EQUINE NUTRITION: NEEDS AND FEEDS

by

Lea D. Marchette

A SENIOR THESIS
ID
GENERAL STUDIES

Submitted to the General Studies Council

in the College of Arts and Sciences
at Texas Tech University in
Partial fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of

BACHELOR OF GENERAL STUDIES

Approved

DR. ADELAIDE BRADY ~

Department of Animal Science and Food Technology
Co-Chair of Thesis Committee

DR. ANDY HERRING>

Department of Animal Science and Food Technology
Co-Chair of Thesis Committee

Accepted

DR. DALE DAVIS

Director of General Studies

MAY 1999
^ „ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

/ ^^f
^^' 7 1 have been researching and preparing this thesis for seven months. Now

that I am arriving near the end of this extensive opportunity, 1 am thankful for the help 1

had along this journey. I have received insightful input and invaluable information from

Dr. Heidy Brady, Dr. Andy Herring, Mr. Mike Howell, and Dr. Dale Davis.

Dr. Heidy Brady, DVM, has been very helpftil and encouraging. 1 appreciate her

professional insight, which was invaluable. Not only was Dr. Brady contributive to my

research, but she was very encouraging, and 1 admire her for her success and

achievements. Dr. Brady is a true inspiration for me to keep striving for my goals!

I am also greatfiil to Dr. Andy Herring for his support and input into this thesis.

His knowledge of nutrition (along with helpful English tips) has allowed me to improve

the quality of my research and grammar. I am grateful for Dr. Herring's assistance, time

and consideration.

Mr. Mike Howell is a professional horse trainer whom 1 would also like to

acknowledge. I sought his advice on fact verification, clerical insight, and possible

research data. He is a successful and respected race horse trainer whose opinion 1 value.

Mr. Howell was very beneficial to my research and the outcome of this thesis.

1 would also like to mention Dr. Dale Davis, Director of General Studies. He has

helped me with structure and form of the final draft of my thesis as well as with

preliminary studies. Dr. Davis is knowledgeable in every aspect of writing, and 1

welcome and trust all insight from him.

 These four respected people have guided and supported me in my research.

Thank you. Dr. Brady, Dr. Herring, Mr. Howell, and Dr. Davis!

Ill
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS li

CHAPTER

I. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 1

Introduction 1

Mouth 2

Stomach 4

Small Intestine 5

Large Intestine 7

n. NUTRITIONAL NEEDS 11

Protein 11

Energy 14

Vitamins 18
Fat Soluble Vitamins 18
Water Soluble Vitamins 24
Minerals 30
Macro-Minerals 30
Trace Minerals 35

Water 40

m. NUTRITION AT DIFFERENT STAGES 42

Growth 42

Work 45

Stallions 47

IV
 Mares 48

Lactation 50

Maintenance 51

IV. TYPES OF FEED 53

Forages 53
Legumes 54
Grasses 57

Concentrates 59

Conclusion 62

BIBLIOGRAPHY 63
 CHAPTER 1

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Introduction

The horse is a herbivore whose natural instinct is to eat all of the time. The wild

horse consumes primarily vegetation consisting offibrousforage and water. In order to

obtain all the nutrients the horse requires, it must eat almost 24 hours a day. An

undomesticated horse will eat for approximately fourteen to sixteen hours a day, which

consequently leaves little time for anything else. The natural instinct to eat continuously

creates a nutritional problem for domestication.

Domesticating the horse to fit humans' needs has meantfindingways to provide

all of the nutrition a horse requires with less time for eating and more time for doing

work. The solution to this problem has resulted in manufacturing concentrates, "foods

wliich contain higher levels of nutrients than a horse's natural food of grass or leaves; the

nutrients are concentrated into a form which takes up comparatively much less space"

(McBane, 1995, p. 15). The purpose of feeding concentrates is to provide high energy

and better nutrition in significantly less eating time. Therefore, the horse has more time

to fulfill the human's needs.

The diet of the horse must take into account growth, performance, maintenance,

work, and reproduction. No matter what stage of life the horse is in, food is essential "to

provide fuel for the horse's body in the form of energy, to provide material for the

building and maintenance of body tissue, and to supply substances which act to regulate
the wide range of body processes" (Pilliner and Davies, 1996, p. 175). Understanding

the digestive system is imperative in order to facilitate a good nutritional and beneficial

diet. This report will focus on anatomy and physiology as well as benefits and

consequences when considering the equine digestive system, nutritional needs, nutrition

at different stages, and various feed types.

The horse is a nonruminant herbivore with high crowned teeth that grow

throughout its life, a small simple stomach, and afiinctionalcecum for fermentation.

The digestive system and the feeding behavior reflect the way in which the horse as a

grazing animal has evolved (Pilliner and Davies, 1996, p. 175). The alimentary canal is

the tube of the digestive system extendingfiiomthe mouth to the anus and includes the

esophagus, stomach, and intestines (Webster's, 1989, p. 20). Understanding the

alimentary canal aids in determining the most palatable, easily digested and nutritional

food to prevent digestive problems in the horse and to maximize the performance of the

horse.

Mouth

The horse uses its lips, tongue, teeth, and saliva to help facilitate digestion. The

upper lip is able to pick through forages for the desired parts of the plant and pull food

into the mouth. The tongue's purpose is to move the food to the cheek for grinding before

swallowing, and the teeth are designed to grind fibrous food. Continuous growth of teeth

prevents wear and allows the horse to efficiently masticate food throughout its life. If

wear on the teeth is imevenly distributed, sharp edges will cause pain in the cheeks and
tongue, thus making eating painfiil. To prevent this eating problem, "the vet or horse

dentist can rasp or float these sharp edges and a horse's teeth should be checked twice a

year and rasped if necessary"(PiIliner, 1992, p. 4). If the teeth are badly worn, the

horse's ability to chew roughage will be limited and may compromise the horse's general

health. Providing good care for the horse's teeth promotes the health and well-being of

the animal.

The teeth are arranged to maximize grinding of food. The horse has upper and

lower incisors that enable it to graze closely. The head is shaped so that the upper and

lower teeth are not directly parallel. That is, the molars overlap each other on the sides

and "the space between rows of teeth in the lower jaw is less than that separating the

upper teeth," which "accommodates a sideways, or circular, movement of the jaw that

effectively sheers feed" (Frape, 1998, p. 2). Chewing and grinding forage takes more

time than chewing concentrates because forages are morefibrousand take up more space

than concentrates. It has been estimated ^Hhat horses will chew 1 kg of concentrate feed

800 -1200 times but need 3000 - 3500" chewing motions "to get through 1 kg of hay"

(Pilliner and Davies, 1996, p. 187). Food must be sufficiently ground down to less than 1

mm in length before it can continue through the digestive system.

During mastication, the food stimulates secretion of saliva. Saliva has no

enzymatic activity but does serve several functions for the digestion of food. The "mucus

content enables it tofimctionas an efficient lubricant preventing choke" (Frape, 1998, p.

4). Choke is simply a term used for the complete or partial blocking of the esophagus

due to eating too quickly or the food not being moist enough to be easily swallowed. The
saliva also contains bicarbonate, which buffers the digesta in order to decrease the acidity

of the stomach.

Stomach

After the bolus of food is masticated and moistened, it passes through the

esophagus to the stomach. The horse's stomach is relatively small and simple and will

hold two to four gallons of digesta (Evans et al., 1990). The stomach is so small because

the horse has evolved as a trickle feeder, eating small amounts of food frequently.

Although the stomach is small with regard to size, the physiology is far from "small."

Feed must be adjusted to accommodate stomach size. If fed too much, digesta will pass

through the digestive system too quickly, and digestion and absorption will be hindered.

If the horse consumes large amounts of concentrates too quickly, the stomach will

become too fiill and swollen. When the stomach becomes fijll, "the pressure interferes

with blood circulation in the stomach wall, and will interfere with the normal nervous

activity which controls the release of food into the small intestines"; therefore, "the

contents may start to ferment too much, and gases may form, distending the stomach

even further" (McBane, 1995, p. 29). Under these conditions, the horse experiences pain,

discomfort, or may even develop a ruptured stomach. It could develop laminitis or even

die. Laminitis is a "local manifestation of a serious metabolic disturbance" and results in

lameness of varying degrees (Frape, 1998, p. 386).

The stomach secretes digestive enzymes and also contains microorganisms for

fermentation. Fermentation occurs in the lower regions of the J-shaped stomach called
the fundic and esophageal region and jMimarily yields lactic acid. Enzymatic activity and

fermentation break down food before it moves into the small intestines.

Gastrin, a hormone secreted by the stomach into the blood plasma, strongly

stimulates the release of gastric acids and gastric juices. A study in Sweden has shown

that the presence of food in the stomach causes the release of gastrin, but not the sight of

food itself (Frape, 1998). The gastric juices of the stomach are pepsin and hydrochloric

acid (HCI). HCl is secreted by thefimdicregion of the stomach andfimctionsas an

antibacterial. HCl also causes the release of the enzyme pepsin. Pepsin breaks down

protein in the stomach, but most of the protein is absorbed in the small intestines. Pepsin

also terminates fermentation. The gastric pH falls because of HCl secretion "as digesta

approaches the pylorus at the distal end of the stomach," which initiates "the proteolytic

activity of pepsin" (Frape, 1998, p. 8).

Food remains in the stomach for only a short while, an average of 45 minutes.

However, the stomach is "rarely completely empty and a significant portion of the

digesta may remain in it for 2-6 hours" (Frape, 1998, p. 5). After the digesta is broken

down in the stomach by gastric juices, it moves on into the small intestines.

Small Intestine

The small intestine is made up of three sections called the duodenum, jejunum,

and ileum. The duodenum is attached to the stomach, and the ileum is attached at the

large intestine. The total length of the small intestine is 65-88 feet long and has a

capacity of 12-16 gallons (Pilliner, 1992). The duodenum receives secretions from the
bile from the liver to enhance digestion. Most of the digestion and absorption occur in

the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum by pancreatic secretions, bile, and digestive enzymes.

(Reece, 1991)

Protein and starch are absorbed primarily in the small intestine. The cereal

starches absorbed in the small intestines are long chains of glucose molecules.

