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Contract Law Notes - IPleaders
Contract Law Notes - IPleaders
Table of Contents
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One of the common perplexities among people is recognizing the difference between a
contract and an agreement. They are frequently used interchangeably. For example, when
the owner of a house hands over the rent agreement and says, “Please sign the contract”,
this creates uncertainty whether the document is an agreement or a contract.
We come across ‘contract killers’ in movies who charge money to kill people. Have you ever
thought, ‘Is a contract of killing someone for money, a valid contract?’ or ‘Can the man
giving the contract sue the contract killer in the court of law saying that the other party has
committed a breach of contract by not doing the job even after the payment of money?’.
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Offer/ Proposal: When a person signifies to another his willingness of doing or omitting
to do something with a view to obtain other’s assent. [Section 2(a)]
Acceptance: When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent for the
same thing in the same sense as proposed by the offeror. [Section 2(b)]
Consideration: It is the price for the promise. It is the return one gets for his act or
omission. [Section 2(d)]
An agreement is, therefore, a promise or set of promises forming consideration for all the
parties. [Section 2(e)]
If a 7-year-old boy is buying an ice-cream from an ice-cream vendor and giving Rs. 10 in
return, it becomes an agreement. This is because the boy offers to buy ice-cream and the
vendor accepts the offer which makes it a promise. The consideration for both was ice-
cream and money respectively.
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Those agreements are void which are based on any of the subjects mentioned above. There
is no liability for not enforcing the contract and thus, the conditions of the contract are not
binding upon any of the parties.
For example, if Devdas asks Paro not to get married for her entire life then he will give her
a new dress and shoes in return; it cannot be considered as a valid contract because the
agreement is made in restraint of marriage.
Similarly, if the agreement is made to not to work for the entire life in exchange for a new
flat, it will not be considered as a valid contract as it is in restraint of trade.
Also, if a father enters into an agreement with his son that the father will get him a new
bicycle if the son scores 105% in his board exams. It will be considered a void agreement
because it is an agreement to do an impossible act.
Or
A type of agreement which is enforceable by law is a contract (Section 2(h) of the ICA).
Enforceable by law means that, if somebody is aggrieved then he may approach the court
for remedies. For example: In case of a Fire Insurance Contract where Titu wants to insure
his goods in the warehouse, he pays the insurance premium and promises to avoid
insurance fraud whereas the insurance company agrees to compensate losses in case of a
fire.
So Mathematically,
When an offer is made with the intention to create a legal obligation it becomes an offer for
entering into a contract. Thus an agreement becomes a contract when there is free consent
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of the parties, capacity of the parties to contract, lawful consideration and lawful object or
subject matter (Section 10 of the ICA).
For an agreement to become a contract it must give rise to a legal obligation and if it is
incapable of doing so, it is not a contract. In the case of Balfour v Balfour [1919] 2 KB 571,
Mr. Balfour promised to pay his wife £30/month as she stayed in England for medical
reasons. When he failed to pay, Mrs. Balfour sued him. Her action failed because there was
no intention to create a legally binding agreement between Mr. and Mrs. Balfour. A contract
cannot be made without proper indication about the legal rights and obligations of the
parties to the contract. So, if this were to be a contract then the wife would have had a
right to receive payment and the husband would have had the obligation to pay his wife.
This makes an agreement a wider term than a contract. In a Venn diagram, agreements are
a bigger circle than contracts which is a smaller circle and a part of it.
1. Free consent of the parties: When there is absence of Coercion (Section 15), Undue
Influence (Section 16), Fraud (Section 17), Misrepresentation (Section 18) and Mistake
(Section 20, 21, 22), the consent is said to be free.
2. Capacity of the parties to contract: Section 11 and 12 lay down that the competent
parties are persons who have attained majority {Exception for this was laid down in
Mohori Bibee v. Dharmodas Ghose ILR (1903) 30 Cal 539 (Pc)}, persons who are of
sound mind and persons who are not disqualified by law.
3. Lawful consideration and Lawful object: Section 23 lays down that the consideration
and object is lawful unless it is forbidden by law or it defeats provisions of any law or is
fraudulent or involves injury to person or property or is violative of public health,
morality, peace and order.
1. Gabbar asked Samba to kill Jay and Veeru and Samba agreed. This is an agreement but
the object of the agreement makes it an illegal one. Therefore, it cannot be enforced and
so it is not a contract.
2. Rajesh promises his wife Chitra that he will bring for her the stars and the moon and
Sonam agrees. Here, the object of the agreement is impossible to perform and so it is
not enforceable and cannot be termed as a contract.
3. A mother promises her crying child that she will buy a Barbie doll for her but she does
not buy it. Here, the promise was not made with the intention to fulfil it and so it is not
enforceable and cannot be termed as a contract.
4. I offer my pen to Neelam and she accepts it, here an agreement is made but such
agreement is made out of friendship and has no consideration. An agreement without
consideration is not a contract (an exception to this is Section 25 of the ICA which states
that near relation and natural love and affection can be said to be consideration).
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Types of contract
There are various types of contracts that are formed voluntarily via civil obligations. They
are as follows:
(I) Adhesion Contracts – These types of contracts are those which are formed by the
stronger party. It is a sort of, “Opt for it or do not” contract. The stronger party or the one
that has the bargaining power leaves the other party with a choice whether to accept or
reject the contract.
(II) Aleatory Contracts – This type of contract involves a mutual agreement that comes into
being after an unexpected occurrence, accident, or a natural calamity. In this type of
contract both the parties have an element of risk. Fire or Car insurances are this type of
contract.
(III) Bilateral and Unilateral Contracts – Bilateral contracts involve two parties. Both parties
are obliged to one another for performing or abstaining to perform any act. It is also called
a two-sided contract as it involves two way promises. Meanwhile, unilateral contracts are
those in which the promise is made by only one party. They consist of an offeror and
offeree. The offeror makes a promise to perform an action and is bound by the law to do so.
The offeree is not bound to the court even if he fails to execute the requested action
because he does not promise anything at all.
(IV) Express Contracts – These contracts are those wherein the terms of the contracts are
expressed clearly whether in written documents or orally.
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(V) Implied Contracts – There are no oral or written terms in this type of contract. The
contracts are assumed owing to the facts of the parties. If an individual visits a medical
professional, he expects to be diagnosed for a disease or illness and be advised a cure. This
is an implied contract and a patient is capable of suing a medical practitioner for
malpractice.
(VI) Void and Voidable Contracts – Void contracts are illegal from the very beginning and
hold no validity under law. They are thereby un-enforceable. Voidable contracts are unlike
void contracts in the sense that one party is bound by the contract and the unbound party is
capable of terminating the contract as they are unbound to it.
A quasi-contract is unlike a real contract. Salmond defines quasi contracts as “there are
certain obligations which are not in truth contractual in the sense of resting on agreement,
but which the law treats as if they were”. It is important to remember that even though it is
imposed by law, it is not created by the operation of the contract.
According to the Indian Contract Act 1872, proposal is defined in Section 2(a) as “when
one person will signify to another person his willingness to do or not do something
(abstain) with a view to obtain the assent of such person to such an act or abstinence,
he is said to make a proposal or an offer.”
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The offeror must express his willingness to do or abstain from doing an act. Only
willingness is not adequate. Or just an urge to do something or not to do anything will
not be an offer.
An offer can either be positive or negative. It can be a promise to do some act, and can
also be a promise to abstain from doing any act/service. Both are valid offers.
Example
‘A’ proposes to sell a car to ‘B’ at a certain price. Once ‘B’ receives the letter, the proposal
communication is complete.
Example
‘A’ invited ‘B’ to dinner and ‘B’ accepted the invitation. It is a mere social invitation. And ‘A’
will not be liable if he fails to provide dinner to B.
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Classification of offer
An offer can be of many types, ranging across the spectrum. There are basically 7 kinds of
offers:
Express offer
Implied offer
General offer
Specific Offer
Cross Offer
Counter Offer
Standing Offer
Therefore, any offer that is made with words, it may be regarded as express. Any promise
that is made otherwise than in words is implied. A bid at an auction is an example of an
Implied offer. A case in this regard is Upton-on-Severn RDC v. Powell, wherein the
defendant called a fire brigade assuming that those services would be free to him, however
it was found that his Farm did not come under that of Upton. The court held that the truth
of the matter is that the Defendant wanted the services of Upton, he asked for the services
of Upton and in response to that they offered their services and they were rendered on an
implied promise to pay for them.
In Ramji Dayawala & Sons (p) Ltd v. Invest Import, a case between an Indian and
Yugoslavian party the notice for revocation of an arbitration clause in the contract between
the parties was made by the Indian party, to which the other party gave no reply. It was
held that this would amount to an implied acceptance i.e.- the arbitration clause was
deleted from the contract, and a suit would lie in the court of law. Similarly entering into an
omnibus also amounts to implied acceptance, same as consuming edibles at a self-service
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restaurant. Therefore in simpler terms a contract that is entered into because of actions on
the offerors part, may be referred to as an implied offer, any contract entered into
otherwise is an express offer.
General offer
A General Offer is an offer that is made to the world at large. The genesis of a General Offer
came about from the Landmark case of Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. A company by
the name Carbolic Smoke Ball offered through an Advertisement to pay 100 Pounds to
anyone who would contract increasing epidemic Influenza, colds or any disease caused by
cold after taking its Medicine according to the prescribed instructions. It was also added
that 1000 Pounds have been deposited in Alliance bank showing our sincerity in the matter.
One customer Mrs Carlill used the medicine and still contracted Influenza and hence sued
the company for the reward. The Defendants gave the argument that the offer was not
made with an intention to enter into a legally binding agreement, rather was only to Puff
the sales of the company. Moreover, they also contended that an offer needs to be made to
a specific person, and here the offer was not to any specific person and hence they are not
obliged to the Plaintiff.
Setting aside the arguments of the Defendant, the bench stated that in cases of such offers
i.e- general offers, there is no need for communication of acceptance, anyone who performs
the conditions of the contract is said to have communicated his/her acceptance, and
moreover, the money deposited by the Defendant in Alliance Bank clearly shows that they
intended to create a legally binding relationship. Hence the Plaintiff was awarded with the
amount. An Indian authority in this regard is Lalman Shukla v. Gauri Dutt, wherein a
servant was sent by his master to trace his missing nephew. In the meanwhile, he also
announced a reward for anyone finding his nephew, this in itself is an example of an offer
that is made to the world at large and hence a General Offer.
This concept has been given statutory authority under section 8 of the ICA:
This section was applied by YEARS CJ of Allahabad high court in the case of Har Bhajan
Lal v. Har Charan Lal, wherein the father of a young boy who ran from home issued a
pamphlet for a reward for anyone who would find him. The Plaintiff found him at the railway
station and sent a Telegram to his father. The Court held that the handbill was an offer that
was made to the world at large and anyone who fulfilled the conditions is deemed to have
accepted it. In the State of Bihar v. Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works LTD,
the Patna HC held that where the acceptance consists of an act, e.g- dispatching some
goods, the rule that there shall be no communication of acceptance will come into play.
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When a general offer is of continuing nature, like it was in a carbolic smoke ball case, it can
be accepted by a number of people till it is retracted. However, when a similar offer requires
information regarding a missing thing, it is closed as soon as the first information comes in.
Specific offer
A Specific offer is an offer that is made to a specific or ascertained person, this type of offer
can only be accepted by the person to whom it is made. This concept was seen briefly in the
case of Boulton v. Jones, wherein the Plaintiff had taken the business of one Brocklehurst,
the defendant used to have business with Brocklehurst and not knowing about the change
in ownership of business, sent him an order for certain goods. The Defendant came to know
about the change only after receiving an invoice, at which point he had already consumed
the goods. The Defendant refused to pay the price, as he had a set off against the original
owner, for which the plaintiff sued him.
The Judges gave a unanimous judgement holding the defendant not liable. Pollock CB held
that the rule of law is clear, if you intend to contract with A, B cannot substitute himself as
A without your consent and to your disadvantage. It was also held that whenever a person
makes a contract with a specific personality, a specific party, so to say, for writing a book,
for painting a picture or for any personal service or if there is any set off due from any
party, no one has the authority to come in and maintain that he is the party contracted
with.
Cross offer
When two parties make an identical offer to each other, in ignorance to each other’s offer,
they are said to make cross offers. Cross offers are not valid offers. For example- if A
makes an offer to sell his car for 7 lakhs to B and B in ignorance of that makes an offer to
buy the same car for 7 Lakhs, they are said to make a cross offer, and there is no
acceptance in this case, hence it cannot be a mutual acceptance.
1. Same offer to one another- When the offeror makes an offer to the offeree and the
offeree without prior knowledge makes the same offer to the offeror, then both the object
and the party remain the same.
2. Offer must be made in ignorance of each other- The two parties must make their offer in
ignorance of each other.
An important case in this aspect is the English case of Tinn v. Hoffman, the defendant
wrote to the complainant an offer to sell him 800 tons of iron at 69s per ton, at the same
time the complainant also wrote to the defendant an offer to buy the iron at similar terms.
The issue in this case was that, was there any contract between the parties, and would
simultaneous offers be a valid acceptance. The court held that these were cross offers that
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were made simultaneously without knowledge of one another and would not bind the
parties.
Here it is imperative to deduce that for a valid contract to be formed there needs to be an
offer and acceptance of the same, whereas in a cross offer there is no acceptance, but only
simultaneous offers being and therefore a cross offer will not lead to the formation of a
contract.
Counter offer
When the offeree offers a qualified acceptance of the offer subject to modifications and
variations in terms of the original offer, he is said to have made a counter offer. A counter
offer is a rejection of the original offer. An example of this would be if A offers B a car for 10
Lakhs, B agrees to buy for 8 Lakhs, this amounts to a counter offer and it would mean a
rejection of the original offer. Later on, if B agrees to buy for 10 Lakhs, A may refuse. Sir
Jenkins CJ in Haji Mohd Haji Jiva v. Spinner, held that any departure from original offer
vitiates acceptance. In other words, an acceptance with a variation is not acceptance, it is
simply a counter proposal which must be accepted by the original offeror, for it to formulate
into a contract.
The Bombay High court gave this decision based upon the landmark judgement of Hyde v.
Wrench, in which an offer to sell a farm for 1000 Pounds was rejected by the Plaintiff, who
offered 950 for it. Subsequently the Plaintiff gave an acceptance to the original offer.
Holding that the Defendant was not bound by a contract, the court said that the Plaintiff
accepted the original offer of buying the farm at the price of 1000 pounds, it would have
been a completely valid contract , however he gave a counter proposal to it, thus rejecting
the original offer.
Partial acceptance
Counter offer also includes within its contours Partial acceptance, meaning that a party to
the contract cannot agree to those conditions of the agreement that favour him and reject
the rest, the acceptance should be of the complete agreement i.e.- all its parts. In
Ramanbhai M. Nilkanth v. Ghashiram Ladli Prasad, the plaintiff made an application
for certain shares in a company with the underlying condition that he would be made the
cashier in its new branch. The Company did not comply with this and hence the suit. The
court held that the Petitioners application for shares was condition on him being made the
cashier and that he would have never applied for the shares had there been no such
condition.
In Hargopal v. People’s Bank of Northern India LTD, an application for shares was
made on a conditional undertaking by the bank that the applicant would be made the
director of the new branch. The shares were allotted to him without fulfilling the condition.
The applicant did not say anything and took his dividends, a subsequent suit by him failed
as the court held that he through his conduct had waived the condition. When a counter
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proposal is accepted the contract arises in terms of the counter proposal and not
in terms of the original contract.
Standing offer
An Offer which remains open for acceptance over a period of time is called a standing offer.
Tenders that are invited for supply of goods is a kind of Standing Offer. In Percival Ltd. V.
London County Council Asylums and Mental deficiency Committee, the Plaintiff
advertised for tenders for supply of goods. The defendant took the tender in which he had
to supply to the company various special articles for a period of 12 months. In-between this
the Defendant didn’t supply for a particular consignment. The Court held that the Tender
was a standing offer that was to be converted into a series of contracts by the subsequent
acts of the company and that an order prevented the possibility of revocation, hence the
company succeeded in an action for breach of contract.
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General Offer is made to the whole world A specific Offer is made to some specific
at large. person.
A general offer can be considered by any A specific offer can be accepted by only a
person. specific person.
An offer lapses by the offeror or the offeror’s death or insanity until acceptance.
The communication of the offer is complete when it comes to the knowledge of the person
to whom it is made.
A proposal can be revoked at any time before the communication of its acceptance is
complete as against the proposer but not afterward.
Example
‘A’ agreed to sell the property to ‘B’ by a written document which stated “this offer to be left
over until Friday 9 AM”. on Thursday ‘A’ made a contract to sell the property to ‘C’. ‘B’ heard
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of this from ‘X’ and on Friday 7 AM he delivered to ‘A’ acceptance of his offer. Held ‘B’ could
not accept A’s offer after he knew it had been revoked by the sale of the property to C.
As specified in the definition, if the offer is accepted unconditionally by the offeree to whom
the request is made, it will amount to acceptance. When the offer is accepted it becomes a
promise.
Example
‘A’ offer to buy B’s house for rupees 40 lacs and ‘B’ accepts such an offer. Now, it has
become a promise.
When an offer is accepted and it becomes a promise it also becomes irrevocable. No legal
obligation created by an offer.
Mode of acceptance
Under the Indian Contract Act, acceptance can be by following two ways:
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For example, if A offers to sell his bike to B for Rupees 10,000. But B persuades A to sell
him the bike for 7,000 rupees to which A denies and if B at any later point of time agrees to
buy the bike for 10,000 rupees. Then A is under no obligations to sell him the bike as the
counteroffer made by B puts an end to the original offer.
It is also important that the acceptance made by the offeree should be in toto, i.e.
acceptance should be given to all the terms and conditions of the offer as acceptance of
only a part of the offer is not a good acceptance under the law. For example, A makes an
offer to B of sale of 30 kg of wheat at Rupees 700 but B agrees to buy only 10 kg of wheat.
Here the acceptance made by B is not in toto with respect to the terms of the contract and
therefore, the acceptance made by B is no acceptance in the eyes of law and therefore, A is
under no obligation to sell him wheat since there is no contract between them.
The offeree’s approval cannot be conditional. For example, ‘A’ wants to sell her car to ‘B’ for
Rs 2 lakh, ‘B’ can’t come back and says that she accepts the offer but will buy the same for
Rs. 1 lakh.
If the acceptor just accepts the offer in his head and he does not mention the same to the
offeror, it can not be called an Acceptance, whether in an express manner or an implied
manner.
It’s very rare that an offer is always to get acceptance at any time and at all times.
Therefore, the offer defines a time limit. If it does not, it should not be acknowledged
forever.
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Implied condition: When certain facts which operate as a condition are not expressly
mentioned by the parties but can be inferred by the conduct of the parties to contract is
known as an implied condition;
Constructive condition: When the court believes that the parties to a contract must have
intended to operate certain conditions because the court believes that the Justice
requires the presence of the condition. These conditions are known as constructive
conditions.
A contract comes into force by the acts or conduct of one party to the other party. The acts
or conduct of the party can be turned into a promise only by meeting of mind or an
agreement between both the parties. An acceptance that carries a subsequent condition
may not have the effect of counter-proposal. Thus, where a person ‘A’ accepted the terms
of the contract for the sale of a good by accompanying the acceptance with the warning
that if money was not delivered to him by a particular date, then the contract will remain
repudiated. The acceptance of the offer would not be deemed to be a counter-proposal.
