ƒ heated by solar radiation at the base
ƒ heat dispersed upward by vertical motion

(from Understanding Weather & Climate) Thermosphere (“heated” sphere)

ƒ very little mass
lapse rate = 6.5 C/km
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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Variations in Tropopause Height

(from The Atmosphere)

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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Stratosphere
Standard Atmosphere ‰ The reasons for the inversion in
the stratosphere is due to the ozone
absorption of ultraviolet solar
energy.
‰ Although maximum ozone
concentration occurs at 25km, the
lower air density at 50km allows
solar energy to heat up temperature
there at a much greater degree.
‰ Also, much solar energy is
absorbed in the upper stratosphere
(from Understanding Weather & Climate)
and can not reach the level of
lapse rate = 6.5 C/km ozone maximum.
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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Mesosphere
Standard Atmosphere
‰ There is little ozone to absorb
solar energy in the mesosphere, and
therefore, the air temperature in the
mesosphere decreases with height.
‰ Also, air molecules are able to
lose more energy than they absorb.
This cooling effect is particularly
large near the top of the
mesosphere.

(from Understanding Weather & Climate)

lapse rate = 6.5 C/km

ESS5
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Thermosphere
Standard Atmosphere
‰ In thermosphere, oxygen
molecules absorb solar rays and
warms the air.
‰ Because this layer has a low air
density, the absorption of small
amount of solar energy can cause
large temperature increase.
‰ The air temperature in the
thermosphere is affected greatly by
(from Understanding Weather & Climate)
solar activity.

lapse rate = 6.5 C/km

ESS5
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Ionosphere
‰ The ionosphere is an electrified
region within the upper
atmosphere where large
concentration of ions and free
electrons exist.

‰ The ionosphere starts from about

60km above Earth’s surface and
extends upward to the top of the
80km
60km atmosphere. Most of the
ionosphere is in the thermosphere.

‰ The ionosphere plays an important

(from Meteorology Today) role in radio communication.
ESS5
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
ESS5
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
 Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere has 4 layers:

the troposphere that we live in near the
surface of the earth;
the stratosphere that houses the ozone layer;

the mesosphere, a colder and lower density

layer with about 0.1% of the atmosphere; and
the thermosphere, the top layer, where the
air is hot but very thin.
The Atmosphere is divided into layers according to major changes in
temperature. Gravity pushes the layers of air down on the earth's
surface. This push is called air pressure.
50% of the mass is within 5.5. km of sea level, 90% is within 16 km and
99.9% of the total mass of the atmosphere is below 49 kilometers.

Troposphere - 0 to 12 km - Contains 75% of the gases in the

atmosphere. This is where we live and where weather occurs. As
height increases, temperature decreases. The temperature drops
about 6.5 degrees Celsius/km above the earth's surface.
The troposphere is made up of approximately 78% nitrogen, 21%
oxygen, and 1% other gases, which include carbon dioxide, methane,
neon, krypton, argon, helium, and hydrogen. It contains
approximately 99% of the water vapour in the earth's entire
atmosphere.
The troposphere contains almost all the water vapor and most of the
dust. This layer subject to intense mixing due to both horizontal and
vertical mixing.
Temperature vs. Height and Pressure of the Troposphere
Tropopause - located at the top of the troposhere. The temperature
remains fairly constant here. This layer separates the troposphere from
the stratosphere. We find the jet stream here. These are very strong winds
that blow eastward. The tropopause is the boundary in the Earth's
atmosphere between the troposphere and the stratosphere. It is a
thermodynamic gradient stratification layer, marking the end of
troposphere. It lies, on average, at 17 kilometres (11 mi) above equatorial
regions, and about 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) over the polar regions. The
tropopause is characterized by temperatures that stop decreasing and
remain steady, before later increasing in the stratosphere.