Absorption will occur vAien the enzymes glucosidase and amylase secreted in the small

intestines break the chains of glucose molecules. Villi,finger-like[n-ojections, line the

small intestine to increase absorption. Absorption is also enhanced by the folding of the

small intestine, which increases the surface area. (Reece, 1991)

The liver produces bile and deposits it into the duodenum to emulsify fat and

neutralize chyme, which is the digesta in the small intestines. Fat emulsification is the

breaking down of fat globules, which are turned into a mixture of fat globules that do not

dissolve in each other. The smaller fat globules increase the surface area for action by

the fat digesting lipase enzymes (Pilliner and Davies, 19%). Bile secreted by the liver is

both an excretion and a digestive secretion that "helps to preserve an optimal reaction in

the intestine for thefimctioningof the digestive enzymes secreted there" (Frape, 1998, p.

10).

Also associated with the duodenum is the pancreas. The pancreas secretes

sodium bicarbonate and digestive enzymes into the duodenum to neutralize and further

break down the chyme. The rate of enzyme secretion is low due to "a greater portion of

the horse's ingested food" being "of a type that requires microbial digestion beyond the

small intestine" (Reece, 1991, p. 241). The enzymes that break down protein to form
amino acids are carboxy-peptidases and amino-pepsidase. The enzymatic action results in

three times the amount of protein being digested in the small intestine as in the stomach

(Frape, 1998,). Other enzymes secreted that form glucose include sucrase, lactase, and

maltase. Furthermore, the enzyme enterokinase is produced by the small intestine

mucosa to activate trypsinogen which activates other enzymes.

Food moves through the small intestine by peristalsis, contracting of the smooth

muscles, at a rate of 30 cm/min (Frape, 1998). However, the rate does vary with feed

type. If the horse is on pasture, the rate "is accelerated, althou^ a previous feed of hay

causes a decrease in the rate of the succeeding meal, with implications for exercise"

(Frape, 1998, p. 5). This is because it takes longer for roughage to be broken down by

fermentation. After the digesta is broken down, it moves into the large intestine as

"fibrous feed residues, undigested fed starch and protein, microorganisms, intestinal

secretions and cell debris" (Frape, 1998, p. 10).

Large Intestine

As food leaves the ileum, it moves into the large intestine, also called the hindgut.

The large intestine consists of the cecum, the large and small colon, and the rectum. The

hindgut primarilyfimctionsto absorb water and break down and absorb the undigested

food from the small intestine. Water is absorbed from the digesta throughout the large

intestine "so that by the time it [digesta] reaches the rectum it has a firm consistency"

(Pilliner, 1992, p. 19). The digesta also undergoes fermentation in the cecum and large

colon. The cecum in the horse is a comma-shaped sac that is about three feet long and
can hold approximately six to eight gallons (Pilliner and Davies, 1996) The cecum is

large in order to help prolong the holding of the contents for fermentation.

The large cecum is an important organ of the horse's digestive system because of

its natural diet of forages requires fermentation. Herbivores consume large amounts of

lignin, a woody insoluble carbohydrate found in forages. The horse cannot secrete

enzymes to break down this insoluble carbohydrate, so it must rely on micro-organisms

to ferment the complex molecules. These micro-organisms can digest half of the fiber of

the cell walls of grass (Frape, 1998). The other half continues on to the large colon.

Feed type and amount of feed affect the results of fermentation and the well-being

of the horse. In addition, the amount and type of bacteria present in the large intestine

vary with feed type. A sudden change in feed may cause upset. For example, changing

from a hay to a cereal grain could create metabolic upset because there will be a change

in the volatile fatty acid ratio. The bacteria that digest one feed type will still be present

if the feed is changed rapidly. Bacteria yield lactic acid which is converted to volatile

fatty acids; "if the other bacteria cannot rapidly reduce the lactic acid to harmless volatile

fatty acids, the acid will build up and cause serious metabolic problems" (Pilliner, 1992,

p. 20). The volatile fatty acids are absorbed into the bloodstream to provide energy.

Another product of fermentation is gas. The gases released are carbon dioxide,

methane, and hydrogen. These gases are expelled from the anus or absorbed back into

the body. If fed too much at any one time, the gas production could exceed the rate of

expulsion. This could cause discomfort, pain or potentially more severe consequences.
 The large colon continues from the cecum. It is approximately 10-13 feet long

and has a capacity of 20-24 gallons (Pilliner and Davies, 1996). The large colon fits into

the gut of the horse because it is folded into four regions. From the cecum to the small

colon, the regions are the right ventral colon, the left ventral colon, the left dorsal colon,

and the right dorsal colon. The cecum passes on the undigested fiber to the large colon,

which also houses micro-organisms and therefore contributes to fermentation. The

fermentation here produces volatile fatty acids and B vitamins. Volatile fatty acids are

absorbed along with thiamin, amino acids, and water in the large colon.

The large colon functions to reabsorb some of the liquid back into the body to

avoid too much water loss (McBane, 1995). The result of this reabsorption is dry

contents and possible impaction. The u-shaped loops of the colon can cause problems

because the digesta can cause blockage and impaction. Blockage is obviously a problem

and could result in impactive colic. Impactive colic accounts for 30% of all cases of

colic (Pilliner and Davies, 1996). This type of colic could be painful and may require a

vet to relieve the horse of pain and impaction. An acute case of colic can be relieved by

removing all food and walking, which will vibrate the gut and stimulate muscle

contraction so the food can move along. More intense pain can cause the horse to roll

and give rise to twisted intestines. The twisted intestines will die if blood supply is cut

off". A doctor will be required to remove the dead intestines in order to prevent death.

Finally, the material remaining enters into the rectum. The rectum is a short tube

connecting the small colon to the anus that stores the feces until defecation. The material

remaining "now is largely undigested lignin and the waste products of metabolism which
have been carried in the bloodstream from various parts of the body for passing out with

the droppings" (McBane, 1995, p. 31).

10
 CHAPTER n

NUTRITIONAL NEEDS

The nutritional needs of horses must be considered when evaluating their physical

well-being. Horses require many nutrients for growth, maintenance, reproduction, work,

and performance. All horses are different with different needs. However, they all

require the same base of nutrients: protein, energy, vitamins, minerals, and water.

Protein

Jv The first and foremost nutrient required is protein. Proteins are necessary for

growth, development, reproduction, and healthy tissues. Proteins are long chains of

amino acids that are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Some of the amino

acids contain sulfur. Amino acids are the 'building blocks' of all life and are necessary

for life. There are 22 different amino acids, some of which are essential and must be

supplied by the diet because the horse caimot synthesize them. The nonessential amino

acids, however, can be made in the body. (Reece, 1991) If a feed provides an adequate

amount of essential amino acids for maintenance and growth, it is referred to as

containing high-quality j)rotein. On the other hand, if the food does not supply the horse

with recommended essential amino acids, it is called low-quality protein.

Protein requirements depends on digestibility of that protein in the diet and the

individual animal's needs. The horse has to be able to digest and use the protein in its

diet. The protein is hydrolyzed into its amino acid constituents, which are the primary

11
determinants for protein digestibility and utilization. One particular enzyme, lysme, is an

important essential ammo acid because it is a 'limiting' amino acid. This means that

"the amount of it [the protein] which can be utilized in protein synthesis will be in

proportion to its lysine content" (Frape, 1998, p. 36). Thus all other proteins present will

be wasted. Lysine is an essential amino acid, and "it has been shown that the proportions

of amino acids in the common sources of feed proteins given to horses and ponies are

such that lysine is the indispensable amino acid most likely to limit tissue utilization of

the protein" (Frape, 1998, p. 37). Lysine is required in greater amounts in the growing

horse. In order for the animal to have an appropriate growth rate, "the diet should

provide at least 0.65% lysine" (Lewis, 1995, p. 14).

Requirements for protein are provided in terms of crude protein, which indicates

the percentage of protein in a feed. Growing foals up to three months need diets that are

18-20% crude protein; and weanlings, six to seven months, need diets of 16% crude

protein (McBane, 1995). Lysine is especially important for growing ponies because of its

limiting nature. If a feed does not contain lysine, a "protein supplement in which the

protein contains at least 5 to 6% lysine, such as canola, soybean, fish or meat meals, or

milk products," should be added to the diet (Lewis, 1995, p. 14). Without adequate

protein intake, foals will have a decreased growth rate because the tissues will not have

the amino acids necessary for growth.

Protein requirements vary with the age and productivity of the horse. Since

"proteins are the only foods which can make body tissue," the highest requirements are

for growing foals (McBane, 1995, p. 13). Protein is also necessary for lactation,

12
maintenance, and activity such as performance or woric. During the first three months of

lactation, milk production and milk protein content are greatest, and thus the protein

requirements increase. McBane suggests that the mare needs 14% crude protein in her

diet to keep up the milk production and milk protein content that her foal needs to grow.

The foal up to three months should be obtaining 18-20% crude protein from suckling.

(McBane, 1995) If the mare does not consume enough dietary protein, her milk protein

content will be decreased, and the foal will in turn not receive enough of the nutrients

that it requires. The foal's growth rate will decrease as a result. According to Frape, a

good quality pasture will meet the protein requirements for lactation. Furthermore, a

study has shown that the protein quality consumed affects the mare's milk content. Some

lactating mares were given 1.55 kg of moderate quality protein per 500 kg body weight,

and others were fed the same amount except half was provided as soy protein. The result

was an increase in milk protein content of the soy-supplemented mares, which at 7 days

increased from 25.3 to 33.2 g/1. Also, the amino acid methionine and lysine were in

higher concentration, and the foal's withers' height at seven weeks was greater. (Frape,

1998) Therefore, it is important to provide the lactating mare with her dietary

requirements for protein.

The horse at work or performance also needs an increase in protein. The

recommended amount of crude protein is 11.4% (Lewis, 1995). However, as energy

requirements increase with activity, the horse will eat more. The increased food intake

should be enough to meet the increased protein requirements.

13
 The protein needed for maintenance "can be defined as the amount of protein

required by an individual making no net gain or loss in body nitrogen and excluding any

protein that may be secreted in milk" (Frape, 1998, p. 40). Although the horse is not

working, growing or producing milk, protein is still needed for regrowth of epithelial

cells, hair, and tissue cell maintenance. Without adequate protein intake, hair will begin

to look dull and there is potential for weight loss.

Maintenance requires only 8% crude protein in the diet (Lewis, 1995). Dietary

protein should meet each individual animal's needs, but not exceed it too much. Excess

protein will cause the animal to be lethargic due to energy used to metabolize the protein.