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In the case of Hargopal v. People’s Bank of Northern India Ltd., an application for shares
was made with a conditional undertaking by the bank that the applicant would be appointed
as a permanent director of the local branch. The shares were allotted to the applicant by
the Bank without fulfilment of the condition and the applicant was given his shares and the
applicant accepted the same without any protest regarding the non-fulfilment of the terms
of the contract. When there arose a dispute between the parties in a court of law. The
applicant contended that the allotment was void on the ground of non-fulfilment of the
conditions which were stipulated in the original contract. The court rejected the contention
from the applicant’s side by holding that the same can not be pleaded by him as he has
waived the condition by his conduct.
In Bismi Abdullah and sons v. FCI, the court held that where tenders were invited subject to
the deposit of money. It was open to the tenderers to waive the requirement and
acceptance given to a tender without making the deposit is binding upon the tenderer.
In D.S. Constructions Ltd v. Rites Ltd, the court held the where the tenderer made
variations to the terms of his tender within the permissible period, but the variations were
only partly accepted by the other side without the tenderer’s consent lead to repudiation of
the contract and so there was no contract at all. Therefore, the earnest money deposited by
the party can not be forfeited.
Provisional acceptance
Provisional acceptance is the type of acceptance by the offeree which is made subject to the
final approval. A provisional acceptance does not ordinarily bind either party to the contract
until the final approval is given to the provisional acceptance made by the offeree. Until the
approval is given, the offeror is at liberty to cancel the offer made to the offeree.
In Union of India v. S. Narain Singh, the High Court of Punjab held that where the condition
attached to the auction sale of the liquor was that the acceptance of the bid shall be subject
to confirmation by the Chief Commissioner. The contract will not be complete till the highest
bid is confirmed by the Chief Commissioner and till the confirmation is made the person
whose bid is provisionally accepted is at liberty to withdraw the bid.
Similarly, in Mackenzie Lyall And Co. vs. Chamroo Singh And Co., the bid at an auction was
of provisional acceptance in nature ad the terms of the contract stated that the bid shall be
referred to the owner of the goods for his approval and sanction.the court in this case also,
allowed the person to revoke his bid whose bid was provisionally accepted.
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In Somasundaram Pillai vs. The Provincial Government Of Madras, the court held that the
bidder would be at liberty to withdraw his will prior to the final approval of the provisional
acceptance where the terms of the contract expressly mention that a bid which has been
provisionally accepted can not be canceled subsequently.
When a provisional acceptance is subsequently ratified or accepted then it is the duty of the
offeree to inform the same to the offeror, as it is then when the offeror becomes bound by
the terms of the contract. Acceptance is not complete until it is communicated by the
offeror.
In Bengal Coal Co. v. Homee Wadia & Co., the defendant signed an agreement. One of the
terms of the contract was that the undersigned from the day of signing the contract has to
abide by the condition stipulated by the contract which provides that they shall be required
to provide a certain quality of coal to the other party for a period of 12 months. The
defendant abided by the terms of the contract for some time but before the expiry of the
term of the contract, the defendants refused to comply with the conditions which were
stipulated under the contract. The plaintiff subsequently sued the defendant for breach of
contract. The court held that there was no contract between the parties and the terms
stipulated thereof were just the part of a standing offer and the successive orders given by
the plaintiff was an acceptance of the offers of the quantity offered by the defendant and
therefore the order given by the plaintiff and the offer of the defendant together constituted
a series of contract. The defendants, in this case, are not free to revoke the offers which
were actually given by them. But barring those offers aside, the defendants had the
complete power of revocation.
In Rajasthan State Electricity Board vs. Dayal Wood Work, the purchase orders were issued
in terms of an arrangement of supply. But the purchase offer itself contained the provision
that the tenderer can refuse to supply the goods. The court, in this case, held that there
was no concluded contract that came into force and therefore, the contractor was at liberty
to refund his security deposit.
In a case where the tenderer has on some consideration promised not to withdraw the
tender or where there is a statutory provision restraining the withdrawal of the tender, the
tender becomes irrevocable. Just as the tenderer has the right to revoke his tender in the
same way the acceptor of the tender also has the right to refuse to place any order.
In Madho Ram vs. The Secretary Of State For India, the military authorities accepted a
tender for the supply of certain goods but during the period of tender, no requisition was
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ever issued. In an action against the military authorities, the court held that the military
authority was not bound whatsoever by the acceptance of their offer to purchase any or all
the goods specified under the contract without any covenant to that issue. And so the party
giving his assent to the offer may at any time declare to the tenderer that they no longer
want to place an order for the purchase of goods.
In A. K. Construction v. State of Jharkhand, the contract was awarded to a person who was
not a qualified tenderer and he was chosen at the cost of a qualified tenderer who brought
an action against the decision of granting the tender to the unqualified tenderer. The court,
in this case, allowed the awardee of the tenderer to complete his work and also allowed the
aggrieved party compensation of one lakh rupees to be recovered from the salary of the
guilty officers who were guilty of awarding the tender unreasonably.
In Kesulal Mehta vs. Rajasthan Tribal Areas, one of the conditions in the tender was that the
tenderer should have at least one year of work experience in the work in question. The
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court, in this case, held that such conditions could be relaxed and any otherwise competent
contractor could be given the tender and he could at a later point of time be required to
produce the certificate of work.
In KM Pareeth Labha v. Kerala Livestock Development Board, it was held that where a
tender invited the quotations for disposal of trees. The tender should mention the
approximate value of the trees which could be assessed by the tenderers who can quote
their price.
Certainty of terms
An agreement regarding the sale of immovable property should identify the property with
certainty. The agreement should be based on mutuality and should fix the price. In New
Golden Bus Service vs. State Of Punjab And Ors., the tender was made inviting the tender
for hiring services for the vehicle but it did not stipulate any time period. The lowest
tenderer was awarded the tenderer for a period of three years. The court, in this case, held
that there was nothing wrong in it as an open-ended tender can not be regarded as void
because of the reason for its vagueness. The tender, in this case, specified that the tender
can not be issued for a vehicle that is more than six months old and the tenderer who was
awarded the tender complies with the specified conditions specified under the tender. The
acceptance of substitute vehicles which were of equal efficiency and cost by the authority
inviting the tender was not arbitrary.
In Merittrac Services Private v. Post Graduate Institute, it was held that the provision of
blacklisting a contractor arises only when the contract is awarded and the tenderer fails to
perform any conditions stipulated in the contract. For the purpose of seeking permission for
making his proposal, some material facts may be required from the bidder about his
experience.
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The party allocating the contracts has the indispensable power of blacklisting the contractor.
But when in cases where the party is the state, the decision to blacklist is open to judicial
review to ensure proportionality and principle of natural justice.
Can move from the promisee or another person- Unlike English law in which the
consideration must move at the desire of the promisor, in Indian law as long as there is
consideration it is immaterial as to who has furnished it. Moreover, in the case of
Chinnaya vs. Rammyya the consideration can also move at the desire of the third party
but only in the condition where he is the beneficiary of the contract.
Can be an act, abstinence or even a promise- If the promisee does something or abstains
from doing something for the promisor, at his desire, then it will be a good consideration.
PAST- When the consideration is given before the promise was made. For example- A saves
B at the latter’s desire. B after a month promises to pay A. the act of A will amount to past
consideration for the payment made by B.
PRESENT- When the consideration is given simultaneously to the promise made, then this is
present consideration or executed consideration. For example- cash sales.
FUTURE- When the consideration of the promise made is to be passed at a future date then
that is called future or executory consideration. For example- A promises to pay B, when
the latter will fetch newspaper for him.
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Consideration need not be adequate- It is not necessary that the consideration is equal
or adequate for the promise made. However, it is mandatory that the consideration
should be something in which the law attaches some value. It is for the parties to decide
the value of the consideration and not a court of law. For example- A sells a table to B
and B gives him rs 500. It will be difficult for the court to ascertain the value of the table,
so if A is satisfied with the amount given then the consideration is valid.
Should be real- although the consideration need not be adequate it should be real and
not illusory. The consideration should not be physically impossible, legally not permissible
or based on an uncertain event or condition.
Should not be something which the promisor is already bound to do- a consideration to
do something which the promisor is already required to do is not a good consideration.
For example- the public duty done by a public servant.
Should not immoral, or against the public policy of the state- under Section 23 of the
Indian contract it is given that consideration should not be illegal, immoral or against
public policy. The court should decide the legality of the consideration and if found to be
illegal then no action on the agreement should be allowed.
Stranger to a contract
It is a general principle that the contract can be enforced only at the behest of the parties
to the contract. No third party could enforce it. It arises from the contractual relationship
between the two parties. However, Lord Dennings has criticised this rule a number of times
as this rule has never benefited the third party whose roots go deeper in the contract. This
rule has two consequences-
The contract between the parties cannot levy an obligation on any person other than
those parties to a contract.
Exception
There are three exceptions to this rule:
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Covenants running with the land- in cases of the contract of property the purchaser will
be bound by all the conditions and covenants of the land, even though he was not a
party to the original contract.
Past consideration
It is the consideration which is made before the agreement. It is something which the
promisee has already done at the desire of the promisor.
For example- A rescues B. B promises to give him Rs. 1000 for the same. Here it is a past
consideration as the act of rescuing happened before any agreement.
In India however, there is no compulsion to follow the English law and past consideration is
regarded to be valid.
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For Example- Peter finds Noah’s wallet on the road. He returns it to him and Noah promises
to pay Peter Rs 500. This is a valid contract under the Indian Contracts Act, 1872.
Executory consideration
Consideration may be something which is done or in the process of being done. It also
consists of an act which is promised to be done in the future. There may be promises which
form the consideration for each other. Before the completion of a promise which forms a
part of the consideration of the other promise, then such consideration is called executory
consideration.
For example- if A promises to pay B when he will sell the goods to him. Until time A does
not get the goods, the consideration is executory, when he got the goods and paid for the
same, the consideration is executed. If B does not sell the goods then A could also breach
for the suit.
Consideration is defined as an act of abstinence from doing something, at the desire of the
promisor. The consideration should be of some value in the eyes of law, but the courts have
been very liberal in interpreting and anything of value by the parties is regarded as a valid
consideration.
The value need not be adequate for the promise made. The court will not enquire whether
the value of the consideration is equivalent to the promise that is made. If the parties agree
to the value of the consideration then it is sufficient. This rule is applicable as per Indian
and English law.
The inadequacy of consideration is regarded to check whether the consent is freely given.
For example- A agrees to sell his property worth Rs 1 crore to B for Rs 10,000. denies that
his consent for the sale of the property was not freely given. A party seeking to set aside
the transaction based on the inadequacy of the consideration must show that he was unable
to understand it or was by way of some imposition. If the court is satisfied that the contract
was freely entered into then it would not matter whether the consideration was adequate or
not.
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Where the consideration is inadequate it could be because of fraud, coercion, mistake etc.
the same would be the case when the consideration is so low that it shows some serious
inequality of the bargaining power.
Forbearance to sue
The most usual form of forbearance is the forbearance to sue within a reasonable time. This
promise to forebear can be expressed or implied from the circumstances. Sometimes it is
very difficult to construe from the fact whether it was an agreement to forbearance (which
is not a good consideration until not backed by the request of the promisor) or actual
forbearance. Hence to clarify in the case Bittan Bibi vs. Kuntu Lal, it was held that the
promise of forbearance should move at the desire of the promisor.
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Moreover, the actual performance of an existing duty may confer a factual benefit, because
on actual performance the promise is saved of pursuing a legal remedy for its breach.
Usually, the performance of a duty already owed under the contract to the promisor is not
good consideration. Even in terms of public policy, it is necessary to discourage a tendency
to use improper pressure or threatening to break one’s contract unless another party
complies by paying or promising to do so. The promisee must find it beneficial to perform
the promise immediately rather than paying for its breach which may not fully compensate
the promisor.
A promise to pay less than what is due in the contract cannot be regarded as consideration.
This rule was given in Pinnel’s case. The court held that a smaller amount cannot in whole
satisfy a larger sum. However, a gift of the horse, robe etc can be considered as a good
satisfaction because under certain circumstances it is considered to be more beneficial than
money, otherwise, the person would not accept it.
This holding was criticised in a way wherein several cases the jurist held that if the party is
content to receive any amount be it less than the sum and he is satisfied by the same, then
it should be considered to be a valid consideration. However, in spite of all this criticism, the
Pinnel’s Case was applied unanimously in various circumstances.
The part payment by the third party may be a good consideration for the whole debt.
Composition
Payment of a lesser amount would be a good consideration for the larger sum where this is
done for some already entered compromise.
Payment of a lesser sum before the time or in a different mode, a different place than
agreed by the parties or the gift of a horse or robe etc is a valid satisfaction of the goods.
Promissory estoppel
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with the intention that it would be acted upon and it was in actuality acted on, then the
promisor cannot be allowed to back out and it could be enforced in a court of law as well.
Promissory estoppels differ from traditional contract theory. It protects reliance. This
doctrine was developed to prevent injustice if the promisee suffers from any injustice due to
the reliance on the promise of the promisor, even though it was not required for
consideration. However, in English law, the doctrine of promissory estoppel is used only as
passive equity and is invoked only in the cases of defence.
Position under the Indian contract act is different than under English
Law
It is an established rule under English law that the third party cannot sue a contract made
for his own benefit. Apart from special circumstances. A person who is not a part of the
contract cannot enforce or rely for protection on its provisions. Such right can be conferred
to a property by way of trust but it cannot be on a stranger to a contract as a right to
enforce the contract.
It is established that the consideration can move from a third party but it cannot sue for its
own agreement. However, there was lots of confusion on this point. Although the definition
of “consideration” is wider in the Indian than in the English law since common law is
applicable, therefore it is generally applied that the third party cannot enforce the contract.
Law Commission of India in one of its reports mentioned that the contract must be
enforceable by a third party if it expressly for his benefit but the defences of the party to
the contract must also be considered. It is also proposed that the parties cannot alter the
terms of the contract once the third party takes over the contract.
The jurists in the above case held that there was adequate consideration for the contract as
it could be construed from the fact that it was made because of the engagement of his
nephew. Moreover, marriage is of great interest to the near relatives. Also, the contract is
binding on the uncle as it is possible that the plaintiff has undertaken many liabilities on
account of the promise given by the uncle and if the payment is withheld then the plaintiff
could face a lot of embarrassment.
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Under these provisions, the person should be safeguarded from any further payment which
is not enforceable as per the contract. Like in the case of Syros Shipping vs. Elaghil Trading
co. a vessel which was prepaid had to deliver tractors to Yemen. The charters defaulted
their payment to the shipowner because of the congestion in the ports. During this period
the shipowner asked for extra payment, the consignees agreed to pay but later refused. The
court held that since there was no consideration for the promise, moreover no estoppel was
created hence the contract is not enforceable.
Absence of consideration
If the promissory note is neither genuine nor fraud then it is recoverable under the
provision of this code, with interest. The court said that mere denial of the passing of
consideration does not make any defence. Something which is probable has to be brought
on record.
Fiduciary relation
In case of a contract entered into between the relatives or on account of natural love and
affection is enforceable without consideration. The meaning of love and affection is not
judicially construed but parties who are nearly related would have instinctive love and
affection. However, this could be overruled with regards to some external circumstances,
like between the wife and husband who are compelled to live separately because of
quarrelling. But a settlement to be given to a man by the wife by way of maintenance could
be enforced without any consideration because it will result in peace and family harmony.
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The term “family” (in this context) should be understood as a group of people living
together and possessing a right of succession, inheritance etc., but the family could be
construed as a people who are bonded by natural love and affection.
In case of a Minor
In Karam Chand vs Basant Kaur, the court held that even where the promisor after attaining
majority, promises to pay for the goods attained in minority will also fall under this
provision. The court said that although the promise made by a minority is void but if the
promise is made by a person of full age to the promisee who has done something for him
voluntarily when the promisor was a minor, then it will also attract this exception.
The promise to pay the debt must be expressed, it is not sufficient if the intention to pay
could not be gathered from the circumstances.
Acknowledgement of the debt is different from the promise to pay the debt. The
acknowledgement of the person should be done before the period of limitation. Promise to
pay a time-barred debt is a new contract. It is not just merely an acknowledgement of the
existing liability.
If the above conditions of gifts are fulfilled then lack of consideration would not affect the
validity of these gifts. However, apart from the consideration, they could be questioned
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otherwise.
Where the gift of the property was made by a registered deed and is attested by two
witnesses, it was not allowed to be questioned on the ground that she was the victim of
fraud, moreover, she was not able to establish it.
Inadequacy of consideration
Adequacy of the consideration means that the consideration which is paid is equal in value
to the value for which it is paid. Consideration can be terms of money, property etc.
inadequate consideration is not void but it renders the contract unenforceable because of
the improper bargaining or by itself.
A contract has been defined as “an agreement enforceable by law.” For an agreement to be
enforceable by law, it must contain the essential elements which are important for a valid
contract.
Section 10 in The Indian Contract Act, 1872 tells about what agreements can constitute a
contract. “All agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of parties
competent to contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object, and are not
hereby expressly declared to be void. Nothing herein contained shall affect any law in force
in India, and not hereby expressly repealed, by which any contract is required to be made
in writing or in the presence of witnesses, or any law relating to the registration of
documents.”
For a contract to be valid both the parties should have given their consent and that consent
must be free. Both parties should behave in such a way that they can make an impression
on the other party that the other party is ready to make a contract and a legal relation, not
a social relation. Thus a person who is casually saying that he/she is accepting an offer
usually cannot be considered as a contract. On the other hand, a person who has no
intention of making and completing a contract but acts that it makes people believe that
he/she really wants to enter into a contract can be termed as a contract. Legally, it is the
external appearance which is important in determining whether one is considered to a
contract or not. Agreements which are of religious, social nature and moral e.g. a friend’s
promise to others to go on a walk or picnic with him does not amount to a contract as both
the parties didn’t intend on forming a legal relation and were neither intended to face legal
consequences.
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A contract comes into existence only when all the terms and conditions are satisfied and
fulfilled by the parties to the contract. If any of the conditions is not fulfilled by any of the
parties that agreement will be void. We can also say that contracts are self-regulated and
no one else other than yourself is forcing you to enter into a contract. It’s upon your
discretion that you want to enter into a contract or not and no one in any condition can
force you to enter into any contract and if does so that agreement will be void. Later, the
duties after entering into an agreement are defined by the state and if not followed be
punished but entering into a contract is not forced by anyone else other than yourself.
According to the Section 10 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 there are mainly four
conditions which have to be satisfied to form a valid contract, i.e. free consent of parties to
the contracts, competent to contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object.
A person should have attained the age of majority as per the law of the country of which
he is a citizen.
In India, the age of majority is governed by the Indian Majority Act, 1875. As per Sec. 3 of
the Indian Majority Act, 1875, an Indian citizen is said to have attained the age of majority
upon completion of eighteen years of age. In the USA (the majority of the states) and the
UK, the age of majority is 18 years as well.
However, if a person is below the age of 18 years and a guardian has been appointed for
him, he shall attain majority at the age of 21 years.