Mesopause: The coldest temperatures in Earth's atmosphere, about -90° C

(-130° F), are found near the top of this layer. The boundary between the
mesosphere and the thermosphere above it is called the mesopause. At
the bottom of the mesosphere is the stratopause, the boundary between
the mesosphere and the stratosphere below. The average height of
the mesopause is about 85 km (53 miles), where the atmosphere again
becomes isothermal.
Stratosphere : 12 to 50 km - in the lower part of the
stratosphere. The temperature remains fairly constant (-60
degrees Celsius). This layer contains the ozone layer. Ozone
acts as a shield for in the earth's surface. It absorbs
ultraviolet radiation from the sun. This causes a
temperature increase in the upper part of the layer.
The stratosphere accounts for approximately 24% of the
earth's total atmosphere. The stratosphere contains
approximately 19% of the earth's total atmospheric gases.
90% of the ozone layer is found in the stratosphere's upper
crust. The stratosphere is the second major strata of air
in the atmosphere. It extends above the tropopause to
an altitude of about 30 miles (50 km) above the planet's
surface. The air temperature in the stratosphere remains
relatively constant up to an altitude of 15 miles (25 km).
Mesophere - 50 to 80 km - in the lower part of the
stratosphere. The temperature drops in this layer to about
-100 degrees Celsius. This is the coldest region of the
atmosphere. This layer protects the earth from meteoroids.
They burn up in this area

The mesosphere is directly above the stratosphere and

below the thermosphere. It extends from about 50 to 85
km (31 to 53 miles) above our planet. Temperature
decreases with height throughout the mesosphere
The mesosphere is the coldest atmospheric layer
surrounding the earth. It becomes cold enough to freeze
water vapour in its atmosphere into ice clouds. These ice
clouds are blue-white and are called noctilucent clouds
or polar mesospheric clouds. These clouds are more
visible at sunset from the earth's poles.
Thermosphere - 80 km and up - The air is very thin.
Thermosphere means "heat sphere". The temperature is
very high in this layer because ultraviolet radiation is turned
into heat. Temperatures often reach 2000 degrees Celsius or
more. This layer contains:

Ionosphere - This is the lower part of the thermosphere. It

extends from about 80 to 550 km. Gas particles absorb
ultraviolet and X-ray radiation from the sun. The particles of
gas become electrically charged (ions). Radio waves are
bounced off the ions and reflect waves back to earth. This
generally helps radio communication. However, solar flares
can increase the number of ions and can interfere with the
transmission of some radio waves.
Exosphere - the upper part of the thermosphere. It
extends from about 550 km for thousands of kilometers.
Air is very thin here. This is the area where satellites orbit
the earth.

Magnetosphere - the area around the earth that extends

beyond the atmosphere.
The earth's magnetic field operates here. It begins at
about 1000 km. It is made up of positively charged
protons and negatively charged electrons.

This traps the particles that are given off by the sun. They
are concentrated into belts or layers called the Van Allen
radiation belts. The Van Allen belts trap deadly radiation.
When large amounts are given off during a solar flare, the
particles collide with each other causing the aurora
borealis or the northern lights.
Difference between Homosphere and
Heteorosphere
Part II of Class
Composition of the Atmosphere
Atmosphere: envelope of air surrounding the
earth and bound to the earth by the earth’s
gravitational attraction.

Extends from the surface into space with

decreasing density with height. No real top.
 The atmosphere is really very
shallow compared to the size of
the planet
• Just a thin veneer
• ¾ of the
atmosphere by
mass is in the
lowest 33,000 ft,
roughly 10 km
 Atmospheric Constituents
• Gases
CO2: a greenhouse gas (very effective absorber and emitter in the
infrared).
O3: good in stratosphere (protects from UV), bad near the surface
(corrosive to lungs and more)
SO2: emitted by volcanoes. Atmospheric particles and acid rain
NO2: produced by combustion. Acid rain and smog.
 Variable gases
• Water vapor (~0 to 4%). Critically important!
– Clouds and precipitation
– Important way to move energy around
– Major greenhouse gas!
• Methane (CH4): major greenhouse gas
 Non-Gas Constituents
• Hydrometeors -rain clouds, hail
• Particulates and aerosols
– Aerosol is a liquid or solid dispersed in a gas, usually
air
• Particulates can be
– Inorganic- soil, smoke, dirt, sea salt, volcanic dust,
surface acid aerosol
– Organic- seeds, spores, pollen, bacteria
 Why are particles in the air
important?
• Act as condensation and freezing nuclei!
– Water likes to condense on or freeze on to
particles
• Can absorb or scatter radiation
• Reduce visibility
• Can scatter solar radiation to space: cool planet
• Can impact human health.
– Can irritate lungs, initiate asthma, heart disease
The Origin of the Earth’s
Atmosphere

Still Many Uncertainties ….