There is also a strain on the kidneys, which filter and excrete excess toxins (urea)

produced. The excess urea produced is excreted in the urine and feces. Another result of

too much protein is excess sweat. This is due to increased pulse and respiration, which is

another means of excreting the toxins (McBane, 1995).

Excess proteins are deaminized, broken down into their nitrogen components, in

the liver where the resulting product is urea, which is excreted in the urine. The carbon

skeleton remaining is used for energy. The energy that protein supplies is not a

significant amount because it takes energy to break down the protein molecules. Energy

is supplied to the body primarily by sources of carbohydrates and fats.

Energy

Energy is necessary for growth, maintenance, reproduction and work. Cells in the

body use energy in the form of ATP, adenosine triphosphate. Energy is stored in the

14
form of protein, fats, and carbohydrates and carmot be measured because energy has no

mass or measurable component. However, energy can be measured by the amount of

heat it produces when it is obtained from its stored form. When food is completely

oxidized, the result is heat, which is expressed as gross energy (GE). Gross energy is not

completely utilized by the body because some of the feed leaves the body as feces. The

digestible energy (DE) is the GE minus the energy lost in the feces. Energy is also lost in

the urine and through gases. This energy is called metabolizable energy (ME).

Furthermore, as food is digested and absorbed, it releases energy in the form of heat,

which is called the heat increment. The energy remaining when the ME and DE is

subtracted from the GE is then called the net energy (NE). The NE is the energy used for

maintenance, growth, reproduction and work. (Lewis, 1995)

Maintenance requires less energy than reproduction, work, and growth. The

amount of energy can be calculated using a formula that the National Research Council

(NRC) devised in 1989. Actually, there are two formulas, depending on the weight of the

horse. For a horse under 1320 lb, the energy required can befiguredusing Eq. 2.1:

Meal DE/day = 1.4 + 0.03 (kg BW or lb 2.2) (2.1)

The energy required for the heavier horse that needs less energy in its feed is calculated

using the formula in Eq. 2.2:

15
 Meal DE/day =1.82+ (0.0383 kg BW or lb 2.21)

- [0.000015 (kg BW or lb 2.2)2 ] (2.2)

where Meal is mega calories and BW is body weight. For example, a horse weighing

1100 lb will require 1.4 + 0.03 (1100 x 2.2), which equals 74 Meal DE per day.

Environment also can change the requirements for energy. Since expending

energy releases heat, colder climates demand more energy, and hot climates require less

energy. In addition, energy requirements change for amount of work and reproduction.

Environment and activity should be considered together when determining the amount of

energy to feed a horse. A study at the Texas Agriculture Experiment Station indicated

"that cutting horses, working in a hot environment, expend 10-20% more energy than

would be predicted [by the NRC equations]" (Frape, 1998, p. 163). Additionally, every

horse has different energy requirements because of body condition, environment and

level of activity. For example, a horse at work or growth will need more energy to

maintain a healthy body and metabolic activity.

Growing ponies need a lot of energy because their tissues and organs are growing

and developing. The Meal DE/day for ponies and light horses at "light, medium, and

intense work has been estimated to be respectively 1.25, 1.50, and 2.0 times that needed

for maintenance" (Lewis, 1995, p. 10). Thus, the Meal DE/day would be calculated by

using the NRC formula and multiplied by 1.25,1.50, or 2.0, depending on the level of

activity of the horse. Therefore, a horse weighing 1100 lb at intense work will need 2.0

X 74 Meal DE/day =162.8 Meal DE per day.

16
 Energy must also be considered for a pregnant mare since she needs energy to

create and sustain a new life. Her body needs an increase over maintenance in her last

three months of gestation when the fetus has the most growth. During the ninth, tenth,

and eleventh months of pregnancy, the mare requires "1.11,1.13 and 1.20 times that

needed for maintenance" (Lewis, 1995, p. 10). Energy consumption should meet

requirements so that the mare has enough body fat for gestation and lactation. A

deficiency results in a decrease in milk production, and this will not be healthy for the

foal.

Energy is stored in fats, carbohydrates and protein, but protein is expendable and

therefore is not an adequate form of energy. Most of the "horse's energy comes from

starches and sugars (carbohydrates) but it also comes from fats and oils" (McBane, 1995,

p. 13). Fat or oil can be added to the horse's diet to increase intake of DE. This is

desirable for the endurance horse who needs an increase in energy intake and a decrease

in feed intake. Fat supplementation is also appropriate for an increase in "milk

production, reproductive efficiency, and growth rate and/or to maintain or increase body

weight during hot humid weather and when energy needs are high" (Lewis, 1995, p. 90).

Increased energy is also an advantage for all performance horses such as racing.

Therefore, supplementing fat is desirable in order to meet the energy requirements for the

horse.

17
 Vitamins

Besides protein and energy, horses need various vitamins and minerals in their

diet to remain healthy and functional. Vitamins are organic compounds (carbon

containing) that "generallyfimctionas metabolic catalysts, usually in the form

coenzymes" (Reece, 1991, p. 226). Some vitamins such as vitamins C and D are

produced by the body in the skin and tissues, whereas others are produced as biproducts

of microbial fermentation in the horse's gut. These include all of the B vitamins and

vitamin K. In addition, other vitamins required must be provided by the horse's diet.

Fat Soluble Vitamins

Vitamins are categorized as either fat soluble or water soluble. The fat soluble

vitamins are stored in the body primarily in the liver and include vitamins A, D, E and K.

Since these vitamins are stored, excess intake could lead to toxicity, an excess of the

vitamins A and D can be especially detrimental to the health of the horse.

Vitamin A

Vitamin A is obtained from the horse's diet and is necessary for bone formation,

epithelial tissue maintenance, glucose synthesis, growth, vision and reproduction.

Although it is not created by the body, vitamin A can be derived from beta carotene

which is known as a provitamin or a vitamin precursor. Beta carotene must also be

consumed in the diet. Sources of beta carotene include green leafy forages and carrots.

18
 Vitamin A is expressed in the form of lU (international unit) per kg of total diet.

Requirements vary for maintenance, growth, and all other horses. Growing horses need

2000 to 6000 lU per kg of total diet "for optimum growth and maintenance of blood

parameters, biochemical parameters, and tissue vitamin A concentrations" (Lewis, 1995,

p. 46). For a horse at maintenance, the diet should contain a minimum of 2000 lU, and

all other horses need 3000 lU (Lewis, 1995, p. 46). If these requirements are not met,

deficiency will eventually occur after all body storage of vitamin A is used.

Because vitamin A is stored by the body, a horse can consume enough beta

carotene in green forages to allow the horse to use it later as needed if there is no green

forage intake. For instance, "if a mature horse consumes fresh green forage for a period

of four to six weeks, it will saturate its liver-storage capacity for vitamin A and thus will

have sufficient vitamin A to meet its needs for three to six months" (Lewis, 1995, p. 47).

After the horse has utilized the vitamin A stored in the liver, it actually takes about a year

before the supply becomes completely depleted. If the horse becomes deficient, the early

warning signs include reduced growth rate in young horses, and for all horses a dull,

brittle hair coat. Reproduction in both mare and the stallion will be affected by a

deficiency. The mare may experience "reduced fertility, abortion and endometritis"

(Lewis, 1995, p. 47). Endometritis is the inflammation of the mucous membrane of the

uterus. The stallion may have a "decreased libido and soft, flabby testicles" (Lewis,

1995, p. 47). Additionally, all horses will show signs of night blindness and excessive

tearing will result from severe deficiency.

19
 Vitamin A is required in the retina to help form rhodopsin, which is the chemical

in the rods that reacts with light and is >^^t allows for adaptation to the dark. Night

blindness results when there is not enough vitamin A to form rhodopsin, which increases

to adapt to the daiic.

Excess vitamin A resulting in toxicosis can have severe consequences. Excess

intake has similar effects as deficiency, such as dull hair coat, decreased feed intake,

anemia, and even death.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that is responsible for calcium-phosphorus

homeostasis. It can be consumed in the diet and also synthesized in the skin by the

ultraviolet rays from the sun. When the skin produces the vitamin, it is in the form of

vitamin D3. The D2 form of the vitamin is found in leafy forages (hay) and is also

synthesized from the UV rays from the sun. If the horse is exposed to the sun daily, or

receives sun-cured hay, the recommendations should be met. However, "vitamins D2 and

D3 are not equally utilized by the horse; it appears that D3 may be many times more

potent a source than D2" (Crandell, 1997). Therefore, also allowing a horse sunshine is

more beneficial than solely relying on hay to meet its vitamin D requirements.

A specific requirement for vitamin D has not been set. The NRC has determined

that supplementation for growing foals is beneficial at levels of 800 lU to 1000 lU per kg

of dry diet, whereas the adult horse needs only 500 lU of vitamin D (Crandell, 1997).

During the growing phase a vitamin D-deficient horse may develop rickets, which is the

20
failure of bones to calcify normally. In adults, deficiency leads to the same problem but

is known as osteomalacia. Vitamin D deficiency is unusual and rarely, if ever, seen.

However, vitamin D toxicity is the most common of vitamin toxicosis. Signs of toxicosis

are loss of appetite, weight loss, increased resting heart rate and increased dnnking with

increased urination.

An excess of vitamin D intake results in increased calcium and phosphorus

absorption and calcification of soft tissues, which results in failure of organs such as the

heart and kidneys. Acute toxicity resulting in severe calcification of the lungs, heart,

kidney and other organs occurred within ten days "when young ponies were fed 14,000

lU per body weight daily" (Crandell, 1997). Chronic toxicity resulted from

supplementation of "35,000 lU vitamin D per kg of body weight per day," which was

followed by death in approximately three to four months (Crandell, 1997). Toxicosis can

occur from incorrect feed formulation, and excess supplementation and can also occur

naturally in the horse's diet when it consumes a plant that can synthesize vitamin D

glucosides. Such plants are located in subtropical areas as well as in Texas, Florida, and

California. Examples of plants that contain vitamin D glucosides are day-blooming

jessamine (Cestrum diumum), golden oat grass {Trisetumflavescens),and the species

Solanum malacoxylon (Lewis, 1995).