As per Sec. 12 of the Act, a person can be said to be of sound mind when he can assess,
understand his actions and realize the consequences of obligations imposed on him at the
time of entering into a contract.
Minor
In India, a minor is an Indian citizen who has not completed the age of eighteen years. A
minor is incapable of understanding the nature of the liabilities arising out of an agreement.
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Hence a contract with a minor is void ab initio (void from the beginning) and cannot be
enforced in a court of law. The result is that a party cannot compel the minor to perform his
part of obligations as enumerated in the agreement (plead specific performance of an
agreement/rule against estoppel).
1. The respondent, Dharmodas Ghose, a minor, had mortgaged his property in favor of the
moneylender, Brahmo Dutt for securing a loan amounting to INR 20,000/-.
2. Mr. Brahmo Dutt had authorized Kedar Nath to enter into the transaction through a
power of attorney. Mr. Kedar Nath was informed of the fact that Dharmodas Ghose was a
minor through a letter sent by his mother.
3. However, the deed of mortgage contained a declaration that Dharmodas Ghose was of
the age of majority.
4. The respondent’s mother brought a suit on the ground that the mortgage executed by his
son is void on the ground that her son is a minor.
5. The relief sought by the respondent was granted and an appeal was preferred by the
executors of Brahmo Dutt before the Calcutta high court. The same was dismissed.
6. An appeal was then made to the Privy council. The Privy council held that-
1. A contract with a minor is void-ab-initio.
2. Sec.7 of the Transfer of Property Act, 1882 states that a person competent to contract
is competent to transfer a property.
However, if a minor enters into a contract and performs his part of obligations, the other
party can be compelled to perform and fulfill its obligations, and, in such instances, the
contract becomes legally enforceable.
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1. A minor entered into a contract for mortgage with a person of the age of majority.
2. The minor extended the monetary amount and performed his part of the obligations.
4. The full bench of the Madras High court had to decide “whether a mortgage executed in
favour of a minor who has advanced the whole of the mortgage money is enforceable by
him or by any other person on his behalf.”
2. The mortgagee (the minor) has already advanced the money which was the
consideration for the promise of the mortgagor and performed his part of the
obligations. There is nothing pending from his side.
Additionally, a minor cannot enter into a contract and provide his consent when he attains
majority. This is because a minor’s agreement is void from the beginning. A void agreement
cannot be made legally valid by ratification.
1. Suraj Narain lent money to Sukhu Ahir who was a minor. The minor executed a
promissory note against the money borrowed.
2. After four years, when the minor attained majority, he and his mother executed a second
promissory note in favour of Suraj Narain in respect of the original loan plus the interest
accumulated over the years.
2. A minor has no power to ratify the contracts entered into by him upon attaining the
age of majority.
3. In the second agreement executed by the parties, there was no consideration from the
Plaintiff. The original advance was no consideration for a second agreement. The
second agreement is void due to want of consideration.
In certain instances, a contract entered into by the minor or by the minor’s guardian for his
benefit is valid in the eyes of law-
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2. A partnership contract entered into with a minor admitting him to the benefits of a
partnership. However, the minor cannot be held personally liable for the losses incurred.
3. A contract relating to the minor’s property entered into by his guardian if it is for the
benefit of the minor.
5. A contract supplying the minors with goods and services necessary for life.
Websites such as YouTube expressly mention in their terms and conditions that any minor
while using its services represents that he has the permission of his parent/ guardian to do
so. Parents and guardians are held liable for the child’s activity on such websites.
Through Mohori Bibee vs. Dharmodas Ghose landmark judgment, the effects can be
explained-
No liability arising out of either tort/contract: A minor is incapable of giving consent, and
the nature of minor’s agreement is a nullity and cannot be enforced
The rule of estoppel: Estoppel is a legal rule of evidence which prevents a party from
alleging something that contradicts what he previously stated. The court held that the
doctrine of estoppel does not apply to the case in which the person knows the real facts,
beforehand and here the attorney of the defendant knew that the plaintiff was a minor.
Hence this rule does not apply.
Restitution of benefit: According to Section 64 of the Indian Contract Act, when a person
at whose option a contract is voidable rescinds it, the other party need not perform it.
This applies to contracts that are voidable, but a minor’s contract is void, and therefore,
he cannot be asked to refund the amount money to the moneylender.
For providing protection to a minor, his agreement is void. But there are certain exceptions
as well.
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When a minor has performed his obligation: In a contract, a minor can be a promisee but
not a promisor. So if the minor has performed his part of the promise, but the other
party hasn’t the minor being in the position of a promisee he can enforce the contract.
A contract entered into by a guardian of a minor for his benefit: In that case, a minor can
sue the other party when it does not perform its promise. In the case of Great American
Insurance v. Madan Lal[1] the guardian on the behalf of her son entered into an
insurance contract in respect of fire for the minor’s property. When the property was
damaged and the minor asked for the compensation, the insurer denied it by saying that
a contract with a minor is a void one. But later the court held that this contract was
enforceable, and he is liable to pay compensation.
The way of a contract creates a partnership, and the essential of a contract is that the both
the parties should be of the age of majority. However, as an exception as per Section 30 of
the Partnership Act is that with the due consent of all the partners, the minor can be
admitted to the benefit of partnership for the time being. But he will not be liable for any of
his acts.
As per Section 26 of the Act, a minor can draw, endorse, and negotiate and he can bind
everybody except himself. Every person who is capable of contracting according to the law
to which he is subject may bind himself and be bound by the making, drawing, accepting,
delivery and negotiation of a promissory note, cheque or a bill of exchange.
A minor can never be a principal because Section 183 of the Indian Contract Act for
anybody to become a principal should be of the age of majority and be of sound mind and
since a minor is not competent to contract, he also cannot employ an agent. But, a minor
can become an agent as per the provisions of section 184 but the principal shall be bound
by the acts of the minor and he would not be personally liable in that case.
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Lunatic- A person who is of sound mind for certain duration of time and unsound for the
remaining duration is known as a lunatic. When a lunatic enters into a contract while he
is of sound mind, i.e. capable of understanding the nature of the contract, it is a valid
contract. Otherwise, it is void.
Illustration- A enters into a contract with B for sale of goods when he is of sound mind. A
later becomes of unsound mind. The contract is valid.
People under the influence of the drug- A contract signed under the influence of
alcohol/drug may or may not be valid. If a person is so drunk at the time of entering into
a contract that he is not in a position to understand the nature and consequences, the
contract is void. However, if he is capable of understanding the nature of the contract, it
will be enforceable.
Illustration- A enters into a contract with B under the influence of alcohol. The burden of
proof is on A to show that he was incapable of understanding the consequence at the time
of entering the contract and B was aware of his condition.
Illustration- A, of country X, orders goods from B, of country Y. The goods are shipped and
before they could reach Y, country X declares a war with country Y. The contract between A
and B becomes void.
Convicts- A convict cannot enter into a contract while he is serving his sentence.
However, he regains his capacity to enter into a contract upon completion of his
sentence.
Illustration- A, is serving his sentence in jail. Any contract signed by him during this period
is void.
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Illustration- A enters into a contract for sale of goods with B. Before the sale takes place, an
insolvency suit is filed against A. A sell the goods to B during pendency of insolvency
proceedings. The contract is valid.
As per the Indian Contract Act, 1872 a person can employ another who shall enter into
contracts with the third person on his behalf. The person in this instance is known as the
principal and the other person so employed is known as the agent.
Any person may be employed as an agent. However, a minor or a person of unsound mind
cannot be held liable for their acts to the principal.
2. Implied, i.e. it might be deduced from the facts and circumstances of the case
Most companies while entering into contracts with one another want to make sure that the
other party is competent enough to enter into a contract. This is required to avoid any legal
complications in the future. This is mostly done through the inclusion of a representation
clause in a contract stating that the company, as per its memorandum and articles of
association, is capable of entering into a contract through its authorized representatives.
A copy of the articles of association may be annexed by both parties to confirm the
representations made.
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A party might be asked to produce a copy of board resolution so passed/ changes made in
the articles of association to the other party to prove its compliance with the condition
precedent.
It is expressly mentioned in the agreement that both the parties indemnify each other from
any suits, proceedings, or liabilities arising from breach of the representation clause.
A contract made by a person who does not possess the mental capacity to understand the
nature and consequences of the contract is void ab initio. On the other hand, contracts with
lunatics, people under the influence of the drug may/may not be void depending upon the
circumstances surrounding the situation.
A person regains the legal capacity to contract upon removal of any of the disqualifications.
Companies while entering into contracts with one another always try to safeguard their
interests. Representation and indemnification are the most commonly used clauses to
ensure that both the parties are competent to contract.
Consent is an essential element of a valid contract. In its absence, the contract becomes
void or voidable depending on the circumstance. Consent means providing the party with an
opportunity to exercise his/her volition with respect to the contract. For a valid acceptance
to the proposal, the assent must be voluntary and genuine. As discussed earlier assent is
required to form a valid agreement. Assent here refers to the opportunity to exercise one’s
volition. Where consent to an agreement is not free i.e. has any of these factors- coercion,
undue influence, fraud or misrepresentation, the agreement is a contract voidable if the
other party so chooses whose consent was obtained on the basis of vitiating factors. If, for
example, a person is induced to sign an agreement by fraud, he may, on discovering the
truth, either uphold the contract or reject it.
Where consent is caused by mistake, the agreement is void. A void agreement cannot be
affected by the party [Section 2(g)] An agreement which is void doesn’t give rise to legal
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consequences and is void ab initio These agreements are not enforced by the court or we
can call this agreement as ‘’ An agreement not enforceable by law’.
An agreement where both parties share common intention relating to the terms of the
contract is known as true consent or consensus ad idem and is at the root of every contract.
Free consent is defined under the act as consent which is not caused by coercion, undue
influence, fraud, misrepresentation and mistake.
Every free consent is consent but every consent is not a free consent.
Void agreement is an agreement not enforceable by law. A contract which is not recognised
by law. There can be no action instituted in a court of law to claim rights against parties.
Void agreement is void right from the day the agreement is constructed while a void
contract becomes void at a later stage. In a void contract, the voidness creeps because of
some incident or change in circumstance which is not through the fault of the parties.
Void agreements have been specifically stated in chapter 2 of the act under Sections 11,20,
23 to 30 and 56. No such specific mention has been made for a void contract under any
chapter of the Act.
An illustration under the First category would be Consent given at the point of a knife, or by
threatening to injure someone, or by intimidation or by threatening to destroy a man’s
property.
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An example of the second type will be a case where the plaintiff had pledged his plate with
the defendant for $20. When he went to redeem it the pledge insisted that an additional
$10 interest was also owed. The plaintiff paid this to redeem his plate and then sued to
recover it back. The court allowed it and the defendant had taken advantage of the situation
and extracted an amount which was not lawful.
The person who is in commanding position may use his position and the trust that the other
person reposes on him to his advantage. By ‘’advantage’’ we mean to cause the other
person to express his assent to the proposal.
It is the nature of the relationship that is a Sine qua non in these types of cases, which
enables one party to be at a superior position.
For Example: A spiritual adviser(guru), for example, in a case induced the plaintiff, his
devotee, to gift to him the whole of his property to secure benefits to his soul in the next
world. Such consent is said to be obtained by undue influence. The test is to examine this
from a prudent man’s point of view. Whether in the absence of the nature of the
relationship a prudent man would have done the same?
The court describes this in Mahboob Khan v. Hakim Abdul Rahim. Undue influence is a kind
of fraud wherein the parties’ mind is hacked in a pernicious way. It can be through various
means such as coercion, fear or other methods which are directed to impair the reasoning
of the person. The result is the person thinks he is using his volition but in reality, his free
will is affected by other parties’ scheme,
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When compared to Undue influence, the difference is that undue influence may exist
without violence or threats of violence against the victim. Undue influence exists because of
the relationship the parties share. It is usually without violence or threats against the
victim. The confidence which the other party reposes in the other is used to one’s
advantage.
A person is said to be in a position to dominate the will of another in the following cases-
2. Where the victim doesn’t have the mental capacity to understand the consequences of
his actions.
Fiduciary relation
Trust and confidence are essential elements of Fiduciary relation. Confidence is involved in
many of our interactions in everyday life. This category is, therefore, a very wide one. It
includes the relationship of solicitor and client, spiritual adviser and his devotee, doctor and
patient, woman and her confidential managing agent, parent or guardian and child, and
creditor and debtor.
In certain cases, the presumption of undue influence is raised. The effect of presumption is
once it is prima facie established that the defendant has overpowered the will of the other,
it will be assumed he has used his position to influence the outcome. The defendant has to
establish the contrary.
This case illustrates the above point wherein An old and illiterate woman, incapable of any
business, conferred on her confidential managing agent, without any valuable consideration,
an important pecuniary benefit under the guise of trust. The onus is on the grantee to show
conclusively that the transaction is honest, bona fide, well-understood, the subject of
independent advice and free from undue influence’’.
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For this presumption to be successful, one of the parties’ have to be in a superior position
or in a dominating position. Where the parties are on equal footing the mere
unconscionableness of the bargain does not create a presumption of undue influence. The
mere fact that the bargain is a hard one is no guard in itself for granting relief.
In Raghunath Prasad Sahu v. Sarju Prasad Sahu The defendant and his father were equal
owners of a vast joint family property over which they had quarrelled. Consequently, the
father had instituted criminal proceedings against the son. The defendant, in order to
defend himself, mortgaged his properties to the plaintiff and borrowed from him about ten
thousand on 24% compound interest. In eleven years this rate of interest had magnified
the sum covered by the mortgage more than elevenfold, viz., Rs1,12,885.
The defendant had contended that the lender had, by exacting a high rate of interest, taken
unconscionable advantage of his mental distress and, therefore, there should be a
presumption of undue influence.
Their lordships, however, held that there should be no such presumption in the
circumstances of the case.
Sub-Section (3) of Section 16, deals with three matters. There is a particular order which
should be followed while determining whether a party has dominated the will of the other.
In the first place, the relation is of a kind where the party can overpower the volition of the
other.
Then comes the second stage where it will be examined whether the contract has been
induced by undue influence.
This leads to the third stage, where onus probandi emerges. The burden of proving that
plaintiff consent is not vitiated by any of the factors shifts on defendant.
This order should be maintained lest error is avoided Unconscionableness of the bargain
cannot be the first thing to be considered. We have to start from the relation that the
parties share with respect to each other.
According to the Bombay High Court, a woman does not become pardanashin simply
because ‘’she lives in some degree of seclusion’’. The concept probably means a woman who
is totally ‘’secluded from ordinary social intercourse’’.
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Once it is shown that a contract is made with a pardanashin woman, the law presumes
undue influence. In Moonshe Buzloor Raheem v. Shumsoonisa Begum, A window remarried.
Subsequently, she endorsed and delivered to her new husband certain valuable Government
papers. In an action to recover them back from him, she proved that she lived in seclusion
and that she had given over the papers to him for collection of interest. He contended that
he had given her full consideration for the notes. It was held that the mere fact of
endorsement and the allegation of consideration were not sufficient to lift the presumption
of undue influence. He should prove that the transaction was bona fide sale and that he
gave full consideration for the paper which he received from his wife.
In a Bombay case, for example, The defendant chartered a ship from the plaintiffs, who
stated that the ship was certainly not more than 2800 tonnage register. As a matter of fact,
the ship had never been in Bombay and was wholly unknown to the plaintiffs. She turned
out to be of the registered tonnage of more than 3000 tonnes.
It was held that the defendants were entitled to avoid the charter party. ’’The reason was
that defendants asserted regarding the size of the ship-an assertion not supported/justified
by any information the plaintiff had at the time, and which was not true’’
Where a representation acquires the status of being a term of the contract, and it turns out
to be false, the disadvantaged party may, not only avoid the contract but also sue for
damages for breach.
Where the seller of a car stated that the car had done only 20,000 miles, the representation
being untrue, the buyer was allowed to recover compensation for the misrepresentation.
Breach of Duty
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Any breach of duty which is beneficial to the person committing it by confusing the party to
his harm is a misrepresentation. This clause covers all cases which are called as cases of
‘constructive fraud’, in which there is no intention to deceive, but where the circumstances
are such as to make the party who derives a benefit from the transaction equally
answerable in effect as if he had been actuated by motives of fraud or deceit’’.
Example: The government auctioned certain forest coupes. A part of the land was occupied
by tenants. The forest department knew this fact but did not disclose it to the purchaser.
The contract was held to be vitiated by misrepresentation. The purchaser was allowed to
recover damages for loss.
Misrepresentation may also arise from the suppression of vital facts. Cases of concealment
or suppression will fall either under sub-Section (2) when it amounts to a breach of duty or
under sub-Section(3) when it leads the other party to make a mistake about the subject-
matter of the agreement.
In R. v Kylsant, the prospectus of a company stated that the company had regularly paid
dividends, which created the impression that the company was making profits, whereas the
truth was that the company had been running into losses for the last several years and
dividends could only be paid out of wartime accumulated profits. This was held as a
Misrepresentation.
Expression of opinion
Of material facts
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Inducement
The misrepresentation must be the cause of the consent, in the sense that but for the
misrepresentation the consent would not have been given. It must have played a
substantial role in the plaintiff’s decision to enter or not to enter into the contract.
The representation must be made with the intention that it shall be acted upon by the other
party.
There would be no misrepresentation, even if the advertisement was false if the buyer had
inspected the goods before buying them unless he was the victim of some concealed defect
which could not be known by external examination.
A party cannot complain of misrepresentation if ‘’ he had the means of discovering the truth
with ordinary diligence’’.
A person who bought a quantity of rice was precluded from alleging misrepresentation
about its quality because he lived very near the place where the goods were lying and,
therefore, might have discovered the truth with ordinary diligence.
In English law ‘’fraud’’ was defined in the well-known decision of the House of Lords in Derry
v Peek. The judges had observed in this case that- ‘’Fraud is proved when it is shown that a
false representation has been made,-
1. Knowingly, or
In this case:
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A company’s prospectus contained a representation that the company had been authorised
by a special Act of Parliament to run trams by steam or mechanical power. The authority to
use steam was, in the Board refused consent and consequently, the company was wound
up. The plaintiff, having bought some shares, sued the directors for fraud. They were held
not liable because they honestly believed that once the Parliament had authorised the use
of steam, the consent of the Board was something that was bound to happen. It follows,
therefore, that the person making a false representation is not guilty of fraud if he honestly
believes in its truth. Thus, intentional misrepresentation is of the essence of fraud.
Active concealment
A contracting party is under no obligation to disclose the whole truth to the other party or
to give him the whole information in his possession affecting the subject-matter of the
contract. It is under this principle that a trader may keep silent about a change in prices. A
seller who puts forth an unsound horse for sale, but says nothing about its quality, commits
no fraud.
Duty to speak (contracts uberrima fides): Duty to speak arises where one contracting
party reposes trust and confidence in the other. A father, for example, selling a horse to
his son must tell him if the horse is unsound, as the son is likely to rely upon his father.
Duty to disclose the truth will arise in all cases where one party reposes, and the other
accepts confidence.
This duty to speak is also expected from the party when the other party has no means to
discover the truth and has to depend on other parties’ judgment or assessment
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A contract of insurance is, for this reason, called a contract of absolute good faith, uberrima
fides.