 About 4.5 billion
years ago, Earth
formed out of
nebula of gases and
dust that were to
become the solar
system

Small objects--called
planetoids-- accreted or
combined together to build
larger objects…such as planets
 The First Atmosphere
• The early atmosphere would have been similar to the
Sun--mainly hydrogen and helium, but this
atmosphere was lost quickly for at least two reasons:
– (1) The gravity of the modest size earth was not strong
enough to prevent such light gases from escaping to space.
Particularly since the early earth was hot!
– (2) It appears that around 30 million years after the earth’s
formation, it was struck by a large object…the size of
Mars. The result: the origin of the moon and loss of
earth’s early H, He atmosphere.
Formation of Moon from the
Debris of the Collision
 Earth as Hell
• The surface of the earth during this period
was extremely hot with numerous volcanoes
• The earth was under near constant
bombardment by objects of varying sizes
• Slowly, the earth started to cool down and
the second atmosphere began to form.
 Earth’s Second Atmosphere
• A new atmosphere was established by the
outgasing of volcanoes…the mixture of gases was
probably similar to those of today’s volcanoes:
• H20 vapor (roughly 80%)
• CO2 (roughly 10%)
• N2 (few percent)
• Small amounts of CO, HCL, HS (Hydrogen
Sulfide), SO2, CH4 (Methane), Ammonia (NH3),
and other trace gases.
 Earth’s Second Atmosphere
• Virtually no oxygen in that second atmosphere.
• Thus, no ozone layer, so ultraviolet radiation
flooded the earth’s surface.
• With a huge influx of water vapor and the cooling
of the planet, clouds and earth’s oceans formed.
• At that time the sun was about 30% weaker than
today…why didn’t the earth freeze over?
• The apparent reason: so much CO2 so there was a
very strong greenhouse effect.
 The Rise of Oxygen and the Third
Atmosphere
• In the first two billion years of the planet’s evolution,
the atmosphere acquired a small amount of oxygen,
probably by the splitting of water (H20) molecules by
solar radiation.
• The evidence of this oxygen is suggested by minor
rust in some early rocks.
• The oxygen also led to the establishment of an ozone
layer that reduced UV radiation at the surface.
• With the rise of photosynthetic bacteria
(cyanobacteria) and early plants, oxygen levels began
to rise rapidly as did indications of rust in rocks
• Between 2.5 billion years ago to about 500 bya, 02
rose to near current levels.
 The Third Atmosphere
• While O2 was increasing, CO2 decreased
due to several reasons:
• (1) In photosynthesis CO2 is used to
produce organic matter, some of which is
lost to the system (e.g., drops to the bottom
of the ocean or is buried)
• (2) chemical weathering, which removes
CO2
 Chemical Weathering
• H20 + CO2 --> H2CO3 carbonic acid
• CaSiO3 + H2CO3 --> CaCO3 + SiO2 + H20
Silicate Rock Carbonate

• At first this happened without life, but the process

was sped up tremendously by living organisms
• Marine organisms would incorporate carbonate
into their shells, which would fall to the ocean
bottom when they died---thus, removing them
from the system for a long time.
• The bottom line…CO2 was being removed from
the system.
 More Changes
• Sulfur compounds were taken out of the
atmosphere as acid rain and were deposited
on the ground as sulfates.
• N2 gas increased slowly but progressively
since it was relatively inert.
• Current composition of the atmosphere was
established approximately a billion years
ago.
 A Problem
• With lower CO2 levels the earth became more
susceptable to ice ages when solar radiation
decreases due to orbital variations,
• It appears that around 750-550 million years ago
the earth cooled down and became nearly entirely
glaciated.
• Note: one can get into a feedback with snow
reflecting solar radiation, producing cooler
temperatures and more snow, leading to less
radiation, etc.
 How Did We Get UnFrozen?
• Volcanoes were still putting CO2 into the
atmosphere
• Weathering was greatly reduced…since
little liquid water.
• So CO2 increased until the greenhouse
effect was so large the earth warmed up.
• Once warming started it would have
happened very rapidly.
 The Last 500 million Years
• The climate has not been constant, with
warm periods interrupted by ice ages.
• Much of the variability forced by changing
solar radiation due to periodic changes in
the earth’s orbital characteristics and tilt
(Milankovitch cycles) and major volcanic
eruptions (putting out massive CO2 that
caused warming.
 More Snowball Earths?
• Less chance now
• Sun is getting progressively stronger
• Human’s can now stop it (increasing
greenhouse gases)
The Earth has had regular
glaciations and melt
backs…Why?
Atmospheres of Other Planets
Mercury