Vitamin K

Vitamin K is a very important fat soluble vitamin in the horse's diet. Blood

coagulating factors are activated by vitamin K, which allows the blood to clot, preventing

21
the horse from hemorrhaging. Unlike other fat soluble vitamins, it is not stored

abundantly in the body. Microbes in the gut synthesize the vitamin continuously,

supplying the horse with a sufficient amount. Thus, storage is not necessary. Bacterial

microbes produce the vitamin in the form of vitamin K2 (menaquinone). Two other

forms of the vitamin are Ki (phylloquinone), which is present in green plants, and

vitamin K3 (menadione), which is synthetic (Lewis, 1995). Green plants maintain high

levels of phylloquinone even after being cut and dried. Therefore, under normal

circumstances, horses will not be deficient in vitamin K due to microbial synthesis and

ingestion of forage. As a result, the NRC (1989) has not set a requirement for vitamin K.

Deficiency of vitamin K results from long-term antibiotic use, which decreases

the natural flora in the cecum and colon. Decreasing the microbes will thus decrease

vitamin K synthesis. Problems causing a deficiency are decreased fat absorption,

enteritis, cholitis, sweet clover poisoning, and warfarin toxosis. Sweet clover is usually a

harmless and beneficial food for horses, but if the hay becomes moldy, a chemical called

dicumarol is formed. Dicumerol reacts with vitamin K blood clotting factors and causes

a deficiency of vitamin K. Sweet clover poisoning occurs only after continuous ingestion

of moldy hay over a period of two to three weeks (Lewis, 1995).

Warfarin toxosis also causes vitamin K deficiency. Warfarin is an anticoagulant

(blood-thinner) found in rat poison and is administered to horses for naviscular disease.

Because warfarin is an anticoagulant and vitamin K binds with coagulating factors, a

deficiency of vitamin K results when warfarin is present. Although deficiency is rare,

clinical signs are hemorrhaging, hemotomas under the skin, increased bleeding, bloody

22
nose, anemia, depression, irregular heart and respiration rate, and death. If a horse is

deficient, vitamin K can be injected or administered orally. However, problems other

than vitamin K deficiency that cause hemorrhaging carmot be cured with vitamin K, and

there is no improvement of condition with only vitamin K supplementation.

Hemorrhaging in a deficient horse will stop in three to six hours after intravenous

administering of vitamin K^ (Lewis, 1995). Injecting vitamin K3 can result in toxicity in

the horse and will cause renal damage and death. Toxicity will occur in four to twelve

hours after injecting manadione intravenously or intramuscularly "as low as 2 mg/kg

body weight" (Lewis, 1995, p. 52). Naturally ingesting vitamin K in the diet has a very

low occurrence of toxicity.

Vitamin E

Vitamin E is an antioxidant and is important in thefimctionof the immune

system. Vitamin Efimctionsclosely in association with selenium in protecting cell

integrity. Requirements are not set for vitamin E, but recommendations by the NRC

(1989) are suggested. The idle mature horse should receive "23 lU vitamin E / lb of dry

matter" and "35 to 45 for foals, pregnancy and lactating mares, and working horses"

(Lewis, 1995, p. 30). Although deficiency is rare, the recommendations should be

considered for mares and foals because newborns to foals 1 month of age are especially

susceptible to deficiency. The placenta will not allow vitamin E to pass to the foal from

the mare during pregnancy. Vitamin E can be passed through the mare's milk. Thus, the

first introduction of vitamin E into the foal's body is after birth, when it begins to nurse.

23
A deficiency will subsequently result in muscle damage and a decreased immune

response, which is critical to the neonatal foal.

Vitamin E is not stored in the body in any appreciable amounts, and excess is

secreted in the urine. No toxosis has been reported in the horse.

Water Soluble Vitamins

Water soluble vitamins important to the horse are vitamins Bi, Ba, Be, B12, C,

Folic acid, Biotin, Niacin, and Pantothenic acid. Water soluble vitamins are generally

not stored in quantity in the body, and an excess of the vitamins is excreted in the urine.

Water soluble vitaminsfimctionin enzyme systems and aid in metabolism of fats,

carbohydrates and protein.

Thiamine

All of the B vitamins, like vitamin K, are produced by microbes in the gut.

Vitamin Bi, otherwise known as thiamine, is an "essential part of many enzyme systems,

particularly those that regulate the release of energy from stored carbohydrates and fat"

(Pilliner, 1992, p. 31). Although thiamine is synthesized by the horse's intestines, the

amount produced is not enough to maintain normal metabolism.

Vitamin Bi is found in green leaves (fresh or dried) in addition to being formed in

the gut. Therefore, deficiency is not very likely unless long term use of antibiotics

disrupts the flora in the horse's gut. In addition, long term storage of feed decreases the

amount of thiamine. Growth rate is slowed when a diet is "less than 3 mg thiamine/kg of

24
dry matter, and less than 5 mg/kg may not be adequate for exercising horses" (Lewis,

1995, p. 52). Lewis claims that a deficiency begins when a horse receives less than 3

mg/kg dry matter in about one to two weeks. However, clinical signs do not develop

until about four months of inadequate thiamine intake. (Lewis, 1995) The effects of

deficiency are weight loss, decreased appetite, hypothermia of the extremities,

incoordination of the hind legs and decreased heart rate.

Thiamine is excreted in the urine when excess is consumed. Therefore, toxicosis

does not occur with oral intake of thiamine. However, when thiamine is supplemented

by injection, toxicosis may occur. Toxicosis results in excitability of the horse.

Riboflavin

Riboflavin, vitamin Ba, is important in energy metabolism, or digestion of

protein, fat, and carbohydrates. Like most water soluble vitamins,riboflavinis

synthesized in the horse's hindgut by microbes. Vitamin Ba is also found in green

forages, milk and milk products, grass, and hay. The dietary requirement for riboflavin

"is probably less than 2 mg/kg dry matter" (Lewis, 1995, p. 54). Riboflavin is not easily

destroyed by envirorunental conditions associated with storage. After one year of

storage, 70% of theriboflavinwill remain in the feed (Lewis, 1995). If the feed did not

contain adequateriboflavin,growth and condition would be adversely affected because

riboflavin assists in energy metabolism. However, deficiency is highly unlikely in horses

because riboflavin is synthesized in the gut and is readily available in forages and milk

products.

25
Niacin

Niacin, vitamin B3, is used for metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

Niacin is "the active group of two important co-enzymes," nicotinic acid and

nicotinamide (Pilliner, 1992, p. 32). The vitamin is made from the amino acid

tryptophan by the body and is found in lucerne (alfalfa), animal by-products, oil seeds,

and green forages. After one year, the niacin content of feed is only decreased "to 57%

of initial levels" (Lewis, 1995, p. 54). The level of the vitamin remaining after a year

indicates that niacin has a low susceptibility to environmental stresses.

Like other B-vitamins, B3 is produced in the gastrointestinal tract of horses.

Therefore, there has been no reported cases of deficiency. Furthermore, toxicity does not

occur because all excess water-soluble vitamins are excreted in the urine.

Pyridoxine

Vitamin Be, also known as pyridoxine, is involved in energy metabolism. Be is

"also involved in central nervous system activity, blood hemoglobin production and

disease prevention" (Pilliner, 1992, p. 32). Pyridoxine is a fairiy stable vitamin,

vulnerable primarily to light and alkalinity. After one year of storage, feed retains 69%

of vitamin Be of initial values (Lewis, 1995). Pyridoxine is found in forages and grains

and is also synthesized in the cecum and colon by microorganisms. Absorption, however,

occurs primarily in the small intestines. Excess pyridoxine is excreted in the urine.

Toxicosis does not occur in horses, nor does deficiency. Deficiency is prevented because

the horses body produces pyridoxine along with all other B-vitamins.

26
Cobalamin

Cobalamin, vitamin B12, is another water-soluble vitamin utilized by the horse for

metabolism. Specifically, cobalamin is involved in protein metabolism. Vitamin B12

contains cobalt, which is necessary for red blood cell production. Cobalamin is found in

forages, fish meal, meat and bone meal, and is also synthesized in the colon of the horse.

Vitamin B12 is synthesized only by microorganisms, so when it is present in forages, it is

the result of contamination (manure). In stored feeds, 84% of the initial amount of

cobalamin remains after one year and is therefore the most stable of vitamins (Lewis,

1995). As with other B-vitamins, B12 deficiency is not a problem. Neither is an excess of

the vitamin documented However, unlike other water-soluble vitamins, cobalamin is

stored in the liver, kidneys, heart, and brain when the horse consumes an abundantly

large amount of the vitamin. Excess is also excreted in the urine and bile in addition to

being stored.

Pantothenic acid

Energy metabolism is initiated with another water-soluble vitamin, pantothenic

acid. Pantothenic acid is produced by microorganisms in the gut and can be found in all

plant and animal tissues. Therefore, deficiency is unlikely and has not been reported in

horses. The vitamin remains 75% available from the initial values after the feed has been

stored for one year (Lewis, 1995). Conversely, excess intake of pantothenic acid only

results in excretion in the urine. No toxicosis has been reported in the horse.

27
Vitamin C

Vitamin C, known as ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin synthesized by the

horse in the tissues from glucose. Ascorbic acid is an antioxidant that assists in collagen

formation and iron absorption. In humans, deficiency is known to result in scurvy, a

common disease among sailors in the 1800's. On long sea voyages, the sailors did not

have fiiiits or vegetables containing vitamin C. Scurvy is characterized by swollen,

spongy, bleeding gums, bleeding under the skin, and weakness. There has been no

deficiency reported in horses because the horse can produce the vitamin in its gut.

Vitamin C can also be found in green leafy forages. Furthermore, excess is excreted in

the urine and no known report of toxicosis exists in horses. (Lewis, 1995)

Folic Acid

Another water soluble vitamin, folic acid, interacts with other water-soluble

vitamins such as B2, B12, and vitamin C. It is also required for red blood cell formation.

Like other water-soluble vitamins, folic acid is synthesized and absorbed in the cecum

and colon. Folic acid can be found in high concentrations in green leafy legumes, such as

alfalfa. However, the vitamin is unstable when subjected to envirorunental stress. After

one month under normal storage conditions, concentration of folic acid in feeds

"decreases about 5%, so that by one year it is reduced by nearly one-half (Lewis, 1995,

p. 57). However, folic acid has not been reported to be deficient or toxic in horses.

Thus, there is no recommendations for the amount of folic acid in the horse's diet.