This case where the plaintiff spent a sum of money to mark the engagement of his son. He
then discovered that the girl suffered from epileptic fits and so broke off the engagement.
He sued the other party to recover from them compensation for the loss which he had
suffered on account of their deliberate suppression of a vital fact which amounted to fraud.
The court concluded that a mere passive non-disclosure of the truth, however misleading in
fact, does not amount to fraud, unless there is a duty to speak. It was observed that the
law imposes no general duty on anyone to broadcast the blemishes of his female relations;
not even to those who are contemplating matrimony with them.
There was no fiduciary connection between the parties. The engagement was, however, held
to be voidable by reason of the misrepresentation, but the plaintiff was not entitled to
recover any compensation under Section 75 of the Contract Act.
A medical practitioner represented to the plaintiff that ‘his practice was worth $2000 a year’.
The representation was true. Five months later when the plaintiff actually bought the
practice, it had considerably gone down on account of the defendant’s serious illness. It was
held that the change of circumstances ought to have been communicated.
Half-truths: Even when a person is under no duty to disclose a fact, he may become
guilty of fraud by non-disclosure if he voluntarily discloses something and then stops
halfway. A person may be silent, but if he speaks, a duty arises to disclose the whole
truth. ‘’ Everybody knows that sometimes half a truth is no better than a downright
falsehood’’
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2. Fraud in addition to making the contract voidable is a cause of action in tort for damages.
Misrepresentation is not a tort but under Section 75 of the Contract Act
Definition of ‘’Mistake’’
Mistake happens when one of the parties has some misconceptions about the facts stated in
the contract. Section 20 defines
Illustration:. Two people contract that one of them will buy their house but none of them is
aware that the house was burnt when they were negotiating the contract. The agreement is
void.
3. The fact about which they are mistaken is essential to the agreement.
Contract caused by mistake of one party as a matter of fact- A contract will not become
voidable when one of the parties’ is under a mistake relating to some fact involved.
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Mistake as to identity
Mistake as to identity occurs where one of the parties represents himself to be some person
other than he really is.
We can state the particular case here, Jaggan Nath v Secy of State for India: A person,
called S, a brother of the plaintiff, represented himself as plaintiff, and thereby induced a
Government agent to contract with him.
The court found that the Government’s agent was deceived by the conduct of the plaintiff
and his brother as to the person with whom he was dealing, held that there was no valid
contract. The defendant’s agent intended to contract only with S’s brother and not with S
and S knew this. Real consent was prevented. It means that an offer which is meant for one
person cannot be accepted by another.
A mistake about the attribute has been held not to avoid the agreement. There can be a
mistake of identity only when a person bearing a particular identity exists within the
knowledge of the plaintiff, and the plaintiff intends to deal with him only. If the name
assumed by the fraudster is fictitious, there will be no mistake of identity.
A man named Wallis adopted the name of ‘Hallam & Co’, a non-existent firm, and by letters
placed the order for some goods with the plaintiffs who complied with the order by sending
the goods. Wallis sold the goods to the defendants, who acted in good faith. The plaintiffs
sued the defendants for the value of the goods. The plaintiffs intended to enter into a
contract with the writer of letters. If it could have been shown that there was a separate
entity called Hallam & Co and another entity called Wallis then the case might have come
within the decision in the previous case discussed above. He had not fraudulently taken on
another identity when selling the goods to Edridge. Although the contract was voidable, the
possessory title was held to pass from a fraudster to an innocent person, therefore, only
voidable for fraud and it could not be disaffirmed after the defendants had acquired the
property in good faith.
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In Ingram v. Little where three ladies, the joint owners of a car, advertised it for sale. A
person who wanted to buy the car offered to pay by cheque. The ladies objected to this as
the payment had to be in cash. The buyer in order to convince them impersonated
Hutchinson, a leading businessman, and quoted an address and a telephone number. After
verification, the ladies accepted the cheque. He resold the car to the defendant and
absconded. The cheque proved worthless and the plaintiffs sued the defendant for the car
or its value.
The defendant was held liable because the plaintiffs intended to enter into a contract with
real Hutchinson and not the impersonator. There was no offer made to him, therefore there
was no contract with him.
An important question arose in the light of the above conflicting judgments as to Why
should the title of the innocent buyer be made to depend on the state of a contract between
third parties? This discourse was taken by the court of appeal in Lewis v. Averay: Lewis, the
plaintiff, had a car to sell. A man, described in the judgment as ‘rogue’, came along and
introduced himself as Richard Green, a famous film actor. He offered a cheque and the
plaintiff asked him to wait until cheque was cleared. The rogue talked the plaintiff into
allowing him to take the car before the cheque clearance. He was able to persuade the
plaintiff because he produced a special pass of admission to a film studio which showed his
photograph and the official stamp when asked for identity proof. The rogue sold the car to
an innocent buyer, the defendant.
The court of appeal held that the car was delivered under a contract voidable by reason of
the fraud and the contract not having been avoided before the car passed into the hands of
an innocent buyer, he acquired a good title.
When the parties are present face to face, the presumption is that the contract is made with
the person actually present, even though there is a fraudulent impersonation by the buyer
representing himself as a different man than he is.
A mistake as to the quality of the subject-matter as distinguished from its substance may
not render the agreement void. Smith v Hughes is well-known for this distinction between
quality and substance.
The defendant wanted to buy old oats for his horses. The plaintiff showed him the sample of
the oats he had, but nothing about their age. The defendant kept the sample for twenty-
four hours and then placed an order for the oats. After a portion of them was delivered to
him, he found that they were new and, therefore, rejected them on the ground that he was
mistaken about their quality.
The court didn’t accept the defendant’s argument. It was observed by the court that the
two minds were not ad idem as to the age of oats; they certainly were ad idem as to the
sale and purchase of them.
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This principle is well established by authorities that when a deed of one character is
executed under the mistaken impression that it is of a different character, then it is wholly
void and inoperative. Thus, where a gift deed is signed under the impression that it is only a
power of attorney, the deed is inoperative.
The defence of non est factum enables a person who has signed a contract to say that it is
not his document because he signed it under some mistake. It was evolved by the courts to
relieve illiterate or blind people from the effect of a contract which they could not read and
which was not properly explained to them.
In a particular case, a person was asked to sign the back of the paper, the face of which
was not shown to him, and he was told that it was an ordinary guarantee the like of which
he had signed
before and under which no liability came to him, when, in fact, the paper was a bill of
exchange and he was sued by a holder in due course as an indorser.
The court held that ‘’The defendant never intended to sign that contract or any such
contract. He never intended to put his name to any instrument that later became
negotiable. He was deceived not merely as to the legal effect, but as to the actual contents
of the document.
Limitations
It should be pointed out that even in cases where there is a mistake of one party but has
the effect of nullifying consent as defined under Section 13, no contract will arise. When
there is an absence of real consent i.e agreement upon the same thing in the same sense.
For an agreement to be avoided on the basis of unilateral mistake, it must be shown:
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1. That one party erroneously believed that the document sought to be rectified contained a
particular term or provision, or possibly did not contain a particular term or provision
which, mistakenly, it did not contain;
2. That the other party was aware of the omission or the inclusion and that it was due to a
mistake on the part of one party;
3. That the party who was aware of the mistake omitted to draw the mistake to the notice
of the other party; and
The facts of the case in Thomas Bates & Son Ltd v Wyndham (Lingerie) Ltd the court came
to the conclusion that where a lease deed contained arbitration clause but the new deed
which was prepared by the landlord did not contain that provision without the knowledge of
the Landlord and though the lessee was aware of the omission he did not draw it to the
attention of the landlord, the landlord was entitled to seek rectification of the document for
inserting arbitration clause.
1. Erroneous opinion about the value of subject matter: In a case where a property which
was subject to a subsisting lease was sold. The lessee had the right to receive the value
of the improvements, but the agreement of sale was silent about this. The buyer wanted
to have the agreement set aside on the ground of mistake about this right. The court
held that there was no mistake and that even if there was a mistake it was not as to the
matter of fact essential to the agreement for sale.
2. Mistake of fact and not of law: It should be a mistake of fact and not of any law in force
in India.
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Are of that nature which will defeat the very basic purpose of the law.
If that involves or results in injury to any living person or the property of the person.
If the court has regarded any special objects and considerations as immoral.
Those objects and considerations which are against the policy of the public and can cause
harm to the public.
If a contract shows any of these elements then it is unlawful and void u/s 23.
A contract is forbidden by law if it is either against any law, both substantive and
procedural. E.g. An agreement to sell liquor without a licence, despite the law mandating to
have a licence. In a particular case, the Plaintiff owner of a bar and having the licence to
sell liquor transferred the management of the bar and liquor sale to the defendant who had
no such licence. The court held that transferring business and sale of liquor to a person
without the license, was prohibited by law and thus cannot be enforced.
If a contract circumvents a provision of any law or defeats the purpose of the law (i.e it
makes the provision irrelevant), it shall be deemed to defeat the provision of that law.
If the consideration or object of the contract is to commit fraud, the contract is void. Thus if
the object of agreement is to deceive another person, the same is void.
“Contracts must not be the sports of an idle hour, mere matters of pleasantry and badinage,
never intended by the parties to have any serious effect whatsoever”.
Further Mulla writes It is essential to the creation of a contract that both parties should
agree to the same thing in the same sense. Thus if two persons enter into an apparent
contract concerning a particular person or a ship, and it turns out that each of them, misled
by a similarity of name, had a different person or ship in his mind, no contract would exist
between them.
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In Abhas Khan v. Nur Khan, the bride married the groom, without the consent of the
nearest male relative, in such cases under customary Muhammadan Law, the groom has to
pay a certain amount to such relatives, called “rogha”. The Lahore high court held that
enforcing such a custom is tantamount to saying that full age women cannot marry unless
the groom pays a sum, which could be impossible to do so. It would be a custom in
restraint of marriage.
It must be noted that the contract will be void only to such extent by which a person is
restrained. Thus the entire contract will not be declared void.
Eg. If a contract contains a “non-compete clause”, which restricts a person from carrying
out a trade, then only the non-compete clause will be void and not the entire contract.
Just like the doctrine of severability in constitutional law, Blue pencil doctrine is used in
contract law, to sever the void part from the rest of the agreement.
Further, it is immaterial if the restraint is reasonable or not, under Indian law a contract in
restraint of trade or business will be lawful only if the restraint falls within a statutory or
judicially created exception. This is in contrast to English law in which a reasonable restraint
may be held valid. In the case of Superintendence Company of India v. Krishan Murgai[xx]
apex court held that neither the test of reasonableness nor the principle that the restraint is
partial or reasonable applies to a case governed by section 27 of the act unless it falls
within the exception appended to the said section
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which limits their time within which he may enforce his legal rights, is void.
Thus if a clause in a contract prevents a party to initiate a suit against the other party, then
that agreement is void. However, an agreement which provides for arbitration when a
dispute arises, then that clause is not void[xxi]. Arbitration is a method of dispute
resolution recognised by courts all over the world and helps in reducing the burden on
courts. It is always advisable to have a comprehensive clause on arbitration, to resolve the
dispute as it would be favourable to both parties.
An agreement which provides that a suit should be brought for the breach of any terms of
the agreement within a time which is shorter than the period prescribed by the Limitation
Act is void to that extent. Limitation act provides for 3 years to initiate a proceeding in case
of a breach.
Section 28(b) talks about those contractual terms which although does not limit the period
of limitation but extinguishes a person to claim a right or discharges any party from any
liability if he does not do so within the time period mentioned in the contract. Such
contracts are also void. This is because such a contract restricts a party from enforcing his
right.
Eg. If a contract says that in case of a breach the party can ask for compensation only
within 3 months from the date of the breach, and if such compensation is not asked within
3 months then the breaching party will not be liable to compensate. In this case, the
contract discharges the breaching party from liability.
Such common clauses found in insurance policies provide that the insurer should not be
liable for loss or damage after expiration of twelve months from the happening of loss or
damage.
Illustration A: A agreeing to sell B a 100 tons of oil, but without being satisfied about the
quality and kind of oil. Such an agreement is uncertain and void.
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Illustration B: A entered into a contract with B for construction of the building and it was
agreed that A would pay B the consideration within a month after the construction was
completed.
In this case, the deadline for payment is uncertain. It does not specify whether he has to
pay before the last date of the month or on the last date of the month. Further, it is also
uncertain, when will the said month start- will it start after the construction is complete or
when the possession is transferred to A.
To create a binding contract the parties must express their agreement in sufficiently certain
terms. What is needed is not absolute certainty but a “reasonable degree” of certainty.
[Scammell v Ouston]
To create a binding contract the parties must express their agreement in sufficiently certain
terms. What is needed is not absolute certainty but a “reasonable degree” of certainty.
[Scammell v Ouston]
“To create a binding contract the parties must express their agreement in sufficiently certain
terms. What is needed is not absolute certainty but a reasonable degree of certainty”[xxiii]
This largely depends upon how the contract was drafted and the language used within the
clauses of the contract. One way to ensure certainty is not to make a clause open-ended
which could lead to different interpretations by different people.
The parties must make their own contract. The courts will not construct a contract for the
parties when the terms are indefinite or unsettled. The court must first be satisfied that the
parties have in fact concluded a contract, before seeking to make certain its terms.
It is not enough to show that the meaning of the contract is uncertain, it should further be
shown that it is incapable of being made certain. Mere vagueness or uncertainty which can
be removed by proper interpretation, cannot make a contract void[xxiv].
An agreement which provides for the future fixation of price either by the parties
themselves or by a third party is capable of being made certain and is not invalid under s
29. Such a contract is not void for uncertainty.[xxv]
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person abide by the result of any game or any other uncertain event if such an event was
the subject of a bet.
Meaning
According to Sir William Anson, a wager is “a promise to give money or money’s worth upon
the determination or ascertainment of an uncertain event.”
Thus a wagering agreement is one whose outcome is based on a future uncertain event and
upon the happening of that uncertain event one party will gain and the other party will lose
and the loser shall pay the winner a sum of money or any other stake. Such parties shall
not have any other interest other than winning or losing the bet.
When we talk about contracts we come across various types and kinds of contracts such as
Quasi-contracts, Implied contracts, Expressed contracts and many more. One such type of
contract is known as Wagering Contract. Wagering Contract is one in which there are two
necessary parties between which the contract has been made and wherein, the first party
promises to pay a certain sum of money to the second party on the happening of a
particular event in the future and the second party agrees to pay to the first party on not
happening of that particular event. The basic fundamental of a wagering agreement is the
presence of two parties who are of sound mind to get profit or loss. A Wager in the common
language means Betting or Gambling. The basic meaning of the term wager is betting.
Section 30 of the Indian Contract Act specifically talks about agreements by way of wager,
as void. The section read as follows:
“Agreements by way of wager are void and no suit shall be brought for recovering anything
alleged to be won on any wager, or entrusted to any person to abide the result of any game
or other uncertain events on which any wager is made.” (see more)
Carlill vs Carbolic Smoke Ball co.(1893): This is the only case law which has defined a
wagering contract in the most expressive and encompassing way. It States as follows:
”One by which two persons, professing to hold opposite views touching the issue of a future
uncertain event, mutually agree that, dependant on the determination of that event, one
shall win from the other, and that other shall pay or hand over to him, a sum of money or
other stake; neither of the parties having any other interest in that contract than the sum
or stake he will win or lose, there is no other consideration for making of such contract by
either of the parties. If either of the parties may win but cannot lose or may lose but cannot
win, it is not a wagering contract”. (see more)
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Thus, it can be stated that all wagering agreements are contingent agreements but all
contingent agreements are not wagering agreements. Thus in simple language, we can
understand that a wagering contract is a futuristic contract which is based upon the
happening of a certain event in the future. A wagering contract may or may not be imposed
depending upon the circumstances in the future.
Types of wager
I. Moneyline betting
This type of betting is one of the easiest types of betting. Betting through the money line is
very simple as it is done only on sports competitions and games and it is totally based upon
the outcome/result of the match. This type of betting is illegal and this type of activity has
been mostly seen in cricket to the highest in the Indian Premier League.
certain number and which is totally a futuristic event uncertain and nobody has control over
it.
V. Prop betting
This type of betting is very unique and creative in nature as it is not related to the final
result of the game. In this case, the better places his bet on something like the first half of
the game or like whether there will be a super over in a cricket game etc. thus, this is also
known as prop betting.
Equal opportunity
One of the main points in a wagering contract is that there should be an equal chance for
both to either win or lose depending upon the outcome of the future event.
Uncontrollable
These events are futuristic which may or may not take place and it should be beyond the
control of either of the party because if either of the party has control over it then it would
not amount to wager.
No outside interest
Both the parties should have a single interest as to the profit or loss in the result of the
event and there should not be any outside or personal interest attached with the uncertain
event as that will not amount to wager as well.
Dependency
The wager agreement is fully dependent upon the happening of the futuristic event whether
it is contrasted with the past, present or future as to the result of that event.
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Promise
The wager contract should contain an important clause which should state that the parties
promise to pay the money or money’s worth to the other party on the happening of the
event and this should be agreed upon by both the parties.
“This section shall not be deemed to render unlawful a subscription or contribution, made or
entered into for or towards any plate, prize or sum of money, of the value or amount of five
hundred rupees or more, to be awarded to the winner of any horse race. Nothing in this
section shall be deemed to legalize any transaction connected with horse- racing, to which
the provisions of section 294A of the Indian Penal Code shall apply”. (see more)
Since a wagering contract is a void contract, thus there are certain exemptions to it which
are as follows:
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not amount to wager but if the amount is not reasonable then it would amount to gambling
and it will automatically become void.
2. Share market
The transactions that take place under the share market shall not amount to wager where
the shares are bought and sold and mere delivery of shares from one person to another will
not be regarded as the wager.
4. Insurance contracts
The contracts of insurance are not wagering at all because these are contracts of Indemnity.
These contracts are entered upon to safeguard and protect the interest of one party from
any damage hence it is not a wager.
5. Commercial transactions
The Agreements that are done for sale and purchase of any commodity that is to be used
on a commercial base in which there is genuine intention to do legitimate businesses which
are valid and if they intend to do so they are required to pay the difference.
Under Section 30 of the Indian Contract Act, the term Wager has not been defined and it
does not even define wager agreement it only says that such agreements are void with the
proviso of section 294A of the Indian Penal Code. The Indian lawmakers have never made
any amendments in this section to define such terms ever since this law came into force
and up till now, the section is silent on many things which are necessary to be defined
specifically. So, we can only wait for the lawmakers to amend the following section and
break the ambiguity on many things which have caused a lot of problems for the judiciary
to decide many cases in the past. Thus, it seems a matter of urgent importance to bring the
necessary amendments in the act.
Contingent contract
The word contingent means when an event or situation is contingent, i.e. it depends on
some other event or fact.
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According to section 2 (h)[1] of the Indian Contracts Act, 1872, a contract is an agreement
in which two individuals enter and it is enforceable by law. In a contract, the party should
give their free consent, should be competent to contract and the object and the
consideration should be lawful. To form a contract, the agreement shouldn’t be declared as
void. Thus, to form a valid contract, there should be two things- an agreement and its
enforceability at law.