No Atmosphere
 96% CO2
Sulfuric acid clouds
Surface temp: 900F
(470 C)
Surface pressure:
90 times greater than
earty

Venus
Venus
Beneath
The
Clouds
From
Radar
Earth
 Surface Pressure: ~6 hPa
Mostly (~96%)CO2, small
amounts of H20 vapor
CO2 and H20 polar ice
Lots of dust
Average T: -80F but warmer
near equator in summer
(70F)

Mars
Water once flowed
on the surface
Martian
Clouds
Atmosphere
Mainly
hydrogen
(90%)
and helium

Jupiter

No solid surface
Jupiter’s atmosphere has jets and storms (e.g. red spot)
 75 H2 and 25% HE

Saturn
Neptune

Both Gas Giants (H2 and He)

Uranus
Structure of the Atmosphere
Earth’s Atmosphere Is a Thin Veneer
Earth’s radius is about 6400 km
(3840 miles)

Nearly all of the atmosphere is

contained in the layer from the
surface to 100 km. Habitable
atmosphere only the first 5 km.

So the habitable atmosphere is

only 5/6400 km….00078 ….or
1/1280th of the distance to the
earth’s center. Much thinner than
the peel on an orange.
The Vertical Structure of the
Atmosphere
• The Earth’s atmosphere is made of distinct
layers
• Complex variation of temperature with height
• Main layers to know:
– Troposphere
– Stratosphere
– Mesosphere
– Thermosphere
 Troposphere
• Surface to roughly 10 km (~1000 hPa to ~ 250 hPa)
• ~3/4 of mass of atmosphere in this layer
• Most weather occurs in this layer
• Temperature generally decreases with height in this
layer (by ~6.5C per km, 3.6 F per 1000 ft)
• The top of troposphere is called the tropopause.
Midlatitude jet stream tends to be strongest near the
tropopause.
• Above the tropopause is the stratosphere.
stratosphere

troposphere
 Stratosphere
• 10-50 km above the surface
• Temperature constant or
INCREASING with height
• Stable (not a lot of vertical
mixing) and dry
• Only occasionally get
overshooting tops from
convection pushing into this
layer
 Why constant temperature and
warm with height in stratosphere?
• Absorption of solar radiation by the
stratospheric ozone layer
 Stratospheric Ozone Layer
• Maximum ozone (O3) between 20 and 30 km.
• Protects the surface from harmful ultraviolet
(UV) radiation
• Ozone is produced photochemically
A photochemical reaction is a chemical
reaction in which radiation affects the
chemical composition of a substance.

• Simplified photochemical reaction for

ozone
UV +O2 O +O
O2 + O + M O3 + M
O3 + UV O2 + O
• M is some catalyst molecule. This
reaction produces heat at UV is
absorbed . Warms stratosphere.
 Ozone Destruction
• Later is the class we will talk about the destruction of
the ozone layer
• Problems caused by chemicals such as
chloroflurocarbons (e.g., Freon, refrigerants)
• Produced the ozone hole.
• Now being repaired by restrictions on chemical
releases, but some new issues.
 Stratosphere
• Jet aircraft frequently enter the stratosphere,
particularly during winter
• Air becomes drier and sometimes have
ozone in cabin
• Can see the difference…getting above the
clouds
• Stratosphere ends at the stratopause, ~ 1hPa,
50 km
 Mesosphere (50-80 km)
• A second region of
temperature decline with
height
• Why? Getting away from
ozone heating
• Noctilucent Clouds-ice
coated meteor dust
Noctilucent
Clouds
 Mesosphere
• Ends at mesopause (~80
km ~.01 hPa), the coldest
place in the atmosphere
~-90C)
 Thermosphere
• 80-140km
• Region of warming with
height
• Warming produced by
absorption of shortest
wavelength ultraviolet
components in upper
troposphere by 02, ), N, N2
• Aurora in this layer
Ionosphere
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