28
 Studies in Australia suggests that "there is an increased utilization of folic acid by

horses in hard work" (Frape, 1998, p. 85). The excess folic acid is thus utilized during

hard work instead of being excreted. Excretion of folic acid is in the bile, not in the urine

like other water-soluble vitamins.

Biotin

The horse needs biotin because itfimctionsin hoof and horn production as well as

in fat, protein, and carbohydrate metabolism. When excess biotin is consumed, it is

excreted in the urine like most of the water-soluble vitamins. Nevertheless, biotin is a

unique water-soluble vitamin in that a deficiency can create problems in horses. Hoof-

wall disease can result from biotin deficiency. In a Texas survey, 28% of the horses were

reported to have some type of hoof-wall problem (Frape, 1998). Hoof-wall disease is not

restricted to Texas, and hoof problems can occur anywhere horses do not consume

enough available biotin. Supplementation of biotin to these horses with hoof problems is

beneficial in correcting the problem.

Biotin found in wheat, barley, and sorghum grains is unavailable to the horse.

The availability depends on the digestibility of the protein in the feed because biotin

binds to protein. Feed sources containing available biotin are maize, yeast, soybean, and

green forage. Biotin is also found to be synthesized by microbes in the colon like other

water-soluble vitamins. (Lewis, 1995) Therefore, no set recommendation has been

determined.

29
 Minerals

Minerals are inorganic elements found in foodstuffs that are not synthesized in

the body, but are required for enzymefimction,and some are actual components of body

chemicals. Minerals are placed in one of two categories, micro- or macro-minerals.

Macro-minerals, which are needed in greater amounts, include calcium, phosphorus,

sodium, chloride, potassium, magnesium, and sulfiir. The micro-minerals are also known

as trace minerals because they are needed in values of parts per million (ppm or mg/kg).

The trace minerals are iodine, molybdenum, manganese, iron, cobalt, zinc, copper, and

selenium. Conversely, a sudden consumption of high levels of minerals will cause

problems in the horse.

Macro-Minerals

Calcium and Phosphorus

Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) are the most abundant minerals in the horse's

body. They are considered together because they affect the absorbency and the presence

in the body of each other. The ratio of calcium to phosphorus is 2:1 in the bones where

both minerals are stored. These minerals primarilyfimctionto form and maintain bones

and teeth. Calcium is also involved with blood clotting, nerve and muscle function, and

lactation. Phosphorus is associated with energy production and enzyme systems.

Phosphorus is deposited in soft tissues as well as in the bones. The ratio of Ca:P

throughout the entire body is 1.7:1.0. (Frape, 1998)

30
 Calcium is absorbed primarily in the small intestines, and phos[^orus is absorbed

in the large intestines. When phosphorus is in excess, it binds with calcium and creates a

deficiency in calcium. But, ^^iien calcium is jM-esent in excess, it is absorbed before

preventing any phosphorus being absorbed because the P is not absorbed until reaching

the cecum and colon. When calcium is deficient, the body pulls reserved Ca from the

bones, resulting in bone problems such as malformation, decrease in growth, rickets in

foals, osteomalesia in adults, and other bone problems. (Lewis, 1995)

Other situations can also cause Ca deficiency, such as a diet high in oxalates.

Oxalates are substances that bind to positively charged minerals, like calcium, and

decrease absorption of the mineral, resulting in calcium deficiency. Problems in the

horse due to oxalates may arise when "the dietary dry matter contains more than 5g

totally oxalates/kg with a Ca:oxalate ratio of less than 0.5" (Frape, 1998, p. 360).

Oxalates are primarily found in tropical plants, Lewis notes, such as buflfel grass

(Cenchrus ciliaris), pangola grass (Digitaria rectimbens), setaria (Seiaria sphacelata),

and kikuya grass {Pwennisetum cladistinum). Other harmful oxalate-containing common

plants that can be found in Texas include pigweed {Amaranthus sp.), purslane (Portulaca

oleraceae), curly dock (Rumex sp.), tumbleweed {Salsola sp.), and rhubarg (Rheum

rhaponticum). The most common plants responsible for acute oxalate poison are

halogeton (Halogeton glomeratus), greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus), and

shamrock (Oxalis sp.). (Lewis, 1995) Lucerne, or alfalfa, is relatively high in oxalates.

However, unlike the other oxalate-containing plants, alfalfa contains a high enough level

31
of calcium to ensure that the horse will still be able to absorb adequate amounts of

calcium.

The effects of calcium deficiency can result in developmental orthopedic diseases

(DOD), osteodystrophia fibrosa or "big-head," as well as brittle bones, lameness, and

tendenitous. Big head is most noticeable in young mature horse with the clinical signs of

a swollen lower jaw and swelling around the nose. This is not actual swelling, however.

The enlargement is due to calcium deficiency, which ultimately results in Ca and P being

removed from the bones. The minerals are replaced with soft cormective tissue, which

becomes bone and thus bone enlargement occurs.

Phosphorus deficiency results from eating plants low in phosphorus, which grow

in low phosphorus-containing soils. The only problem a young growing horse will have

from grazing low phosphorus-containing grasses is a slower growth rate. This is because

the protein and energy content will also be low, and the horse's growth rate thus slows

down. Therefore, less minerals will be needed for bone growth and formation. But,

when protein and energy are supplemented, the young horse grows faster, and more P is

needed to keep up with normal bone development. If enough P is not included in the

diet, DOD (developmental orthopedic disease) may result.

Sodium Chloride

Sodium (Na), chloride (CI), and potassium (K) all function in body fluid

regulation, muscle and nerve function and acid base regulation. Sodium and chloride are

considered together as sodium chloride, NaCl. The CI content in the extracellular fluid is

32
directly related to Na. The recommended value for maintenance is at least 0.1% sodium

in the horse's dry diet matter and "for working resulting in sweating, 0.3%" (Lewis,

1995, p. 25). Sodium chloride (salt) can be added to the diet or provided in a block. A

salt block provides free access for the horse. When a horse's body needs sodium, it will

instinctively lick the block. Trace minerals are added to some blocks. These

supplemented blocks ensure adequate intake of the trace minerals. The "trace-

mineralized salt generally contains sodium chloride (98%), zinc (0.1 to 0.35%),

manganese (0.20 to 0.28%), iron (0.15 to 0.35%), copper (0.02 to 0.04%), cobalt (0.05 to

0.07%), and iodine (0.007%)" (Lewis, 1995, p. 26). Sodium is excreted by the kidney

through the urine and sweat. A horse exercising and sweating will need more Na to

prevent muscular weakness, fatigue, exhaustion, and reduced appetite. During hot

weather, excess sweating, or diarrhea, "diets containing 5-lOg common salt/kg will

amply meet the normal Na requirement," whereas maintenance only requires 2-4g Na/kg

(Frape, 1998, p. 53). As mentioned, a salt lick will provide enough sodium without

requiring additional supplementation.

Potassium

Potassium (K), found primarily in forages, is relatively low in grains. Potassium is

excreted in sweat and urine. High grain diets, exercising, hot and or humid weather are

contributing factors to K deficiency. Adequate potassium intake for an adult horse at rest

is 46 mg/ kg diet and 7g/ kg diet for foals (Frape, 1998). If horses do not consume

enough of this mineral, they will have a decreased appetite, decreased feed intake, weight

33
loss or decreased growth rate. Diarrhea also initiates deficiency in several nutrients,

including potassium. Since K is readily excreted through urine and sweat, excess intake

is not a problem for the horse.

Magnesium

M^nesium (Mg) is another macromineral required in the equine diet.

Magnesium is an important mineral in bones and teeth, both as an ion in the blood and as

a cofactor in several enzyme systems. Horses need 0.1% Mg in their diet (Frape, 1998).

Most conmionly fed diets will meet requirements, and deficiency is rare. However, when

a deficiency does occur, the clinical signs are weakness, muscle tremors, ataxia, and

sweating. Excess magnesium is not known to harm horses.

Sulfiir

Sulfiir, a mineral found in grass,fimctionsin amino acid synthesis, enzyme

systems, hair and hoof growth. It also interacts with several other body constituents such

as vitamins and insulin. The protein keratin that makes up hair is 4% sulfur (Lewis,

1995). No deficiency of sulfiir in horses has been reported, and there is no set

requirement for this mineral. Furthermore, no toxic situations result from an excess

sulfiir intake.

34
 Trace Minerals

Trace minerals are consumed in the diet and are important to the horse even

though they are required in minute quantities (parts per million or ppm). Most trace

mineralsfimctionin enzyme systems and contribute to bone formation and maintenance.

Significant trace minerals utilized by the horse are copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese

(Mn), iron (Fe),fluorine(F), iodine (I), selenium (Se), cobalt (Cr), nickel (Ni), and

silicone (Si). All of the trace minerals can be easily consumed in a typical diet and/or by

free access to a mineralized salt block and plenty of water.

Copper

Copper is necessary as an enzyme cofactor and is involved with bone collagen

formation. Copper is stored in the liver and is excreted mainly in the bile and minimally

in the urine. The National Research Council (1989) recommends, but does not require,

that creep feed contain 50 ppm Cu, 25 ppm Cu for weanlings, and 10 ppm Cu for

maintenance (Lewis, 1995). Although recommendations do exist, an actual deficiency is

rare. Supplementationisnotnecessary, but maybe of benefit. Frape discusses

experiments on the effects of Cu supplementation in New Zealand, found that neonatal

foals had a decreased risk of developmental orthopedic diseases when their dams were

given an increased amount of copper in their diet. Throughout the last 4 to 5 months of

gestation, mares were given an increase from 6 to 30 mg Cu/ kg DM. This resulted in the

Cu content in the foals' liver increasing by two-thirds, which in turn resulted in lower

incidence of DOD. (Frape, 1998) Copper is not considered to be toxic in the horse

35
because, with increased intake, absorption and storage in the liver decreases and the

excess is excreted.

Zinc

Zinc is needed for bone formation as well asfimctioningin numerous enzyme

systems. The NRC (1989) reconmiends a diet consisting of 40 ppm Zn for all horses, 15

ppm Zn for mature horses, and 60 ppm Zn for foals. However, Lewis (1995) disagrees,

asserting that "even the 40 ppm that has been recommended by the NRC for all horses

may not be adequate to minimize the risk and incidence of developmental orthopedic

diseases (DOD) in young horses" (p. 37). Deficiency results in decreased appetite,

reduced growth rate in young animals, lesions on the skin, and depression.