In regular courses, the phrase contingent means “subject to chance.” In the Indian Contract
Act also, the word means conditional. Future events are always uncertain. In the case of a
contingent contract, the chances of happening of this uncertain event is ascertained and
calculated and also the potentiality to deal with the event if they come to fore at all. The
contracting parties may require that some obligation will be performed depending on the
contingent event. The parties may agree that any right will be due, or any liability will be
imposed on the happening of the contingency. Section 31 to 36 of the Act governs
contingent contracts. Section 31 of the Act defines a contingent contract as a contract
between parties to do or not do something if some event which is collateral to the contract
happens or does not happen. So, a contingent contract is also primarily a contract. But it is
not an absolute or unconditional one. A contingent contract is dependent on the happening
or non-happening of the event.
Now, the ‘contingent contract’ means enforceability of that contract directly depends upon
happening or not happening on an event.
Section 31 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 defines the term ‘Contingent Contract’ as
follows:
In simple words, contingent contracts are the ones where the promisor performs his
obligation only when certain conditions are met. The contracts of insurance, indemnity, and
guarantee are some examples of contingent contracts.
Illustration- A contract to pay B Rs. 20,000 if B’s house is burnt. This is a contingent.
Case laws
Chandulal Harjivandas v. CIT– In this case, it was held that all contracts of insurance and
indemnity are contingent.
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3. In a wager, the parties are not interested in the occurrence of the event except for
winning or losing the best amount while in a contingent contract the parties have a real
interest in occurrence or non-occurrence of the event.
4. All wager contracts are contingent contracts, but all contingent contracts are not by way
of the wager.
Illustration 1: X makes a contract with Y to buy Y’s dog if X survives Z. This contract cannot
be enforced by law unless and until Z dies in X’s lifetime.
Illustration 2: X agrees to pay Y a sum of money if a certain ship does not return. The ship
is sunk. The contract can be enforced when the ship sinks.
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Illustration: X enters into a contract with Y and promises to deliver 10 books to him. Y
promises to pay Rs. 2000 upon delivery. This is not a contingent contract since Y’s
obligation depends on the event which is a part of the contract(delivery of 10 Books) and
not a collateral event.
Illustration: X promises to pay Y, Rs. 10,000 if Y leaves Delhi for London on 31st March
2019. This is a contingent contract. Going to London can be within Y’s will but is not merely
his will.
Illustration: X promises to pay Y, Rs. 100,000 if he marries Z, the prettiest girl in the
neighbourhood. This is a contingent contract. Unfortunately, Z dies in a car accident. Since
the happening of the event is no longer possible, the contract is void.
Illustration: X promises to pay Y a sum of money if a certain ship does not return. The ship
is sunk. The contract can be enforced when the ship sinks. On the other hand, if the ship
returns, then the contract is void.
Illustration: X promises to pay Y a sum of money if a certain ship returns before 1st April
2019. The contracts may be enforced if the ship returns within the fixed time. On the other
hand, it becomes void if the ship sinks.
Illustration: X promises to pay Y a sum of money if a certain ship does not return before
31st March 2019. The contract may be enforced if the ship does not return before 31st
March 2019. Also, if the ship burns before the given time, the contract is enforced by law
since the return is impossible.
Illustration: X promises to pay Y, Rs 500 if two straight lines should enclose a space. The
agreement is void.
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Illustration: Mohan contracts to pay Ram a sum of Money when Ram marries Geeta. Geeta
dies without being married to Ram. The contract becomes void.
Illustration: Saurbh promises to pay Sarvesh if a certain ship returns within the year. The
contract becomes void if the ship is burnt within the year.
Section 34- if the future event on which a contract is a contingent is the way in which a
person will act at an unspecified time, the event shall be considered to become
impossible when such person does anything which renders it impossible that he should
so act within any definite time, or otherwise than under further contingencies.
Illustration: X agrees to pay Y, Rs. 10,000 if Y will marry X’s daughter P. P was dead at the
time of the agreement. The agreement is void.
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2. The contingent contract can be used in the contract of guarantee as well as the contract
of warranty. Contingent guarantees generally are used when a supplier does not have a
relationship with a counterparty.
4. We can use the contingent contract in mergers and acquisitions (M&A) as well.
Depending on the M&A deal, contingent payments such as earn-outs, Seller notes, and
Buyer stock may be part of the Seller’s proceeds. After the deal is finalized, these
contingent payments will need continuous contact between Buyer and Seller.
The term “offer” has been defined under Section 2(a) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872. An
offer is an expression of willingness made by a person to do or abstain from doing any act
or omission with a view to obtaining the assent of the person to whom such an offer of act
or abstinence is made.
The term performance in its literal sense means the performance of a task or action. In its
legal sense “performance” means the fulfilment or the completion of the obligations which
they have towards the other party by virtue of the contract entered into by them. For
example, ‘A’ and ‘B’ enter into a contract, the terms of the contract state that A has to
deliver a book to B on payment of the consideration of five hundred rupees. Here, B pays to
A rupees five hundred and as stipulated in the contract, A delivers him the book.
Section 37 of the Contract Act talks about performance. According to the Section, there are
two types of performance which are:
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Actual performance: Actual performance of the contract means the actual discharge of
the liability or obligation which a person has undertaken to perform and there remains no
other task which he is obliged to discharge under the promise. He is said to have made
the actual performance of the promise.
Attempted performance: At times when the performance becomes due. The promisor is
not able to discharge his obligation or perform his duty because he is prevented by the
promisee in doing so. This situation where the promisor actually intended to perform his
obligation or discharge his duty but is prevented from doing so by an intervening
disability is known as the attempted performance of a promise.
Tender of goods and services: The discharge of the contract to deliver goods and services
is completed when the goods are tendered for acceptance in accordance with the terms
of contact. If the goods and services so tendered are not accepted they are to be taken
back by the offeror and he is discharged from his liability.
Tender of money: where the debtor tenders the money which is to be paid to the creditor
but the debtor refuses to accept the money. The debtor is not discharged from the
lability to pay back the money. Therefore, a tender of money can never result in the
discharge of debt.
Tender of performance
Section 37 to Section 39 specifically deals with the performance of the contract by the
parties thereto. According to Section 37 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 the parties to a
contract are under the obligation to either perform or offer to perform the promises which
have been agreed upon under the contract. Section 2(b) of the Indian Contract Act defines
the meaning of promise as a proposal made by the offeror which has been accepted by the
offeree. Thus, each party is under a legal obligation to perform his obligation which has
been agreed upon under the terms of the contract. Unless the terms of contract expressly
exempts or dispenses the performance of obligation upon the person.
The promises made by the parties to the contract after their death binds their
representatives provided that no contrary intention appears from the terms of the contract.
For example, if there is a contract between two persons ‘A’ and ‘B’ in which A promises to
deliver to B some goods on the payment of a certain amount of money by B on a particular
day. However, if A dies before the completion of contract, in that case, A’s representative
will be bound by the promise made by him and therefore they are under the obligation to
deliver goods to B and B is also under the obligation to pay the specified amount to A’s
representative.
However, in the case where the promise is made with regards to the personal skills and art
of the person then his representative will not be bound by the promise made by him. For
example, in the case where A promised B to make him painting on a specified day for a
certain price. A dies before the performance of the contract. Neither the representatives of
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A are not bound by the promise made by A nor B can compel the representative for the
specific performance of the promise made by A.
In Geo-Group Communications INC v. IOL Broadband Ltd, the parties to the contract signed
an agreement and they fully acted on the terms of the agreements so much so that there
arose no further need for the documents to be executed any further. The agreement was
described as one of the preliminary and tentative drafts made for the purpose of discussion
and deliberation only. When the contract was challenged in the court of law, the court held
that the agreement was valid and it entitles the claimant for relief.
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contract through that deceased party. The Cuttack High Court, however, held that in the
present case, the plaintiff was not able to enjoy the above mentioned legal proposition as
she was unable to prove the existence of the agreement which was alleged by her.
In Hardesh Ores Pvt. Ltd vs. M/S. Hede And Company, the terms of the contract contained a
renewal clause. The party which have the authority in accordance with the terms of the
contract to renew the same exercised it. However, the other party refused to accept the
new terms caused by renewal. The Supreme Court held that in such a case the best course
of action for the party who is empowered by the terms of the contract to renew the terms of
the contract is to get the renewal declared and enforced by the court of law or to get the
declaration of renewal of contract by the court.
Section 38(2): The offer must be made at a proper time and place so as to allow the
party to have a reasonable time for ascertaining that the person who is making the offer
to him is competent to enter into a contract;
Section 38(3): If the offer to the offeree is such as to deliver some goods addressed to
the offeree then it is the duty of the offeror to provide reasonable time to the offeree in
which he can ascertain that the goods offered to him is the same by which the offeror is
bound under the terms of the contract.
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does not follow the terms of the contract which were originally drafted and agreed upon by
the parties, the tender becomes conditional. The reason for making it a necessity is because
of the fact that it is not reasonable to compel a party to accept the modified or altered
terms of contract which were not initially agreed upon by the parties. For example, if A
offers to pay B a certain sum of money if B agrees to sell certain goods to him. It is a
conditional tender and therefore it is invalid. Similarly in a case where A sent a single
cheque for two items, only one of which was due at the time, while the other was payable
after some time. The cheque being one and indivisible could be accepted as whole or not at
all. It was held that the promisee was within his right in rejecting cheque.
In P.L.S.A.R.S., Sabapathi Chetty (Deceased) vs. Krishna Aiyar, the court held that
generally, the parties to the tender of performance fix the time and place. The tender of
performance should mandatorily be made at the time and place stipulated under the
contract. If the performance is made within the stipulated time and place then the promisor
is under no further obligations.
In Startup v. Macdonald, the defendant purchased ten tons of linseed oil to be delivered to
the plaintiff within the last fourteen days of the month of March. The plaintiff tendered the
defendant at night on the fourteenth day. The defendant however citing the lateness of the
tender rejected the acceptance of the tender. The court, in this case, held that the
defendant should be held liable for the breach of the terms of the contract and the
contention made by him that the late acceptance of the tender was made could not be
entertained because, although the acceptance was made late, still the acceptance was
made before midnight.
In Afovos shipping co. v. R Pagnan, an international contract was entered into by the
plaintiff and defendant. The term of the contract provided that the payment which formed
the consideration of the contract should reach on the 14th day of the month, however, the
defendant repudiated the contract before the 14th day of the month. The court held that
the defendant should have delayed the repudiation of the contract till 14th of the month.
Section 138(2) of the Act also provides that the tender must be made under such
circumstances so as to allow the other party to get reasonable opportunity to ascertain that
the person who is making the tender is capable and willing to fulfil all the conditions
mentioned under the contract. Section 138(3) of the Act provides that the goods which are
subjected to tender must be the same as mentioned under the description of the tender
otherwise the tender will be invalid.
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In Dixon v. Clark the court held that the fact that payment was tendered and refused in no
way discharges the debtor from his liability to make good of the payment of a debt.
In Vidya Vati vs. Devi Das, the principle of old standing which was given in the above-
mentioned case was endorsed. The debtor was under the obligation of paying back his loan
in order to recover the vacant possession of his premises and his tender was also rejected.
However, the court held that the debtor was not released from the obligation to pay prior to
his recovery of the possession.
If the terms of the contract indicate that from the very beginning of entering into the
contract the parties to the contract intended specific performance of the promise by the
promisor himself. The effect of reflection of such intention would be that the promise should
essentially be performed by the promisor himself and the promise can not be enforced
against his legal representative nor can his legal representatives can enforce the promise.
This type of situation can usually be seen in cases which involve the personal skills of the
promisor himself.
Generally, the rules laid down under Section 37 is that the promises of the deceased
promisor will bind his representatives. Therefore, the general principle of the law of contract
is that unless there appears a contrary intention in the terms of the contract. The
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representatives of a deceased promisor are bound by the promise of the deceased and the
promises of the deceased are enforceable against his representatives.
In the case of Kapur Chand Godha vs. Mir Nawab Himayatalikhan Azamjah, the court
declared that the English and the Indian law differs substantially on the point of
performance of the contract by the representatives of the deceased promisor, in the British
law system, the rule is that the third party or the representatives of the deceased promisor
could discharge his obligations only in the cases where it is clearly evident from the promise
that it was the intention of the parties while the formation of the promise to bind their
representatives in case any of the promisors dies, in Indian law, however, the position with
respect to the performance of the promise by the representatives of the deceased on
contrary to the English law and the same could be inferred from the words of Section 41 of
the Indian Contract Act, which leave no ray of doubt that in cases where the appellants
expressly declare the intention of the performance of their promise from the third party,
they can not afterwards enforce the promise against the promisor.
According to English law, in a case where one of the several joint promisors dies. The
surviving joint promisor would be bound by the rights and liabilities of the deceased joint
promisors until a single joint promisor is alive the representatives of the promisor will not
acquire any rights or liabilities. This rule is sometimes considered to put the creditor in the
loss as he has no security of solvency of the creditors. This lacuna of the rule is filled by
Section 42 of the Indian Contract Act.
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When two or more persons enter into a joint promise then unless a contrary intention
appears by the contract all promisors during their joint lives and after the death of any of
them their representatives will be bound jointly along with the surviving promisor or
promisors. After the death of all the promisors, the representatives of all the promisors will
be bound by the promise jointly entered into by the deceased promisors.
This Section provides security to the promisee by assuring him that the promisors would be
bound by the promise made by them during their joint life and after the death of either of
the promisor, their representatives will be bound by the promise made by the deceased
promisor.
In Gannmani Anasuya & Ors vs. Parvatini Amarendra Chowdhary, the court held that
Section 42 shifts the burden of the fulfilment of the promise on the representatives of the
deceased promisors. However, this liability is subject to the express or implied prescription
of such provision by the promisors. Such prescription by the promisors could be inferred
expressly or impliedly.
When two or more persons make a joint promise, the promisee may, in the absence of an
express agreement to the contrary, compel, any one or more of the joint promisor to
perform the whole promise.
Each promisor may compel contribution– Each of the two or more joint promisors may
compel every other joint promisor to contribute equally with himself to the performance of
the promise unless a contrary intention appears from the contract.
Sharing of loss by default in contribution– If any one of two or more joint promisors makes
default in such contribution, the remaining joint promisors must bear the loss arising from
such default in equal shares. Section 43 entitles the promisee to claim performance from
anyone or more promisors to compel contribution from the others, and the sharing of loss in
the event of default in contribution. These provisions can be altered by providing to the
contrary in the contract.
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the joint promisors on the ground of lack of his signature or is having agreed at all, can be
enforced against the other who has signed. Neither the minority or insolvency of one joint
promisor affects the liability of the others.
Where one partner, having himself settled a decree against the partnership, sued another
partner for contribution, he could not rely upon s 43 to defeat a plea by the defendant that
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a suit for one item in the account could not be a subject of claim because the partnership
had been dissolved and the suit for accounts of the dissolved partnership was time-barred.
A foreign judgment passed on admission against one joint promisor, who had admitted the
claim after the institution of the suit, would not bar the continuation of the suit against
other joint promisors in the domestic forum.
Co-heirs
Section 43 refers to two or more persons making a joint promise, and there is no
application where parties become jointly interested in the operation of law in a single
person contract. The section therefore does not apply to the case of the original debtor’s
several heirs, and they must all be joined as parties to the suit. Later, a Calcutta High Court
Full Bench decision held that a case of a rented lawsuit against some of the heirs alone
could be upheld, since the court had the power to add parties under O I, r 10, CPC.
In the Absence of Express Agreement- Whether a sales deed by a number of sellers makes
all sellers jointly liable or makes each seller liable for their own share, is a matter of fact
depending on the parties’ intent. The burden of proving that each promoter is not liable
separately under the contract lies on that joint promoter who wishes to resist the suit on
this ground.
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Contribution
The word contribution in s 43 and reimbursement is in s 69 convey two different ideas and
are applicable in two different ideas and applicable in two different circumstances. A
contribution is between persons equally bound, while reimbursement lies between a person
interested in payment and persons bound to pay. Contribution signifies payment by each of
the parties interested in his share in any common liability. Mutuality is the test of
contribution. Under the English law, joint and several debtors have a right of contribution
among themselves based on restitution. Unless a contrary intention appears, the right to
claim contribution is an absolute right, and the courts have no option but to give effect to it.
The question as to whether there is any right of contribution as between persons against
whom a joint decree has been passed depends upon the question whether the defendants,
in the former suit were wrong-doers in the sense that they knew or ought to have known
that they were doing an illegal or wrongful act. In that case, no suit for contribution will lie.
If an act is manifestly unlawful, or the doer of it knows it to be unlawful as constituting
either a civil wrong or a criminal offense, he cannot maintain an action for contribution or
indemnity to him for the commission of such act is also void. Thus, where a decree for costs
against two defendants jointly was executed against one of them, who had set up a false
defense in the suit in collusion with the other, and the former sue the latter for contribution
in Vayangara Vadaka Vittil Manja v. Pariyangot Padingara Kurupath Kadugochen. It was held
that the suit would not lie.
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Default in contribution
Joint promisors are liable to contribute equally unless a contrary intention appears from the
contract. The last paragraph of the Section does not contemplate cases where one of the
joint contributors has not paid and others received the benefits in the original contract in
unequal proportions. The fact that one happens to escape from legal liability to the creditor,
without consent of his associates, and perhaps even without their knowledge, cannot be
allowed to disturb the original obligation between co-debtors or to alter the proportions of
liability or contribution, which must be ascertained from the note at the time it was made as
held in Ramskill v Edwards. If one liable person is not in a position to pay his share, that
amount should be divided equally within the Section between the others, but it was held
that the amount could be divided by the proportion of the benefit each received.
Section 44 of the Indian Contract Act marks a departure from the common law principle in
which the release of one of the promisors from liability tantamounts to the release of the
other promisors from their liability towards the promisee. Unless the promisee expressly
provides for the preservation of rights against them.
We already know that a contract requires a certain set of basic essentials that must be
fulfilled in order to make a contract legally enforceable. But even when the parties to the
contract have fulfilled these essentials, its validity can be questioned if the contract is not
fulfilled in due time and in the manner prescribed in the contract. In all Commercial
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We will now discuss the rules regarding time, place and manner as specified in sections 46-
50 of The Indian Contract Act, 1872.
Here reasonable time means a fair amount of time that is required to do something
conveniently and as soon as the circumstances permit. Hence here time is not important
since a specified date for completion is not mentioned but this does not mean that the
promisee does not have the right to have the contract performed by the promisor.
Also, the term reasonable time depends on the facts and circumstances of the case and will
also depend on the nature of the transaction.
Illustration
Srishti takes a loan of Rs 10,000 from Shivani and says that she will return it to her when
she receives her next salary. Here the reasonable time for performance of the contract is
after Srishti receives her next salary.
In case no specific time is mentioned then the promisor should deliver the goods during the
usual hours of business.
Illustration
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Ankita promised to deliver goods to Ira on an advance payment of Rs 10,000. Ira made the
payment and asked Ankita to deliver the goods on 13th of the same month at her office at
Tis Hazari. Since the time is not specified, she should deliver it between 10 am and 5 pm,
assuming those are the regular court timings.
If Ankita attempts delivery after the business hours, then Ira has the right to not accept the
goods and ask Ankita to deliver again during business hours.
Illustration
Manu agrees to supply Nishant 50 cartons of alcohol on 3rd November at his office. As per
terms of the contract, Nishant would have to request Manu for performance. Thus on the
due date and within usual business hours, Nishant should request Manu regarding a time
and place for the supply of goods.
The place for the performance of goods implies both the delivery and payment of goods.
Illustration
Sheela entered into a contract for supplying 100 cartons of Gram Flour to Anu on 5th
September at a specific price. On the due date of performance, Sheela must apply or
request Anu for determining a reasonable place and also make the payment at the same
place.
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Illustration
Prankur’s son is in the hospital and needs money for his son’s operation. Harshil owes
money to Prankur and agrees to repay him at any place or time decided by Prankur. In this
case, Prankur has the liberty to ask for the performance of the promise in any manner and
at any place or time suited to him.
If an act is not done within the stipulated time, the contract becomes voidable at the
option of the promisee provided the Intention of the parties was that time should be of
the essence of the contract.
Thus whether time was the essence of the contract depends on the intention of the parties
and also on the nature of the contract.
This section says that if it was not the intention of parties to make time of the essence of
the contract, the contract does not become voidable by the failure to perform the
contract on or before the specified time but the promisee is entitled to claim
compensation for any loss caused by the default
Finally, the section goes on to say that if time is intended to be of the essence by the
parties but performance is accepted on some other time other than the time agreed,
compensation cannot be claimed by the promisee unless he gives such a notice to the
promisor.
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In the case of State of Kerala v. M.A Mathai(2007), it was held that if there are any delays
in the performance of reciprocal obligations by an employer, the contractor gets the right to
avoid the contract but if he does not avoid the contract and accepts the belated
performance, he cannot claim compensation for any loss sustained to him due to delay in
performance, unless he gives a notice of the same to the delaying party.
(c) The nature of the property which forms the subject matter of the contract
It has been held in the case of China Cotton Exporters v. Beharilal Ramcharan Cotton Mills
Ltd (1961) that in commercial contracts time is ordinarily of the essence of the contract.
Thus It is ordinarily presumed that except in commercial contracts, time is not of the
essence in other contracts. This presumption can be rebutted by showing the intention of
the parties.
For example, Time is presumed not to be of the essence in contracts relating to immovable
property, but of the essence in contracts of renewal of leases.
In M/S Citadel Fine Pharmaceuticals vs. M/S Ramaniyam Real Estates Pvt. Ltd. and Ors.
(2011), It was held that time was the essence of the contract which was specifically
mentioned in clause 10 and the consequences of non-completion are mentioned in clause 9.
So, from the express terms of the contract and the commercial nature of the transaction
and the surrounding circumstances make it clear that the parties intended time to be of the
essence of the contract.
However, merely specifying the time at which the contract has to be performed does not
make time the essence of the contract. In order to determine this the terms and conditions
of the agreement should be read carefully. If the contract in its terms provides that time is
the essence of the contract, but other terms of the agreement show that the parties did not
intend time to be of the essence, the court has held that time is not of the essence.
For Example, in the Case of Hind Construction Contractors v. State of Maharashtra (1979)
the Appellant entered into a contract with the respondent on July 2, 1955, for some
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construction work with the condition that the contract should be completed within 12
months from the commencement of the work. The Appellant could not complete the work
within the stipulated time and the Respondent canceled the contract with effect from August
16, 1956. The Appellant contended that time was not of the essence and further on account
of several difficulties, such as excessive rains, lack of proper road and means of approach to
the site, the completion was delayed. The Supreme Court, in deciding that time was not of
the essence in relied on two clauses in the contract–
1. First, there was a power to grant an extension of time on reasonable grounds by the
respondent on an application by the appellant. Even though the appellant made an
application for extension, the respondent revoked the contract which was wrong.
These two provisions, as per the court, exclude the inference that time was intended to be
of the essence of the contract.
Extension of time
Since one party to the contract cannot unilaterally vary the terms of the contract, he also
cannot extend the time without the consent of the other party through an agreement,
Therefore, time for performance can be extended only by an agreement arrived at between
the promisor and promisee. Thus if one party requests the other party for extension of time
but the other party does not communicate his acceptance, the time cannot be extended in
such a case.
Section 2(f) of the Indian Contract Act, 1982 talks about what are reciprocal promises.
Reciprocal promises which form are a part of the consideration.
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A can fulfil his promise even if B does not give him the pokemon cards i.e- the absence of
Pokemon cards does not make the performance of his promise impossible. The same goes
for B. Thus while the acts are binding, they are mutually exclusive and are thus
independent of each other.
However, if the contract states the acts must be done in a certain order then that clause
should be upheld.
In Mrs Saradamani Kandappan vs. Mrs S. Rajalakshmi and Ors, Sadarmani was paying for a
piece of land to Rajalakshmi in instalments. Before the payment of the last instalment,
Sadarmani wanted to see the title document Rajalakshmi failed to show it and Saradamani
thus did not pay the last instalment.
Thus, Rajalakshmi terminated the contract. Sadarmani moved to the court and argued that
failure to show the title document was the reason she could not pay the last instalment. The
court ruled that these two promises (the promise to show the title document and the
promise to pay for the last document) were exclusive as Sadarmani could pay the last
instalment without showing the title document. Thus, Sadarmani should have paid the last
instalment.
Conditional
This is when the performance is dependent upon the prior performance of the other party. If
the first party fails to perform his promise, then it will be impossible for the second party to
perform his side of the contract.
Suppose the contract if A promises to give money to B, if B promises to buys Maggi for A. If
A defaults, i.e- he fails to pay B, then it will be impossible for B to hold up his side of the
contract as he won’t be able to buy the Maggi if A does not pay him. Thus, this type of
contract is considered a conditional contract.
In M/s Shanti Builders vs. CIBA Industrial Workers’ Co-Operative Housing Society Ltd., the
defendant, CIBA alleged that they suffered losses as Shanti builders did not do their work
on time. On the other hand, Shanti builders contested they were not given plots of land (as
per payment for construction). Since this plot of land was not given to them, they were not
able to complete construction.
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The court held in favour of Shanti Builders and stated that if the nature of the transaction
states that certain promises must be performed first before others, then that order must be
followed. They also stated that in regards to conditional promises, the first party can not
ask for the performance of the second party without performing their act first.
Concurrent
Here, parties promise to do acts that have to be performed simultaneously. A party will be
exempted from doing their promise if the other party is not ready or willing to do their
promise. Here ‘readiness’ means financial abilities and ‘ willingness’ is perceived through the
action of the party.
For example, P is supplying coats to R. P will only supply the coats if R financially can and is
willing to, and R will only pay if P is willing to and has the goods.
In J.P. Builders vs. A. Ramadas Rao, the court stated the definitions of readiness and
willingness.
Thus, if Ashok and Navya are in a contract, Ashok need not pay for the goods unless Navya
is willing and ready. Similarly, Navya need not give the goods unless Ashok is willing and
ready.
In Pushkarnarayan S. Maheshwari vs. Kubrabai Gulamali, it was held that the burden of
proof is on the Plaintiff to prove that he performed or remained ready and willing to perform
the contract.
For example, if B cannot build a road he promised to build without providing material, then
A’s promised act should be performed first, then B’s.
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For example, Ashok is willing to supply coats to Navya, but on the day of delivery, Navya
does not show up or locks Ashok in his shop; then Ashok can void the contract or collect
compensation.
The second party can also ask for compensation if they face damages due to the non-
performance of the first party.
For example, Aaryan is a carpenter and Sara provides wood. They have a contract that Sara
will provide wood to Aaryan and then he will make a table for her. If Sara refuses to provide
the wood, then she can not expect Aaryan to make the table. If Aaryan faces any loss due
to the fact Sara failed to provide wood, then he can ask for compensation.
If time is not essential to the contract then the promisee can not void the contract, he can
also ask for compensation of losses that were suffered due to the delay.
In M/S Citadel Fine Pharmaceuticals vs. M/S Ramaniyam Real Estates Pvt. Ltd. and Ors.
(2011), it was stated that the intentions of the parties expressed in the contract are
imperative to signal whether the time is of the essence when the nature of the transaction
does not make it very clear.
The conditions that should be satisfied in order to invoke this section are –
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Initial impossibility
This is when the promisor and promisee enter into a contract to do any act which they both
know is impossible to do then the contract is void.
If the promisor promises to do an act that he knows can not be done, then he is liable to
pay compensation for the losses suffered by the promisee due to his incapability to perform
the act.
Thus, Ashok promises to supply Navya a coat made of bear fur. Navya wishes to wear this
coat for a television interview. But, Ashok is aware that it is impossible for him to supply a
bear coat to her in this season, but he still promises to sell her one and enters into a
contract with her. In this situation, Navya can void the contract and can ask compensation
for the losses she suffered.
Subsequent Impossibility
At the time of making the contract, the act might have been possible and lawful, but later
on, it became impossible to do due to some reasons. In this case, the contract becomes
void when the act becomes impossible to do.
Taking from the previous example, at the time that Ashok enters the contract, he will be
able to provide a coat made of bear fur to Navya. But after he enters the contract, the
Government puts a ban on the supply of products made of bear fur. Now Ashok can not
supply Navya with the coat she wanted. Thus, the contract becomes void when the
Government passes the law.
For example, Ashok promises to supply coats to Navya. Navya then promises to sell such
coats on the black market for more profits. Here Ashok’s promise to supply coats to Navya
is valid but Navy’s promise to sell such coats on the black market is invalid.
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For example, Preeti promises to pay back her loan to Rohit. But this loan shall be paid with
black money. Thus, while Preeti’s promise to pay back the loan is valid, the promise to pay
with black money is invalid.
A discharge of a contract by agreement, on the other hand, is when the contract is ended
because the conditions are not fulfilled. However, the involved parties can also terminate a
contract when the primary terms and conditions of the said contract have not been fulfilled.
Essentially, the difference between a discharge of a contract and terminating contract is the
reason why the contract is coming to an end.
Appropriation by debtor
Under Section 59 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, it is stated that if the debtor owes
several debts to the creditor, and makes a payment to any of them and later requests the
creditor to apply the payment to the discharge of a particular debt. If the creditor agrees to
this request, he is bound by such appropriation. This section applies to several distinct
debts and not to a single debt, or to various heads of one debt. This is not applicable where
the debt has merged into a decree. The appropriation may be implied or expressed by the
creditor. The basic idea is that “When money is paid, it is to be applied according to express
the will of the payer and not the receiver. If the party to whom the money is offered does
not agree to apply it according to the will of the party offering it, he must refuse it and
stand upon the rights which the law has given him”
Clayton’s case
In England, it has been considered a basic rule since the case of Devaynes vs. Noble, also
known as Clayton’s case. In this, it was held that the debtor can request the creditor to
appropriate the amount to any of the debt in case he owes to the creditor several and
distinct debts, if the creditor agrees to it, then he is bound by it.
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The debtor should communicate his appropriation either expressly or impliedly, through the
circumstances indicating such intention.
Proof of intention
Intention about the appropriation of the payment by the debtor must be proved by
circumstances. Where the debtor alleges appropriation in a particular manner then he must
prove it. Moreover, entries in the book of the creditor could be considered for the proposed
appropriation by the debtor.
Contract of guarantee
The right to appropriate is available to the debtor and not the surety. A surety is also bound
by the creditor’s appropriation. Also, the surety has no right to insist on the appropriation of
any payment to the guaranteed debt, unless the circumstances of the case are such that
they show such intention.
Appropriation by creditor
Under Section 60, the creditor is also competent for appropriation. If the debtor makes any
payment without any appropriation then the creditor can use his discretion to wipe out any
debt which is due. He may use it for the payment of a time-barred debt or wipe out the
debt which is carrying a lower interest rate. The right of appropriation lies with the creditor
until the last moment, even when he is examined at the trial or before any act which
renders him inequitable for him to exercise this right. The creditor, in this case, has a lot of
scope for exercising his right, he can put himself in the most advantageous position.
Moreover, he need not express himself in express terms while doing so. As long as notice
has not been given in respect of the appropriation of any amount, the creditor can change it
and can appropriate some other claim.
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Lawful debts
The creditor must establish the existence of a lawful debt actually due. Under this section,
the appropriation cannot be made against any unlawful debt. In several cases, it was held
by the court that a creditor can even appropriate an unenforceable debt due to some
defect.
Time-barred debts
The creditor, in the absence of any appropriation by the debtor, can appropriate the amount
of a debt barred by the Limitation Act,1963. This usually happens as the creditor
appropriate the amount to a time-barred debt and sue the debtor for the ones not barred.
However, the amount cannot be appropriated to a debt barred by a statute after an action
has been brought and judgment has been delivered.
As under the common law, the rule that applies is that where the principal and interest has
accrued on a debt, sums paid where interest has accrued must be applied first to the
interest. This rule is based on “common justice” else it would deprive the creditor of the
benefit to which he is entitled under his contract and would be most unreasonable for him.
Appropriation by law
Section 61 is applied in a situation when neither of the parties makes the appropriation. To
settle this deadlock, then the law gets the right to appropriate. In such cases, the debt is
settled in accordance with the order of the time they have incurred. In case all the debts
are of the same time then the debts would be discharged proportionately. Under this
Section not only the express agreement but also the mode of dealing between the parties.
Assignment of contracts
Assignment of contract means the transfer of the contractual rights or liabilities by a party
of the contract to some other person who is not a party to the contract. For Example- A
owes B debt and B owes to C. B can ask A to directly pay the amount to C, and if A agrees
to this, then this will be an assignment of a contract.
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Assignment of liabilities
In an assignment of the contract, it is important to note that the liabilities cannot be
assigned. The promisor has to insist that the responsibility of the performance of the
contract lies on the promisor himself. It becomes more important when the work is of
personal nature and demands personalized skills like painting, singing. The promisor, in that
case, can object to the performance of the contract which is done by some other person
who is not a party to the contract.
Assignment with the consent of other parties, but without the consent of the assignee.
For Example- A and B are party to a contract, they both decided to assign the liabilities on
C, who is a stranger to a contract.
The assignment without the consent of the other party but with the consent of the
assignee i.e. a voluntary assignment.
For Example- A and B are party to a contract, B assigns the liabilities of the contract to C,
who is a stranger to contract, with his consent but without the permission of A.
By operation of law
The operation of law is another mode of a valid assignment of any contractual liabilities to a
stranger. Such assignment is also called an ‘involuntary assignment’ or an ‘automatic
assignment’ of contractual burdens or obligations. Such assignment may take place in the
following circumstances:
4. On winding up of a company.
Assignment of rights
The rights are assignable under a contract unless the contract is personal in nature or the
rights are incapable to be assigned either by law or under any contract that is entered by
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the parties. The intention regarding the assignment of the rights needs to be gathered from
the nature of the agreement or from the prevailing circumstances.
Even when there is no prohibition as to the assignment of the rights, but if the court from
the facts of the case determines that there are various personal obligations under the
contract, hence the rights under this cannot be assigned.
One of the leading authorities is the decision of the Supreme Court in the case of Khardah
vs. Raymon, in this case, the dispute arose because of a contract for the purchase of mill by
a Pakistani jute dealer who failed to supply the goods as agreed. The court held that the
contract for the purchase of the foreign jute was not assignable because the goods had to
be imported from under the license which was not transferable. The other question which
was put up was whether the dealer could assign his rights to that price on the delivery of
the goods. The court accepted that there is nothing personal about the sale of goods.
Moreover, it is established that the arbitration clause does not take away the right of the
party to assign if it is otherwise assignable. In fact, the rights of the seller also do not
obstruct the assignability of the contract. In the case, there was no provision in the contract
which prohibits the assignment. The court stated that in the law there is a clear distinction
between the assignment of the rights under a contract by the party who has performed the
contract and his obligations, and the assignment of a claim for compensation which one
party has against the other party for the breach of contract. The latter is just a claim of
damages that can not be assigned in law, the former is the benefit under the agreement,
which is capable of assignment.
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Consideration
The assignment requires some form of consideration from the assignor to the assignee. In
the absence of any consideration between them, the assignment will be revocable. But
when an assignment is made by way of gift, by following all the essential conditions of a
gift, then it can not be revoked. In order to make a voluntary settlement valid, the settlor
must do everything, which according to the nature of the property was necessary to do in
order to transfer the property.
Subject to equities
The title of the assignee is subject to all the equities that exist or arise up to the time when
the notice of assignment is given to the debtor. (for instance, A is the assignor, B is the
assignee and C is the debtor).The assignee would not be affected by the equity of personal
nature between the assignor and the assignee. For example, the right to claim damages for
the fraud committed by the assignor cannot be used to defeat the right of the assignee.
Notice of assignment
Notice of assignment should be given to the debtor. This is very useful as it binds the
debtor. If the notice is not given then the debtor could make the payment of the assignor
himself and will get discharged. Moreover, if notice is given then the assignment would not
be affected by any equity that may arise. Moreover, if the notice is paid to the assignor who
has many assignments then, in that case, the notice is given to him at that point of time,
then that assignment will have priority over others even if it was received later.
Discharge by agreement
Discharge of a contract means to end a contract. Discharge of the contract can take place
through:
By Performance;
By agreement or by consent;
By breach of contract;
By impossibility of performance;
By death;
By operation of law.
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The parties to a contract are free to alter or rescind the entire term of the contract.
Novation or modification can happen in the same manner as that of the conclusion of the
contract. If one party proposes a novation and the other party accepts it but in a qualified
manner, then it will not amount to novation. A mutual abandonment, cancellation, or
rescission must be clearly expressed. Novation or modification is affected only when all the
parties agree to it. The substituted contract needs to be enforceable just like the original
contract. In case the new contract is not enforceable then the original contract would be
operative. In such cases, the consideration would be the release of the existing contract for
a promise to undertake a new contract.
The word ‘novation’ literally means to replace with a new contract and the same obligations
are performed by different parties. Under novation, the liabilities under the existing contract
are extinguished. The doctrine of novations is recognized under Section 62 of the Indian
Contract Act, 1872. Every contract can be novated and novation can be effective only when
there is a new contract and not a new agreement. Hence, mere agreement to substitute the
existing contract will not be binding unless it has been accepted and executed mutually by
all the parties. A new contractual obligation arises when parties novate a contract.
When a contract is novated, the original contract ceases to exist and the parties have to
follow the new contract. Section 62 of the Indian Contract Act states that “if the parties to
the contract agree to substitute a new contract for it or to rescind it or alter it, the original
contract need not to be performed.”
The basic requirement of Section 62 was discussed by the Supreme Court in the case of
Lata Construction & Ors v. Dr. Rameshchandra Ramniklal Shah, novation requires a
complete substitution of a new contract in place of the old one and only in that condition
the original contract does not have to be performed. The new substituted contract should
rescind or completely alter the terms of the original contract. In Ramdayal v. Maji Devdiji,
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the court observed that novation takes place by introducing new terms in the contract or by
introducing new parties. A contract of novation requires a party to agree to extinguish or
discharge his obligation or debt. Unless this has been accomplished there can be no
novation. Therefore the test is to know whether the parties intended to enter into a new
contract between them or not.
For novation to take effect, modification to the contract must go to the root of the original
contract and change its essential character as held by the Calcutta High Court in the case of
Juggilal Kamlapat v. NV Internationale.
Examples:
1. In a partnership firm, the liabilities of an old firm are taken over by the new firm.
2. A lease agreement, where the tenant gives the lease to another party and makes him
responsible for the obligations and responsibility arising from the lease agreement.