Excess intake of zinc disrupts the utilization of copper and results in a Cu

deficiency, therefore increasing the chance of DOD. Over 700 ppm Zn appears to be the

threshold amount affecting Cu utilization (Lewis, 1995). Greater amounts of zinc excess

create anemia and lameness.

Manganese

Manganese is another cofactor that contributes to bone formation. This trace

mineral is specifically involved with "the synthesis of chonodroitin sulfate necessary for

cartilage formation," which is involved in bone growth and reproduction (Lewis, 1995, p.

37). A deficiency results in irregular estrous cycles, enlarged hocks, and shortened legs

36
with knuckled-over joints. Excess of manganese in the horse is not known to be a

problem.

Iron

Iron (Fe) is needed for enzyme systems, specifically in oxygen transportation.

Iron is primarily found in the blood, 67% (Frape, 1998). Deficiency is rare and is usually

caused only when a horse is heavily parasitised. Parasitism reduces the Fe available for

oxygen transportation in the blood, which results in anemia. Toxosis can occur because

Fe is stored in the liver and has no method of excretion. Iron toxosis causes liver damage

and may decrease absorption of other minerals creating a deficiency for other minerals.

Fluoride

Fluoride is a familiar trace element usually associated with teeth, but is also an

important mineral in bones. Deficiency in the horse is uncommon because fluoride is

found in forages, cereals, and water. Although fluoride is not naturally occurring in

water, it is usually added to drinking water because it promotes healthy teeth. An excess

is more likely than a deficiency to occur. Toxicity of fluoride is referred to as florosis

and is most commonly recognized in young horses because excessfluoridecauses

abnormal development and growth of teeth. Problems associated with teeth create

difficulty or painfiil eating and drinking, which is obviously a problem. Other signs of

fluoride toxosis is bone thickening and weakening. (Lewis, 1995)

37
Iodine

Iodine (I), a trace mineral found in mineralized salt, is added to most horse feeds.

Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4. These hormones

help regulate thyroid activity by inhibiting the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) in a

negative feedback mechanism. Because I is added to feed and salt blocks, it is more

often consumed in excess rather than in deficit. Horses require an estimated 0.1 ppm 1,

"with 5 ppm (40 mg/horse/day) being harmfiil" (Lewis, 1995, p. 33). The clinical signs

of excess iodine intake are goiter, enlarged thyroid gland, increased susceptibility to

infectious disease and respiratory distress, hypothermia, and increased neonatal

mortality. In a study on the toxosis of I in mares, infertility and abortions occurred when

the mares were given 300 to 400 mg I daily in feed (Frape, 1998). Furthermore, Frape

indicates that when iodine was given above 100 mg to pregnant mares during the last

three months of gestation, the foals were toxic, showing the same clinical signs of 1

deficiency as well as osseous dysplasia of long bones, which causes the foal to walk on

its heels with its toes in the air (1998). Although 1 is required in small amounts,

overfeeding can be detrimental to the horse and offspring.

Selenium

Selenium is an enzyme catalyst and is closely associated with vitamin E.

Selenium is an antioxidant as well and is also required to convert T4 to T3. The amount

of vitamin E and selenium are dependent on each other. Cell integrity is maintained if

selenium is added to a vitamin E deficient diet and vice versa. The need for selenium, as

38
well as vitamin E, will also increase in a diet high in polyunsaturated fatty acids. The

requirement for selenium is 0.1 mg available Se/ kg feed (Frape, 1998). A deficiency

results in myopathy, vascular problems, and steatis. Myopathy is muscle degeneration,

which is clinically seen in foals with pale, weak muscles with yellow of deposit fat.

Steatis is the inflammation of body fat. Although foals are more likely to be deficient, a

study in the UK has shown that thoroughbred horses "have been associated with poor

racing performance" when the serum Se values fell to less than 0.3 mol/1 (Frape, 1998, p.

66). Signs of deficiency are evident when the amount of selenium is less than 0.05 mg

Se/ kg feed (Lewis, 1995).

Selenium is highly toxic. Toxicity begins at as little as 2-5 mg/ kg feed (Lewis,

1995). Horses can consume an excess of the mineral in their normal feed if that plant is

growing in selenium rich soils, if the mineral content in the feed is miscalculated, and if

the plants consumed are rich in selenium content. There are several plants that can grow

only in Se rich soil, and therefore they contain an extremely high toxic amount of Se.

Lewis indicates that such plants include milkvetches (Astragalus sp), golden weeds

(Haplopappus sp.), woody asters (Xylorrhiza glabriuscula), and prince's plume (Stanleya

pinnata). Other plants do not require Se to live but can grow in the soil with Se and

therefore contain Se in their foliage. These plants include asters (Aster sp. and

Machaeranthera sp.), saltbnish (Triplex sp.), Indian paintbrush (Castilleja sp.),

broomweed (Gutierrezia sp.), beard tongue (Penstemon sp.), gumwed (Grindelia

squarrosa), ironweed (Sideranthus grindelioides), and bastard toadflax(Comandra

39
pallida). (Lewis, 1995) The plants growing in selenium rich soils are primarily in the

Rocky Mountain and Great Plains regions.

Cobalt

Cobalt is necessary for synthesis of B12. No reports of deficiency or toxosis is

available because it is required in a very small amount (0.1 ppm) and it can be tolerated

at very high doses. A horse canfimctionbetween cobalt levels of 0.05 and 25 ppm

(Lewis, 1995). Induced deficiency results in a vitamin B12 deficiency.

Water

Water is the most important nutrient needed. A horse, as well as all other

animals, will die much quicker from no water than from no food. An adult horse is 70%

water and a growing foal's body is 75-80% water. Water is essential for temperature

regulation, fluid stability, transportation of important nutrients, and lactation, and is a

constituent of all cells and extracellular fluid. Water is excreted in sweat, urine, feces,

and from the lungs.

Horses will drink appropriate amounts if allowed free access to fresh, clean

water. Horses need about 1 gal/ 100 lb body weight per day. Requirements increase

during work (20-300%), lactation (50-100%), and during hot weather. If the temperature

increases from 55* to 75" F, water consumption increases 15 to 20% (Perry, 1984).

Water consumption will decrease if the water quality is low. For example, mild

temperatures of water are preferred over extremely hot or cold temperatures.

40
Additionally, water that has been supplemented with extra minerals is unpalatable. After

hard work, water should be restricted from the horse until it cools down. Cold water

consumed quickly by an exhausted horse will increase the risk of colic and founder.

Water that has been contaminated is harmful to horses. Water in ponds and

streams is sometimes inhabited with blue-green algae, which can cause serious problems

in the horse, such as liver damage and even death. Well-water can be contaminated from

sewage seepage and from fertilizers. Care must be taken to ensure that a continuous

supply of clean, uncontaminated water is available for the horse.

Fresh, growing grass is about 80% water. The water content of hay, gain, and

nongrowing forage is less than 15% (Lewis, 1995). Theoretically, a horse grazing freely

on quality grass will consume enough water to meet its needs if it does not have any

severe health problems. The amount of water consumed has a high correlation with dry

matter intake. The correlation is about "0.91 between the two" and "suggests that a horse

needs 0.5-1.0 gallons of water per 2 lb dry matter intake" (Perry, 1984 , p. 272).

Additionally, the more easily food is digested, the less water is consumed. But water

needs increase with salt and protein intake.

Water deficiency can result from diarrhea, poor water quality, contamination, or

limited accessibility. When a horse becomes deficient or dehydrated, its feed intake will

decrease, its performance will decrease, it will have an unthrifty appearance, and it will

have an increased risk of impaction and colic, weight loss , dry membranes (nose, mouth,

etc.), and sagging skin. Death will soon follow if the horse does not receive fluids, either

orally or intravenously if dehydration is serious. (Lewis, 1995)

41
 CHAPTER III

NUTRITION AT DIFFERENT STAGES

Equine nutrition is very important at every stage of a horse's life. The nutritional

needs change for horses at different stages. Different requirements are needed for horses

at work, maintenance, reproduction, and for growth. For example, a performance horse

or one hard at work obviously needs more energy to meet its physical demands. The

weight of the animal also changes the nutrition requirements regardless of its activity.

Furthermore, some horses are easier to maintain because they have a slower metabolic

rate. These horses are referred to as "easy keepers." Horses with fast metabolic rate are

conversely known as "hard keepers" because they are more difficult to keep healthy with

their increased requirements. Each horse should be considered individually because no

two horses are ever the same in activity or metabolic fimction.

Growth

A foal's needs and diet continuously change throughout its first year of life. It is

extremely important that the foal nurse its dam soon after birth. The foal usually will

suckle within 30 minutes to 3 hours. The first milk that is produced, called colostrum, is

high in immunoglobulins and vitamin A. Immunoglobulins, otherwise known as

antibodies, are proteins that help to fight against foreign, unwanted substances such as

disease and viruses. The foal does not receive this acquired immunity before birth

because the immunoglobulins do not pass through the placenta. The colostrum level falls

42
significantly with time. After 12-15 hours from birth, thefractionof immunoglobulins is

only 10-20% of its initial value and falls to 3.8% after 12 hours and 2.2 at 8 days. (Frape,

1998) If the foal does not receive adequate amounts of colostrum, it can be given

another mare's or even a cow's colostrum. Adequate colostrum might be limited due to a

foal's delayed suckling longer than eighteen hours after birth or the dam's reftisal to be

nursed, death of the dam, or premature leakage of colostrum before parturition.

Foals will begin to nibble the dam's feed after about ten days. Foals are

mimicking the mother's actions and are not eating solids for nutritional purposes at this

time. Ultimately this is beneficial for the foal's gastro-intestinal (GI) tract to adjust to

hay and concentrates. Creep feeding is a program designed to increase the foal's diet

with adequate amounts of nutrients to prevent intestinal upset and microflora imbalance

at weaning. Another purpose of creep feeding is to compensate for the mare's decreasing

milk yield and for the decrease in quality of pasture. A good formulation for creep feed

"should be balanced to contain about 16% crude protein, 0.7 to 0.8% Ca and 0.4 to 0.6%

P" (Stotts, 1997). The dam's milk will meet her foal's nutrient requirement for the first

four months of its life (Lewis, 1995). Creep feeding should begin at least two months

before weaning . If inadequate amounts of grain are fed, at weaning the foal will have a

growth spurt in response to a sudden grain intake, which will cause an increased risk for

DOD. Other nutritional imbalances contribute to DOD in the growing foal, such as

inadequate calcium, phosphorus, zinc, and copper as well as excess protein and energy.

Before weaning, grain should be removed from the dam's diet to decrease her

milk production. This should be done 5-7 weeks before weaning. After weaning, forage

43
should be decreased in the mare's diet to the level of a non-lactating mare (1.5 to 2 lb./

100 lb. body weight / day) (Lewis, 1995). The foal will consume more feed to

compensate for the decreased nutrients received in the dam's milk .

Prior to weaning, foals do not appear to need water. In a study of 15 foals with

their dams on pasture, the youngest age at >^iiich a foal was observed to drink water was

at three weeks, and eight of the 15 foals were never observed to drink prior to weaning

(Lewis, 1995). The water content in the dam's milk is sufficient to meet the foal's needs.

After weaning, foals should be fed "1.0-1.5 lb grain mix per 100 lb weight if they

are confined to drylot" (Perry, 1984 , p. 284). The grain mix must contain adequate

calcium and phosphorus or they should be supplemented. A trace mineral salt block

provided to the growing foal will insure proper mineral intake. Feed recommendations

for a weanling (4-12 months) is 70% grain in total diet, 1.7-2.0 lb grain mix /100 lb body

weight / day (Lewis, 1995). Donald Stotts recommends that 30 to 40% of the ration for a

weanling should be a highly palatable hay or pasture ("Creep," 1997). The foal should

be allowed unlimited access to forage unless the for^e is of good quality. The legume

alfalfa is a very good quality forage. If alfalfa is fed to a weanling, the amount should be

restricted "to 0.5 lb. / 100 lb. anticipated mature weight daily until 10 months of age"

(Lewis, 1995, p. 267). Too much good quality forage as well as too much grain will

promote accelerated growth and contribute to DOD.

Requirements for protein and energy are higher during growth. The quality of

protein also deserves attention in the foal's diet. Lysine is a high quality protein often

deficient in growing animals. A deficiency in lysine results in a decreased growth rate.

44
Stotts recommends the foal receive 13 to 14% protein, 0.5 to 0.6% lysine ("Nutrition")

Soybean oil meal is a supplement high in this important protein that can be added to the

regular ration to prevent deficiency.

Work

Working horses also require increased nutrient formulation to keep up with their

bodies' needs. Weight and condition of each individual horse should be considered. For

example, underweight horses will not be able to store enough energy for prolonged

exercise.

Energy is derived in the form of ATP. Energy can be made instantaneously by

anaerobic (without oxygen) processes called glycolysis, in which glucose is synthesized

into glycogen and lactic acid. This energy is momentary and is available for only a few

minutes. Short duration work includes the sprinting of a Quarter Horse or a rodeo horse.

After ATP has been utilized and exhausted from anaerobic metabolism, ATP can be

derived from aerobic (with oxygen) production. Aerobic energy production produces 600

times more energy than anaerobic production (Lewis, 1995).

Energy derived from an aerobic process begins with digestion of fats and

carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are fermented in the hindgut to form the volatile fatty

acids (VFA), proprionate, butyrate, and acetate. The horse "obtains as much as 75% of

its energy requirement from large intestinal absorption of VFA's" (Reece, 1991, p. 245).

Proprionate undergoes glucogenesis along with glycerol, lactate, and protein to form

glucose. Proprionate along with other VFA's go through the TCA (or Krebs) cycle as

45
Acetyl-CoA to create ATP, where proprionate enters as glucogenic or as Acetyl-CoA

and other VFA enter the TCA cycle only as Acetyl-CoA.

Energy is metabolized in muscle cells and in the liver by the TCA cycle. The

liver stores energy in the form of glycogen, protein, and fat. Glucose is stored in the

muscle fibers. Inadequate storage of glucose in the muscle fibers cause's early fatigue.

Although protein does account for minimal energy production, it is not good to

increase protein for increased energy needs. Protein does not need to be increased during

work because it is not a significant source of energy. Adding protein to a work horse's

diet may be detrimental because excess would cause a strain on the kidneys to excrete

urea and the amount of sweat would also increase. The main sources for energy are

carbohydrates and fats. High jM'otein feeds such as soybean meal cost more and supply

less energy than a carbohydrate-rich food would. (Lewis, 1995)

Protein also increases heart rate, sweat, heat release, and increases the urea

content of urine. Excess sweat increases the need for electrolytes and other nutrients.

Increased heart rate puts a detrimental strain on the heart of an active horse. Increased

urea and ammonia in the urine will cause respiratory problems if the horse inhales soiled

bedding. (Lewis, 1995)

Increased fat in the performance horse's diet is a good source of energy and is

very palatable and easily absorbed. Fat supplementation over a short period of time can

increase glucose storage in the muscle fibers and, can thus reduce the risk of fatigue-

related injuries. In a study where "10% fat replaced starch, heat production fell from 77%

of available DE to 66% and available NE rose from 16% of DE to 36% during work,

46
reducing thermal stress, regardless of body fatness and in both temperate and hot

weather" (Frape, 1998, p. 102). Additionally, fat supplementation is beneficial to both

aerobic and anaerobic energy production.

Forages are harder to digest because of there high fiber content, and thus they

contribute to gastrointestinal fill. Therefore, as the level of work increases, the amount

of forage fed should be decreased. The NRC recommendation forage to grain ratio in the

working horse of 65:35 for heavy work, of 50:50 for moderate work, and of 35:65 for

heavy work ("Factors"). Light work is western or pleasureriding,moderate work is

ranch work, barrel racing or jumping, and heavy work is racing, polo, or hunting.

Stallions

Breeding increases the energy requirements for stallions. Vitamin A is also

thought to be beneficial to breeding stallions. In horses, "300-500 lU is reported to

prevent clinical signs of a deficiency and 900 lU to be sufficient for production of

maximum semen quality and quantity and stallion libido" (Lewis, 1995, p. 46). No other

nutrients above maintenance are beneficial to libido or fertility. Allowing the stallion to

gain a little weight before the breeding season begins will provide the added energy

needed. A good diet for a breeding stallion is "up to a maximum of 0.75 lb./100 lb.

body weight daily of a grain mix containing molasses, high-energy dense grains such as

com, and even a 10 to 20 % added fat or oil if necessary may be fed" (Lewis, 1995, p.

224). During breeding season, a diet supplying energy equivalent to that fed to a working

horse is sufficient.

47
 Mares

The mare has special nutrient requirements during gestation (pregnancy) and

lactation. Before the breeding season, the mare should be at least moderatelyfleshy,but

not obese. Frape (1993) suggests that "the mare should be 18% above normal weight

before parturition to "achieve a high fertility after parturition" (213). A horse that is too

thin will have reproduction problems as a consequence of insufficient nutrients.

Breeding efficiency will be decreased, and the embryonic mortality rate will be

increased. Losing weight before or after foaling will also result in a decreased breeding

efficiency as well as a decline in immunity for the foal. On the other hand, an obese

mare during gestation will also cause milk and colostrum production to be lowered,

affecting the foal. Obesity also stimulates poor muscle tone due to decreased activity.

Another factor affecting gestation and parturition is dietary energy and protein. Excess

energy given prior to pregnancy will be beneficial only to a thin mare. However, dietary

protein is very important for a mare to become pregnant. Insufficient protein will result

in reduced ovulation and difficulty in foaling.

Mares, like other female mammals, are remarkably efficient in providing plenty

of nutrients to their unborn foals. This is true even if the dam does not eat recommended

levels of feed or if she eats poor quality feed. An experiment with Thoroughbred mares

and Quarter Horse mares "has shown that a reduction in the energy intake to 75% of that

recommended for lactation by the NRC (1978) does not lead to a parallel decrease in foal

weight at 75 days" (Frape, 1998, p. 219). This is also an example of how efficiently the

mare utilizes available nutrients. However, while the energy content of feed does not

48
affect the foal, it could create other problems in the mare such as poor body condition.

Feeding for the nutritional requirements of maintenance for the first eight months of

pregnancy will supply the neonate with enough nutrients. From months eight to eleven,

gestation is a critical period for foal growth. The NRC (1989) recommends that during

the ninth month, feed should be formulated to contain 1.1 Meal / lb digestible energy,

54% total digestible nutrients, 20% concentrate, 80% roughage, 8.9% crude protein,

0.39% calcium and .30% phosphorus. The requirements increase for the tenth and

eleventh months. The NRC (1989) recommends 1.2 Meal / lb digestible energy, 56%

total digestible nutrients, 30% concentrate, 70% roughage, 0.5% crude protein, 0.41%

calcium and 0.30% phosphorus ("Nutritional"). Energy requirements do not increase

like the significantly increased need for protein.

High quality forages should provide enough nutrients if the mare is allowed to eat

all she wants. The last 3 months of gestation is usually a time of the year not suitable for

high quality, fresh forages. If the mare is not grazing green grass, a beta-carotene

supplement has been reported to "improve ovarian activity, produced earlier and stronger

periods of estrus, improve conception rates, and reduce embryonic mortality" (Lewis,

1995, p. 46). Additionally, the nutrients calcium and phosphorus can be added to a grain

mix with molasses so that it does not get sifted out of the feed. Trace mineralized salt

will also insure adequate amounts of mineral intake. Grain during the last trimester will

provide adequate energy and protein intake as well.

49
 Lactation

Lactation puts a lot of stress on the dam's body. She requires an abundance of

nutrients, especially energy, protein, calcium, and phosphorus. Some imbalances and

insufficient vitamin and mineral concentrations consumed by the mare will adversely

affect the foal after birth. For example, an imbalance in calcium and phosphorus will

affect the foal at birth and will continue to affect the foal by reducing milk yield in the

dam and, consequently, reducing the foal's growth rate. Milk yield and quality are also

affected by the protein and energy content of the feed. Inadequate amounts of energy

may increase the fat and protein of the milk, but decrease the yield. The NRC (1989)

recommendations for lactation are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Daily Recommendations for Diet Proportions of Lactating Mares

Total
DE digestible Concen- Rough- Crude
Mcal/Ib nutrients trate age protein Ca P
% % % % % %
Lactation
first 3 mo 1.2 60 50 50 12.0 .47 .3
3 months to
weaning 1.1 57 35 65 10.0 .33 .20

The protein quality of the milk is related to the protein of the feed that the dam

eats. Mares given soy supplements during lactation increased the foal's plasma

methionine and lysine content and produced foals at 7 weeks that had a greater withers'

height than foals whose dams were not supplemented with soy (Frape, 1998). If the

50
protein content of the mare's feed is of low quality, a protein supplement will be

beneficial for the dam and the foal.