3. John owes 2 lakh rupees to Ram under a contract, Ram owes David 2 lakh rupees. Ram
asked John to pay 2 lakh rupees to David in his place, but David does not agree and
neither gives her consent to the agreement. Therefore, Ram still owes David 2 lakh
hence, there is no new contract to enter.
Where the obligation under a contract is replaced with a new one, and
In the case of RS Amarnath Mehra v. Union of India, the court observed that calling of fresh
rates at a lower price will not amount to a new contract. If a contract consists of a number
of terms and conditions then it does not mean that each term or condition is a separate
contract.
Similarly, in the case of Ramji Dayawala & Sons (P) Ltd v. Invest Import, the Apex Court
held that a contract having a number of parts should have been assented by the contracting
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parties in the same manner and in the same sense, that is, it should have consensus ad
idem.
For instance: if A and B are parties to a contract, and A agrees to replace C in B’s place,
then the existing contract between A & B will cease to exist.
The difference between novation and assignment is minimal but important and is discussed
in the table below:
Sr.
Novation Assignment
no
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Intention of parties
All the parties to the contract have to agree to the new terms of the substituted contract. A
novation contract will be ineffective when there is an absence of intention between the
parties to alter, rescind or substitute a contract. In T.S. Duraiswami Aiyar And Ors. vs
Krishnier, the court observed that substitution of one contract with another clearly depends
upon the intention of the parties. Similar observations were made in the case of Calcutta
Insurance, Madras vs Thirumalai Animal And Ors. and National Insurance Co. Ltd. v.
Thirumalai Ammal And Ors.
Alteration of contract
Alteration of contract means the modification of the terms of the contract with the consent
of both the parties. The elements of the alteration are:
When the instrument which has been altered does not itself contain the obligations of the
parties but is to be relied upon by them for the purpose of carrying out the contract, the
alteration does not necessarily operate to discharge the parties from their underlying
obligations. The effect of alteration of contract is that the new contract is formed and both
the parties have to follow the rules of the new contract. It is essential to have assent of
both the parties when the contract is altered. Also, in alteration of contract parties do not
change. If parties decide to alter or modify the terms of the contract, then it is necessary
that the alteration of the contract should be done either by express agreement or by
necessary implication which would negate the application of the doctrine of acceptance sub
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silentio. In the case of Satya Pal Anand v. State of Madhya Pradesh and Ors., it was stated
that any novation, rescission and alteration of contract, can be made only through
bilaterally and with the amicable consent of both the parties. The terms and conditions of a
contract may be altered but cannot be done unilaterally unless there exists any provision in
the contract, or in any law, or there is an implied acceptance through silence. In the case of
Suresh Kumar Wadhwa v. State of Madhya Pradesh, it was stated that the party to the
contract has no right to unilaterally alter the terms and conditions of the contract and nor
they have the right to add any additional terms and conditions unless both the parties agree
to alter such terms in the contract. In the alteration of contract, the liability of the parties in
the original agreement is extinguished and the parties become bound by the new altered
agreement.
Material alteration
An alteration is material which affects the substance of the contract expressed in the
document or which alters the legal effect of the document, which affects the document
itself, at all events where identification may be important in the ordinary course of business.
The alteration is not material if they merely express what was already implied in the
document or add particulars consistent with the document as it stands. In the Pigot’s case,
it was stated that the material alteration of a document by a party to it after its execution
without the consent of the other parties renders it void and the alteration is not material.
Material alteration must depend upon the nature of the instrument as also upon the
changes. If the alteration causes the contract to operate it differently from the original, then
it is said to be material alteration. An instrument is not discharged by an immaterial
alteration. The alteration is said to be immaterial when it does not alter the legal effect of
the instrument or impose a greater liability on the promisor. Immaterial alteration does not
affect the rights and liabilities under a writing, irrespective of the person by whom the
alteration was made or his purpose in making it. Also, alteration made by adding or
changing a statement of the consideration does not ordinarily change the legal effect of an
obligation is considered as immaterial. In the Pigot’s case, it was held by Coke that when
any deed is altered by any stranger then the deed is said to be void. The alteration is said
to be immaterial if the alteration in a deed is signed by the parties before its execution so
far as those who have signed have not affected their interests.
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Burden of proof
The burden of proof lies on the promisor that the promise has made the alteration in the
contract without the consent of the promisor. But if it is proved that the contract is altered
then the burden shifts to the promisee and the promisee has to show that the alteration
made is not improper.
In business, the parties to a contract can alter some parts of the contract as well as the
whole contract with the consent of both the parties. If two companies or business entities
merge, then a new contract is formed and if the merged companies want to bring some
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change in the business then they have to make changes in the clauses of the contract
through alteration. If there are more than two parties in an agreement, then every party
has to pass information to another party independently. In English law, the employers are
allowed to alter the contract which is signed by the employee when he joins the firm.
In India, the Indian Contract Act does not allow the employers to alter the employment
contract. It is stated in the case of LIC and Ors. v. Sunil Kumar Mukherjee an Ors that the
employee of an insurer whose controlled business has been transferees and vested in the
Corporation and who is employed by the insure wholly or mainly shall continue to work
unless his employment in the Corporation is terminated or until his remuneration, terms
and conditions are duly altered by the Corporation. On March 26, 2013 M.P Power
Management Company had filed a petition to review the tariff orders and amend the power
purchase agreement (PPA). As the PPA was between the petitioners and the generators and
it was noted that the review was not empowered by the generators. It was stated that the
PPA will be altered only through the mutual consent of both the parties. Now-a-days, many
industries are getting into the Blockchain system so that there is transparency between the
parties in the industry such as manufacturing, logistics, transportation, retailers, and
customers. But if these parties come together on a blockchain then they are considered to
be a part of the same transaction. Any change in the delivery and supply contracts cannot
be made without the entire chain of business agreeing to alter agreements.
Rescission
Section 62 of the Indian Contract Act also permits the parties to rescind their contract. The
Supreme Court allowed the parties to rescind under this section a contract for sale of forest
coupes because of substantial variance between the particulars of quantity and quality of
timber held out at the time of the auction and the timber actually available. The contractor
was allowed to refund his deposit. But no compensation was allowed to him for his loss
because the contract contained a clause against compensation in such circumstances. This
was decided in the famous case law, namely Syed Isar Masood v State of MP.
When an old contract is rescinded and is replaced by a new one, the old one will not revive
only for the reason that there has been a failure to keep the new promise. The parties may,
however, by mutual consent, restore the original and then the original will revive and
become binding on the parties.
No form is required by Section 19 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 for recession. It is
sufficient under Section 66 that the communication is communicated in the same manner
and is subject to the same rule as if it were a proposal. Notice of recession to an agent is
notice to the principal. A declaration of recession before commencing any proceedings is not
necessary as a matter of law, though, generally speaking, the prudent course is to
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repudiate as soon as possible after knowing the facts and rights to rescind else, the contract
remains valid, and may expose such party to damage for breach of contract.
The process of recession is essentially the act of the party rescinding, and not of the court,
although, it is common to speak of a court ‘setting aside’ or rescinding a contract. A decree
of recession brings a suit to set aside the contract. A decree of a recession may become
essential where a property has been transferred on the execution of a deed. The Specific
Relief Act, 1963 provides Section 27 to Section 30 for a recession by the court.
Recession as a defence
The will to rescind may also be declared by way of defence to an action brought on the
contract. If a suit is brought by a party to enforce a contract, the defrauded party can pray
for avoiding the contract in his written statement being well within the period of limitation,
and it is not necessary for him to bring the suit to avoid the contract. His defence cannot be
defeated by the lapse of time. The innocent party may raise the defence of entitling him to
recession in a suit for specific performance, which is enabled by Section 9 of the Specific
Relief Act.
Guilty party
If only one party acts fraudulently, he cannot be allowed, as plaintiff or defendant,to plead,
or adduce evidence in support of his fraud. Where one party forms an agreement
erroneously, and the other party, knowing of the error, acts fraudulently, the latter cannot
be allowed to take advantage of the error and enforce it. Where both the parties have acted
fraudulently, the courts will refuse to enforce the fraudulent transaction. Here, the plaintiff’s
suit will be dismissed; and the defendant who suppresses the fraud, cannot plead and prove
it to defeat the plaintiff’s claim.
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that equity permits a court to order partial rescission of a contract induced by fraudulent
misrepresentation.
In contrast, under the UNIDROIT principles, where the ground of avoidance affects only
individual terms of the contract, the effect of avoidance can be limited to individual terms of
the contract, unless it would, in the circumstances, be reasonable to uphold the remaining
contract. The test is not just of severability but also of reasonableness.
Mutual Consent
If the parties agree to rescind the contract, a separate written document should indicate
their intent and consent. In cases where only one party wishes to withdraw from the
contract, it must give the appropriate written notification of the legal ground on which the
withdrawal will be requested and a court may have to determine if the withdrawal can be
done.
If the contract cannot be rescinded under state or federal law, the person may attempt to
negotiate a rescission with the other party. Any contract may be rescinded by mutual
agreement, even if it is not allowed by the contract itself.
The rescinding party must determine whether there are legal grounds for rescission, such
as error, fraud, or coercion. Finally, a written rescission notice must be given to the other
party, after which the parties may negotiate a mutual rescission, or either party may file a
civil lawsuit.
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Mistake
If a party has entered into the agreement on the grounds of reliance on or belief in an
erroneous fact or a mistake of law, a contract may be rescinded. Rescission based on the
error of fact may be permitted if the effect of the error causes a change in the intent of the
contractor, making the enforcement of the contract unconscionable.
Rescission from an error of law may be granted if a party is aware of the true facts of the
contract, but is mistaken as to the legal ramifications of those facts. There is an error of law
only if
1. all parties believe that they know the law as it relates to the contract but are mistaken,
or
2. one party misunderstood the law at the time it was entered into the contract and the
other party fails to correct the other party’s misunderstanding.
Fraud
Some types of fraud support a recession and the fraud can be real or constructed. Real
fraud occurs where one party misrepresents something to mislead the other party.
Constructive fraud occurs when one party engages in misleading behavior without
attempting to defraud the other party. When fraud of either type occurs, the innocent party
may terminate the contract as it enters into the contract on the basis of facts that were not
true.
An individual can not be forced under threat of harm, coercion, or other hostile influence to
enter into a contract. When considering whether to grant a rescission on the basis of force,
coercion or undue influence, the adequacy of the consideration granted to the rescinding
party shall be taken into account.
The judgment of the Madras High Court, on the contrary, held in SNR Sundara Rao v.
Income Tax Commissioner[1] that the invalid contract, when avoided in the case of the
party affected by it, took effect from the date of the transaction and not when it was
avoided, was not in the case of a contract involving third party rights. The question under
the Income Tax Act 1961 was whether tax was payable from the date on which the father’s
trust deeds as a Karta of joint properties were declared void by a court decree or from the
date on which the transaction took place. It was held that from the later stage it was so. An
alienation that is perfect until it is set aside.
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There is a substitution by implication of law for the primary obligation of the party in
default, which remains unperformed, where there is a secondary obligation to pay monetary
compensation to the other party for the loss sustained by him in consequence of non-
performance in the future. The unperformed primary obligation of the other party is
discharged.
Under the Contract Act, a voidable contract, when avoided, has been held to become void.
When a voidable contract is rescinded, the other party need not perform his outstanding
obligation under the contract. The party rescinding the contract must restore the benefit
received under the contract to the other party. Any party receiving anything under the
contract is liable to restore it or make compensation for it to the other person from whom it
has been received.
Under this Act, the party is entitled to avoid, but insisting on performance, can be awarded
damages, in lieu of performance or enforcement and is entitled to restitution under Section
65, if he elects to rescind it. It does not expressly provide for damages on a recession
unless the provisions of Section 75 are interpreted to extend the contracts voidable under
Section 19 and 19A, but damages have been awarded under the law of torts.
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A third party has already received some benefit from the contract.
The requesting party has committed some mistake in relation to the contract (referred to
as “unclean hands”).
The requesting party has unnecessarily delayed the request for rescission, resulting in
some prejudice to the other party.
Rescission happens when the parties Novation occurs when the parties
1 agree to cancel or terminate the substitute the old contract with a new
contract. one.
Waiver
Waiver signifies “Surrendering” the rights. At the point when involved with the agreement
relinquishes or postpones his rights, the agreement is released. Here, both the gatherings
commonly concur that they will never again be bound by the agreement. It adds up to an
arrival of gatherings from their legally binding commitments.
What is a waiver?
Waiver implies an individual surrendering a few or the majority of their legitimate rights
under an agreement. There is more than one path by which a privilege might be postponed,
and a waiver can happen either deliberately or unexpectedly.
This happens where a gathering explicitly consents to surrender their lawful rights. Such an
understanding will tie given the ordinary prerequisites of an agreement have been met.
Instances of this sort of waiver incorporate settlement or bargain understandings, varieties
to a current contract, or another agreement supplanting a more seasoned one.
This applies where a rupture of the agreement has happened and the “honest party” has a
decision between two elective rights or cures. Waiver by race, as a rule, happens where the
agreement contains an express right or alternative to end or repeal it in specific
circumstances, or where one gathering submits a genuine rupture which gives the
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“blameless” party the privilege to end the agreement right away. In such cases, the
“honest” party may pick either to end the agreement promptly or to forgo the rupture and
proceed with the agreement.
Merger
An agreement additionally stands released through a merger that happens when a
substandard right accumulating to party in an argument amalgamates into the better right
resulting than a similar gathering. For example, contracts an industrial facility premises
from B for assembling movement for a year, yet 3 months in front of the expiry of rent buys
that very premises. Presently since A has turned into the proprietor of the structure, his
rights related with the rent (substandard rights) in this manner converge into the privileges
of possession (unrivaled rights). The past rental contract stops. In certain circumstances, it
is conceivable that substandard and predominant right corresponds in a similar individual.
In such cases, both the rights join prompting a release of the agreement administering the
sub-par rights.
If, while riding on a train, a shoe shiner comes, and without us saying anything, starts to
polish our shoes and when they’re done, they ask for some money. Are we obliged to pay
them that amount? Or can we tell them “I did not ask you to polish my shoe anyway!”.
Imagine another situation, where someone else’s Amazon package, with its payment
already done, is left at your door. Do you become all excited and say “YAY! Free Gifts!” or
do you make an effort to find the owner or return the package? This blog post will give you
answers to similar questions.
There are certain obligations, specified in the Indian Contract Act, that are not actually
contracts because they miss one or the other elements of a contract, but are still
enforceable in a court of law. Such obligations are called Quasi-contractual obligations. Each
of them has been talked about separately in Sections 68 to 72 (Chapter V) of the Indian
Contract Act, 1872. Let us first look where these obligations arise from, and then discuss
each of them separately.
Background
It is first important to note that a contract before it becomes so, is an agreement.
Therefore, where there is no agreement, there is no contract. Yet, there are some
obligations that do not have their origin in an agreement. The obligation not to harm
another person or his property (Torts), for instance, the judgments or orders of courts,
quasi-contractual obligations, etc. These obligations are not ‘contracts’ by definition, but
they are enforceable in a court of law.
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Quasi-contract
The obligation arising out of a quasi-contract was first recognized by the English law. The
Indian Contract Act, 1872 also follows the same elements which are followed by the English
Contract Act. There is no definition given for quasi-contract in the Indian Contract Act. But
the Act states that in the case of a quasi-contract, certain relations are created which are
very similar to contracts. But quasi-contract can be defined as a set of rights and liabilities
between the parties even when there is no formal contract. The law creates this obligation
to maintain justice and fairness between the parties. The law does not allow one person to
enrich himself at the expense of the other. If the rights and obligations are not created
(quasi-contract) one party would be unjustly enriched. Going by this, it can be said that a
quasi-contract is kind of a remedy instead of being a pure contract. Formation of a quasi-
contract allows the aggrieved party to recover the benefit which the enriched party has
taken at his expense. Since a quasi-contract is a law made by law, there is no statement of
consent between the parties. The obligation and rights which are placed on the shoulder of
the parties are rather by law than by assent.
Many times, a situation may arise where a legal obligation is placed on a person to uphold
justice, even though the person has not committed any tortious activity or has broken any
contract.
For instance, X forgets some goods at Y’s place. Y’s is under a legal obligation to restore
the goods to Y. this goes on to show that Y cannot enrich himself at the expense of X. such
kinds of obligations are described as Quasi-contractual Obligation. They are not actual
contracts in which the parties agree to enter, but are fictional agreements which are created
between the parties by law so as to ensure equity.
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Features of a quasi-contract
One of the main features of a quasi-contract is that there is no mutual consent between the
parties. Quasi-contracts are often confused with implied-in-fact (or implied contract). The
difference between a quasi-contract and an implied contract is that in the case of an implied
contract even if there is no written statement of the fact that the parties want to enter into
a contract, their actions and conduct imply that they have mutually agreed to enter into a
contract.
For example, P goes to a restaurant for dinner. The owner of the restaurant expects that P
will pay for his food. P also knows that he’ll have to pay for the food which will be provided
to him. Thus, the actions of the parties signify that they’ve mutually agreed to enter into an
agreement, even though the agreement is not a written one.
Their origin does not lie in the offer and its acceptance, that is, in an agreement between
the parties.
They are rather based on justice, equity, and a good conscience and on the principles of
natural justice.
For instance, Joe is a Zamindar. Annie holds one of his lands on lease in Punjab. The
revenue of Joe’s land is payable to the government in arrears. So, the land ends up being
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advertised for sale by the government. According to the Revenue Law, if the land is sold, it
will end Annie’s lease. To prevent this sale, Annie pays Joe’s dues to the government. Joe is
bound to pay back to Annie.
1. The party paying the other party’s dues is interested in the payment.
2. The party whose payment is due was in fact bound by law to pay.
A gratuitous act is one that is done for a person by another without the expectation of a
return. For example, giving someone a gift is a gratuitous act. Here comes your Amazon
package delivered to the wrong address. A pack of chocolate chip cookies that you ate as
soon as they arrived. You are liable to compensate the actual owner of the package. The
illustration of a shoe-shiner unsolicitedly polishing one’s shoes or that of the coolie picking
up one’s goods will lie under Section 70. Such acts and services are not done gratuitously
and therefore a liability to pay back arises on the part of the person on the receiving end.
2. He/she has a duty not to use the goods for his personal purposes.
3. He/she has a duty not to mix the found goods with his own goods.
4. He/she has a duty to make reasonable efforts to find the actual owner of the goods.
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1. Right to Lien– The right to retain the goods found until he receives compensation for all
the expenses suffered in finding the owner.
2. Right to Sue– If the owner has announced a reward for whoever finds the good, the
finder has the right to sue the owner for such reward or retain the goods until he is
compensated.
3. Right to Sell– The finder of goods has the right to sell the goods in certain specific
circumstances, for example:
2. ii) If the owner is found but refuses to pay compensation or the lawful charges of the
finder.
iii) If the goods are in immediate danger of perishing if not used.iv) If the lawful charges of
the finder amount to two-thirds of the value of goods.
The section also uses the term ‘coercion’. Here is an example of something delivered under
coercion- A railway company refuses to deliver goods to a certain consignee except upon
the payment of a certain illegal sum of money. The consignee pays the sum to obtain his
goods. The company is liable to return the sum of money illegally charged.
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In words of Keener, A quasi-contract is one which has been implied by the law, and it
denotes the nature of evidence through which the aggrieved party can claim restitution.
Though the party who has been enriched would not set out to assume any obligation, the
law will impose it. In an express contract, both the parties have equal interests, but in the
case of a quasi-contract, the contract comes into being because the interest of one party is
affected.
Breach of contract
A contract is breached or broken when any of the parties fails or refuses to perform its
promise under the contract.Breach of contract is a legal cause of action in which a binding
agreement is not honored by one or more parties by non-performance of its promise by him
renders impossible.
Section 37 of the Indian Contract Act,1872 provides that the parties to the contract are
under obligation to perform or offer to perform their respective promises under the
contract, unless such performance is dispensed with or excused under the provisions of the
Indian Contract Act or of any other law.
According to Section 39, where the party has refused to perform or disabled himself from
performing his promise in its entirety, the other party may put an end to the contract, ,
unless that other party has expressly or impliedly signified its consent for the continuance
of contract. If the other party chooses to put an end to the contract, the contract is said to
be broken and amounts to breach of contract by the party not performing or refusing to
perform its promise under the contract. This is called repudiation. Thus repudiation can
occur when either party refuses to perform his part or makes it impossible for him to
perform his part of contract in each of the cases in such a manner as to show an intention
not to fulfil his part of the contract.
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If a dispute arises over a contract and informal attempts at resolution fail, the next most
common step is a lawsuit. The parties may be able to resolve the issue in the Court of Small
Claims if the amount concerned is below a specific rupees figure.
Not only are courts and formal lawsuits the option for people and enterprises involved in
contract disputes, but the parties may also agree to review the contractual argument by a
mediator or may agree to resolve a contractual dispute through arbitration. These are two
“alternative dispute settlement” options.
Material violations
If a Party does not do what it says in the contract, this leads to its destruction and makes
that Party liable for violating the contractual damages. You may have the right to sue it, but
only for “actual damages.” In the context of the Contract Restatement, the following must
be shown to determine if a material breach happened:
How much the injured party can be paid according to the terms of the contract.
How badly the other party broke the terms of the contract.
How likely the other party will be able to perform the failed terms depending on his or
her circumstances.
How the other party acts in good faith and fair dealing standards.
Fundamental breach
One party can sue the other party for breaking the terms and possibly terminate the
contract.
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Actual breach
If a party fails, by the due date, to do what the terms say it will be an actual breach of a
contract.
Anticipatory breach
If one party ceases to fulfil its portion of the contract, which suggests that the agreement
remains incomplete. For example, refusal of payment, lack of a product ordered, or the fact
that one or more parties can not or will not fulfil their part of the deal. The violator may be
sued and the other party may conclude the contract.
Both actual and anticipatory breaches can waste time and money.
An infringement is a matter if something substantially different from that set out in the
agreement is received by the other party because the violator does not fulfil a certain
aspect of the contract. For instance, when a tennis ball box is sold in the contract and a
football box is given to the buyer, the violation will be material. When an infringement is
material, the non-infringement party is no longer required under the contract and
immediately entitled to any remedies for the entire contract being infringed.
Case laws
Revelations Perfume and Cosmetics Inc. v. Prince Rogers Nelson
The company Revelations Perfume and Cosmetics sued the famous musician “Prince” and
his music label in 2008, seeking $100,000 in damages for reneging on an agreement to
help market their perfumes. In his 2006 album “3121,” the flamboyant pop star promised
personal promotion of a new fragrance named by the company, and to allow the packaging
of its name and likeness, Prince of the Nation.
Revelations asked the court to award more than $3 million in lost profits as well as punitive
damages in its breach of contract complaint. However, the judge did not find any evidence
that the pop star was acting with malicious intent and ordered him to pay almost $4 million
in out of pockets for the cosmetics company. Revelations’ petition has been denied for
damages to punitive and loss of profit.
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Macy’s department stores filed a breach of contract complaint against Martha Stewart Living
Omnimedia for signing an agreement with J.C. Penney was set up in February 2013 to
create Martha Stewart retail stores in their retail stores. J.C. before the deal for $38.5
million, Penney bought a minority stake in Steward’s company. Martha Stewart’s retailers
were to carry home goods, but Macy’s argued that it had been accorded exclusive rights to
manufacture and sell certain Martha Stewart Living products in a 2006 agreement.
Macy’s asked the court to grant a preliminary injunction to stop Steward from breaching the
contract while the court considered the matter. J.C. was ruled by a New York judge in June
2014 twelve years later. In fact, Penney had passed Macy’s domestic diva contract in an
attempt to sell products with her name. During the J.C. The contract was invalidated by
Penney, and no immediate financial breach of contractual damage was reached and the
legal fee and the cost of the proceedings may be limited, as the judge ruled that the case
had no cause for punitive harm.
Compensation for failure to discharge obligations similar to those created by the contract.
If an obligation similar to what was created in the contract has not been discharged, any
person who fails to discharge is entitled to receive the same compensation from the party in
default as if that person had contracted to discharge it and had broken his contract.
Explanation
In estimating the loss or damage resulting from the breach of a contract, consideration
must be given to the means that existed to remedy the inconvenience caused by the non-
performance of the contract.
Illustration
‘A’ contract to repair B’s house in a certain way and receive the money in advance. ‘A’
repairs the house, but not according to the contract. ‘B’ is entitled to recover the cost of
making the repairs conform to the contract from ‘A’.
‘X’, the owner of a boat, contracts with ‘Y’ to take a cargo of jute to Mirzapur for sale at that
place, starting on a given day. The boat does not start at the appointed time because of
some unavoidable cause, whereby the arrival of the cargo at Mirzapur is delayed beyond the
time it would have arrived if the boat had sailed under the contract. After that date, the
price of jute falls and before the cargo arrives. The measure of the compensation payable to
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‘Y’ by ‘X’ is the difference between the price ‘B’ could have obtained for the Mirzapur cargo
at the time it was delivered in due course and its market price at the time it actually
arrived.
Nominal damages
If the defendant is found liable for breach of contract, the plaintiff is entitled to nominal
damages even if no actual damage is proven. Nominal damages are awarded if there is an
infringement of a legal right and if it does not give the rise to any real damages, it gives the
right to a verdict because of the infringement.
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The defendant committed a technical breach and the plaintiff himself did not intend to
execute the contract;
The complainant fails to prove the loss he may have suffered as a result of the contract
breach;
He has suffered actual damage, not because of the defendant’s wrongful act, but
because of the complainants’ own conduct or from an outside event;
The complainant may seek to establish the infringement of his legal rights without being
concerned about the actual loss. Where there is no basis for determining the amount.
The view that nominal damage does not connote a trifling amount is erroneous; nominal
damage means a small sum of money. Nominal damages have been defined as a sum of
money that can be spoken of, but which does not exist in terms of quantity.
Where the loss is small and quantifiable, the damages awarded, although small, are not
nominal damages.
If the market rate on the date of the breach is not proven, the plaintiff shall be entitled to
nominal damages. However, the fact that the buyer does not sustain any actual loss as a
result of the seller’s failure to deliver the goods is no reason to award the buyer nominal
damage.
Substantial damages
In cases where an offense is proven, many authorities may claim substantial damages even
if it is not only difficult but also impossible to calculate the damages with certainty or
accuracy. In all these cases, however, the extent of the breach has been established. There
was a complete failure to perform the contract on one side. However, where the breach is
partial and the extent of the failure is determined, only nominal damage is awarded. The
plaintiff who can not show that after the breach he would have had the contract performed,
he is in a worse financial position, usually, recovering only nominal damages for breach of
contract.
Where a defendant refuses to accept goods sold or manufactured for him, the plaintiff sells
them to a third party on the same terms as the defendant agreed and makes a similar
profit, the plaintiff shall be entitled to nominal damages if the demand exceeds the supply
of similar goods; but if the supply exceeds the demand, the plaintiff shall be entitled to
recover his loss of profit on the defendant’s contract.
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Where the motives, conduct or manner of inflicting the injury on the defendant may have
aggravated the damage to the plaintiff by injuring his proper feelings of dignity and pride,
the damages awarded to compensate the plaintiff would be aggravated. These are awarded
in tort, but not in a contract because the motives and conduct of the defendant are not to
be taken into account when assessing damages and it is not to be awarded in respect of
feelings of disappointment or injury; they are too remote. Thus, if an employee is wrongly
dismissed from his job, the damages payable to him will not include compensation for the
manner in which he is dismissed, for his injured feelings, or for the loss that he may suffer
from the fact that the dismissal of himself makes it more difficult for him to obtain fresh
employment.
Where, under the terms of the contract, the purchaser was entitled to claim damages at the
agreed rate if the goods were not delivered before the fixed date and if they were not
delivered within seven days of the fixed date, the purchaser was entitled to cancel the
contract and pay guarantee amount to the bank, but the goods were delivered within the
extended period. It was held that the buyer was only entitled to claim damages at the
agreed rate and that the banking guarantee confiscation clause could not be invoked as the
contract was not cancelled.
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Harm to persons through physical injury, disabilities, loss of enjoyment, loss of comfort,
inconvenience or disappointment, injured feelings, vexation, mental distress, loss of
reputation.
Injury to an economic position which is the amount by which the plaintiff is worse off
than he would have been performed, and would include loss of profits, expenses
incurred, costs, damages paid to third parties, etc.
Another term incidental loss refers to the loss incurred by the complainant after he became
aware of the breach and made to avoid the loss, i.e. the cost of buying or hitting a
replacement or returning defective goods.
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The defendant is only liable for reasonably foreseeable losses- those who would have
reason to foresee the likelihood of future infringement if a normally prudent person in his
place had this information when contracting.
The remoteness of damage is a matter of fact, and the only guidance that the law can give
is to lay down general principles.
The principle governing the remoteness of damages was elaborated in the landmark case of
Hadley v. Baxendale. The rules stated in this case were that a party injured by a breach of
contract could recover only those damages which were either to be considered “reasonably
as arising naturally, i.e., according to the usual course of things” from the breach, or could
reasonably have been considered by both parties at the time they entered into the contract
as the likely result of the breach. This is the basis for understanding special damages. In
this case, the Court acknowledged that the defendant’s failure to send the crankshaft for
repair was the only cause for the plaintiffs’ mill to stop, resulting in loss of profits.
No compensation shall be given to any remote and indirect loss or damage sustained by
reason of breach.
An obligation resembling those created by contract has been incurred and has not been
discharged, any person affected by the failure to discharge it is entitled to receive the same
compensation from the party in default as if such person had contracted to discharge it and
had broken his contract.
Compensation for loss or damage which naturally arose in the usual course of things from
such breach
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Compensations to be recovered for loss or damage which the parties knew or which would
have naturally arisen in the usual course, to be likely to result from the breach of it.
An uncommonly known fact is that Section 73 is based on a case law, i.e. Hadley v.
Baxendale (1854) 9 Ex. 354
The well-known rule in this case was stated by the Court as follows:
“Where two parties have made a contract which one of them has broken, the damages
which the other party ought to receive in respect of such breach of contract should be either
such as may reasonably and fairly be considered as arising naturally, i.e. according to usual
course of things, from such breach of contract itself, or such as may reasonably be
supposed to have been in the contemplation of both parties at the time they made the
contract as the probable result of the breach of it.”
It states that no compensation is payable for remote and indirect loss or damage arising out
on account of breach of contract. The indirect loss cannot be said to arise on usual course of
things. The aggrieved party can claim compensation for indirect loss or loss of profit, only
where it is expressly made known to the other party or contemplated by contract that
breach of non-performance of the contract would result in some indirect loss or loss of profit
to the paparty.e term remoteness of damage refers to the legal test used for deciding which
type of loss caused by the breach of contract may be compensated by the award of
damage.
In Madras Railway Company v. Govinda (1898) 21 Mad. 172, the Plaintiff, who was a tailor,
delivered a sewing machine and some clothes to the defendant railway company, to be sent
to a place where he expected to carry on his business in an upcoming festival. Due to
mistakes made by the company’s employees, the goods were delayed and were not
delivered until some days after the festival was over. The plaintiff had not given any notice
to the railway company that the goods were required to be delivered within a fixed time for
any special purpose. On a suit by the plaintiff to recover a sum of his estimated profits, the
Court held that the damages claimed were too remote.
It confers a statutory right upon a party to get compensation from a party who has incurred
a statutory obligation to pay compensation in case default even though there may be no
contract to pay compensation .The party in default is under obligation to pay compensation
to the injured party as if there was a contract and has broken such contract.
It explains that the means which existed of remedying the inconvenience caused by the non
performance of the contract must be considered while calculating the damage or loss for
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breach of the contract. [M.Lachia Setty & Sons Ltd v. Coffee Board Bangalore, AIR 1981 SC
162, 168]
Section 74 provides for the measure of damages in two classes: (a) where the contract
names a sum to be paid in case of breach; and (b) where the contract contains any other
stipulation by way of penalty(Fateh Chand v. Balkrishna Das,[1964] 1 SCR 515).
Penalty is a payment of money to a non –defaulting party, which puts the other party in fear
and enforces the other party to perform its promise under the contract .The penalty is
deterrent in nature .
Only those parties can claim damages for breach of contract who have performed or is
willing to perform his part of the obligations arising under the contract. Section 73 and 74
are for the benefit of a party willing to perform the contract and not for defaulting party
.Loss which is caused by the party’s failure to fulfill his duty is not recoverable from the
other party. A party to a Contract cannot be in a better position by reason of his own
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default, than if he had fulfilled his obligations .A person, who is not a party to the contract,
cannot claim damages.
A party claiming the damage need not necessarily suffer any loss from breach of contract.
When it is contemplated by the contract. When it is contemplated by the contract that
breach by any of the parties to the contract is likely to cause loss to an identified or
identifiable stranger to the contract, rather than to the contracting party, a party not in
default can claim damages for the loss caused to an identified or identifiable stranger to the
contract. Thus the party may recover substantial damages even though it does not
personally bear the cost of correcting the defects or personally suffers the diminution in the
value ;provided this was intended or was within the contemplation of the parties ;and if
such intention or contemplation is shown it is immaterial that the true prayer or suffered is
stranger to the contract. (Alfred McAlpine Constn Ltd v. Panatown Ltd., (2001) AII ER (D)41
(Apr)).
Interest would be refused if the party fails to show that interest is being claimed under a
contract or on account of usage or customs. The Supreme Court in Mahavir Prasad Rungta
v. Durga Dutta,1961 AIR 990 has ruled that interest can be claimed only if it is payable by
custom or there is express or implied provision in the agreement for payment of interest or
under provisions of substantive law plaintiff is entitled to recover the interest.
A contract is the fountainhead of a correlative set of rights and obligations of the parties
and would be of no value if there is no statutory provision for compensation for damage or
loss caused to the aggrieved party. Chapter VI of the Indian Contract Act ,1872 provides for
the remedy to the non-defaulting party to contract by way of compensation for damage or
loss caused due to breach of contract by the other party. Section 73 provides for
compensation for actual damage or loss from the party in breach of the contract Reasonable
liquidated damages are payable without proof of loss . Section 74 provides that contracting
parties in the event of breach, may agree that the defaulted party shall pay a stipulated
amount to the other ,or may agree that in the event of breach by one party any amount
paid to him shall be forfeited. If it is not genuine pre-estimate of the loss ,but an amount
intended to secure performance of the contract ,it may be called ‘penalty’. However mere
stipulation does not give right for compensation by way of penalty. Prove has to be
established for loss or damages caused by breach of contract.
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Art, paintings, old furniture, antiques, etc. have a special value to the contracting party,
although such articles may not have much monetary value. For example, an idol which has
been passed down from generation to generation of a family has immense value to that
family, even if it means nothing to someone else. No amount of damages can compensate
for the loss to the members of the family, even if the Court makes an attempt to assess the
damages payable instead of the idol. Therefore, an order will be passed for specific delivery
of that idol, not for damages.
In Vijaya Minerals v. Bikash AIR 1996 Cal. 67, the Hon’ble Calcutta High Court has observed
that since manganese and iron ore are not ordinary items of commerce, if a contract for
sale of iron and manganese ore from a mine has been made, specific performance of such
an act would be allowed.
2. Where the property is held by the defendant as the agent or trustee of the plaintiff.
Usually, the Courts are entitled to presume that in case of breach of contract to transfer of
immovable property, mere compensation is not adequate relief, whereas specific
performance is adequate relief, whereas in the case of movable property, compensation is
the ordinary relief and specific performance is exceptional. However, it must be noted that
these presumptions are rebuttable.
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In Bank of India v. Chinoy, AIR 1949 PC 90, it was held that if shares are freely available in
the market, then specific performance would not be granted. If shares of a particular
company, for instance a private company are not readily available in the market, specific
performance would be granted.
4. Suits for the enforcement of a building construction contract or any other work on land,
provided the following 3 conditions are fulfilled:
The building or other work has been described in the contract in a reasonably precise
manner, so as to enable to Court to decide the exact nature of building or work;
The plaintiff has substantial interest in the performance of the contract, and the
interest is such that financial compensation for non-performance of the contract would
not be adequate relief; and
After the contract, the defendant has obtained possession of the whole or any part of
the land in question.
An injunction
Under Section 36 of Specific Relief Act 1963, an injunction is defined as an order of a
competent court, which:
3. Commands the restoration of the status quo (the former course of things).
Clauses i and ii deal with preventive relief, whereas clause iii deals with an injunction called
mandatory injunction, which aims at rectifying, rather than preventing the defendant’s
misconduct.
Under Sections 36 & 37 of the Specific Relief Act 1963, there are two types of injunctions –
temporary and perpetual, whereas Section 39 governs mandatory injunctions.
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Temporary or interim injunctions are governed by Order 39 of Civil Procedure Code 1908
and are those injunctions that remain in force until a specified period of time, e.g. 15 days,
or till the date of the next hearing. Such injunctions can be granted at any stage of the
suit.
1. Where there is no standard for quantifying the actual damages caused, or likely to be
caused, to the plaintiff, by the invasion of his rights;
2. Where invasion of the plaintiff’s rights is such that any compensation in money would be
inadequate relief;
Mandatory injunctions are granted in cases where in order to prevent the non-performance
of an obligation, it is necessary to compel the performance of certain acts which the Courts
are capable of enforcing. Thus, the Court may at its discretion grant an injunction to
prevent such non-performance and also to compel performance of the required acts. This
injunction is applicable to the breach of any obligation. It may be permanent or temporary,
although temporary-mandatory injunctions are rare.
Section 40 of the Specific Relief Act 1963 states that a plaintiff may claim damages either in
addition to or in substitution for suing for perpetual or mandatory injunction, and if the
Court deems fit, it may even grant such damages.
It is worth emphasizing that damages and injunction are not alternate remedies. Both may
be allowed at the discretion of the Court.
However, damages cannot be granted unless the plaintiff has claimed damages in the plaint.
In the event that the plaintiff has not claimed damages in the plaintiff itself, he should be
allowed to amend the plaintiff, at any stage of the proceedings, on such terms as may be
just in the circumstances of the case.
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To conclude, it is thus evident that there are several remedies available in case of breach of
a contract, none of which are very simple. One would have to overcome an abundance of
challenges and rebuttals to prove a case of breach of contract.
LawSikho has created a telegram group for exchanging legal knowledge, referrals, and
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