Water and other nutrients are equally important during lactation. Available water

consumed by the dam is directly related to her milk quality and quantity. During

lactation, plenty of water should continuously be available. Other nutrients affecting

milk composition when consumed by the mare are selenium, iodine, and vitamin A. An

iodine deficiency in the dam will cause goiter in the foal. She may later exhibit abnormal

estrous cycles if she is iodine deficient. Vitamin A imbalances result in "clinical signs in

foaling mares [that] include reduced fertility abortion and endometritis" (Lewis, 1995, p.

47). Correct nutrient content and balances should be met for the health ofthe dam and

foal as well as for the later health and well-being of both.

Maintenance

In the wild, horses live on forage and water. This is adequate when feeding any

horse not in growth, exercise, or reproduction. Forages are a good source of fiber, which

is necessary for a healthy gastrointestinal tract because it is a source of energy for the

microorganisms and helps to regulate pH and motility. Without fiber, an animal will

have diarrhea, dehydration, colic, or founder. Forage also provides the horse with

something to do. Horses fed too much grain and too little roughage will need to cure

their boredom by other means like wood eating, coprophagy (eating feces), and tail

biting. The NRC (1989) nutrient recommendations for an idle horse are provided below.

51
 Total Concen- Rough Crude
DE digestible trate -age protein Ca P
Mcal/lb nutrients % % % % %
Maintenance 1.0 50 0 100 7.2 .21 .10

An idle horse is fed in order to maintain normal weight while doing nothing.

Climate has to be taken into account because cold weather increases the energy needed to

maintain stable body temperatures.

52
 CHAPTER IV

TYPES OF FEED

Forages

Forage is the natural herbage that a horse would search out if in the wild.

Pastures contain several different species of forages that are agreeable to the horse. A few

examples are bluegrass, fescue, and orchard grass. Letting the horse feed on pasture is

very beneficial. Grazing is very natural and instinctive to horses. Forages are a good

source of nutrients, and it takes time to eat them, wliich alleviates boredom. Adequate

forage also contributes to healthy GIfimctionbecause forages are high in fiber. Forages

are highest in nutrient content in the spring and fall when their growth is young. Mature

grass has as much as 50% less nutrients such as potassium, phosphorus, magnesium,

manganese, and iron (Lewis, 1995).

Forages are categorized into two groups, grasses and legumes, which are fiirther

divided into warm- and cool-season pereimials and annuals. Warm- and cool-season

plants refer to the time of year and climate suitable for growth. Warm-season plants have

the most growth and nutrients in the summer months, and the cool-season plants thrive in

the spring. Warm- and cool-season plants can be annual, whichmust be replanted yearly,

or perermial, which will regrow year after year without replanting if care is taken.

Legumes are plants named in reference to the fruit or pod they produce. Legumes

contain a higher level of protein, energy, calcium, and vitamins than grasses (Lewis

1995).

53
 Legumes

The protein in legumes is derived from nitrogen in the plant that was obtained

through bacteria that live in a symbiotic relationship in the taproot. Forage legumes are

all in the family Fabaceae, but are grouped in different genera and species. Thus, they

all have a different nutrient value and palatability for the horse. The main legume plants

used for feed or in pasture are alfalfa or lucerne (Medicago sativa), birds-foot trefoil

(Lotus comiculatus), lespedeza (Lespedeza striata), crown vetch (Coromlla varia), and

several different clovers such as alsike (Trifolium hybridum), crimson clover (7".

incarnatum), red clover (T. pratense), sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis and M.alba),

and white clover (r.repe/is). (Lewis, 1995)

Alfalfa

Alfalfa has a high quality nutritive value and isfrequentlyfed as a hay. It should

be cut before coming into bloom to ensure optimum nutrition. The leaves contain most

ofthe nutrients, as with other legiunes, and less in their stalks and stems. Lucerne is very

palatable. Because it is deep rooted, it is capable of withstanding a short duration

without rainfall. The soil must be well drained, and the pH in the soil must be "6.5 - 7.5

for good productivity" (LaCasha, 1997, p. 14). The protein in alfalfa quality is good

except that it does not contain the amino acid methionine, and protein supplements are

very expensive. The New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station is attempting to

genetically alter lucerne so that it contains methionine and thus a higher nutritive quality

54
("Scientists," 1999). If alfalfa contained methionine, it would contain an exceedinglv

high protein content.

The nutritional composition of alfalfa wiien in the vegetative stage is 20% crude

protein, 1.26 Meal / lb digestible energy, 2.01% calcium, 0.28% phosphorus, and when in

full-bloom, the nutrient components are 14.0% crude protein, 1.10 Meal / lb digestible

energy, 1.53% calcium, and 0.27% phosphorus (Sedivec and Boyles, 1993). Alfalfa

matures later in the season to provide a high quality feed through the summer.

Birds-Foot Trefoil

Birds-foot trefoil is a warm-season perennial. This legume can tolerate more

acidic soils, but it is not as resistant to drought as alfalfa. Birdsfoot trefoil is "only

recommended for use in eastern and possibly east-central North Dakota for the legume

mix" (Sedivec and Boyles, 1993). Alfalfa is a much more suitable crop for hay or

grazing because it yields a much higher amount of forage than birds-foot, so it should

only be used when alfalfa is unable to grow in a certain region. The pH ofthe soil must

be 6.0 to 6.2 and must have "a moderate application of phosphorus and sulfur" for good

growth ("Birdsfoot," 1996).

Alsike Clover

Alsike clover grows best in cool, wet conditions. Alsike can withstand the

trampling of grazing. The pH ofthe soil suitable for growth is a wide range from 5.5 to

7.5 ("Alsike," 1996). Alsike has a low palatability and has potential of causing

55
photosensitization if grazed exclusively. Acute photosensitization occurs from

consumption of contaminated pastures of alsike, as well as from other causes, and results

in skin dermatitis or inflammation of thin-haired and white-skinned areas, which has

been referred to as "dew poisoning" (Lewis, 1995). Alsike clover can be mixed with

grass and grazed or used for hay.

Red Clover

Red clover is a thick-stemmed, short-lived perennial living only two to three

years. The appropriate moisture for growth in pasture is 35-100 inches and for hay is 40-

60 inches ("Red," 1996). Red clover requires a soil with a pH of 6.0 to 7.5 ("Red,"

1996). This legume is susceptible to disease and pests. Red clover can be used as a hay

or for grazing with grasses.

Sweet Clovers

Sweet clover is a short-lived biermial, living only 2 years. It is palatable and well

accepted. However, it should not be fed to pregnant or lactating mares. If sweet clover

over-matures, levels of coumarin increase. Mold converts coumarin to dicoumarin,

which inhibits vitamin K. Vitamin K is necessary for blood coagulation, so that a

deficiency will result in hemorrhaging, hemotomas, anemia, and bloody nose. Sweet

clover is resistant to environmental stresses such as drought and cold weather. (Lewis,

1995)

56
White Clover

White clover is a legume high in "voluntary intake, digestibility, and crude

protein" ("White," 1996). It grows good in cool, moist weather, and on well-drained

soils. White clover caimot withstand drought.

Forage legumes are added to grass pastures to increase soil nitrogen content and

increase grass growth. Legume plants add nitrogen to the soil, which is what the grasses

need for growth. The ideal mixture of grass and legume is one with 35 to 50 percent

legume (Herming and Loch, 1998). Additionally, legumes will grow when warm-season

perennials grow little or not at all.

Grasses

Warm-Season Perennials

Grasses such as bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), bahia grass (paspalpum

notatum), digit grasses, and kleingrass are classified as warm-season pereimials because

they grow best in warm, summer climates and continue to grow yearly without reseeding

if the crops are maintained properly. (Lewis, 1995) Warm-season pereimials usually

cannot tolerate extremely cold winters and usually die when subjected to frost.

Bermuda grass is used in pasture or as a hay. Coastal bermuda grass usually

yields higher than Kentucky bluegrass, wheat grasses, and timothy. However, if bermuda

grass is allowed to grow past maturity, and then used for hay, the grass is subjected to a

decrease in nutrient content (Lewis, 1995). Bermuda grass can tolerate trampling and

overgrazing fairly well. However, "Oklahoma reports that it is inferior to the cool season

57
grasses for horses, but could be used in a system to produce some summer grazing"

(Henmng and Loch, 1998). Bermuda grass is maximized when grown in combination

with a legume.

Bahia grass, kleingrass, and digit grasses are other warm-season perennials that

grow best in mid-summer and cannot withstand cold winters. They decrease in nutrient

content with maturity and grow well with legumes.

Cool-Season Perermials

Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis),

bromegrass (Bromus inermis), red canary grass (Phalaris arudinacea), timothy (Phleum

pratense), and wheatgrasses (Agropyron sp.) are all cool-season perennials because they

grow best in spring and fall. (Lewis, 1995) They can withstand winters and they grow

year-to-year without needing to be reseeded.

Tall fescue is a climate-hardy plant. It can withstand drought, wetness, and all

types ofsoils, except sand. Tall fescue grows best in spring and fall. Horses will eat

fescue, and it is nutritional, but it is not preferred. Pregnant mares should not eat tall

fescue because it could be infected with an endophyte mold. A mare grazing late in

gestation "may fail to develop a normal udder and may have no colostrum at foaling

time" as well as "stillborn foals, thick placenta and longer than normal gestation length"

(Herming and Loch, 1998). Furthermore, a mare should be removed from fescue at least

60 days before foaling (Herming and Loch, 1998). A mare should remain off tall fescue

58
until she is no longer nursing, and a foal should not be allowed to graze fescue until after

one year of age.

Kentucky bluegrass is the most palatable of all the grasses (Lewis, 1995). It can

withstand trampling and grazing and is highly nutritive. Bluegrass can survive a cold

winter climate but is not very tolerant to drought. Like other cool-season perennials, it

flourishes in spring and in fall. Kentucky bluegrass can be grown with a legume if

desired.

Bromegrass is tolerant to drought and can even grow some throughout the winter,

although the main growth occurs in the fall and spring. It can withstand close grazing

and trampling. Bromegrass grows best in an area that receives "more than 18 inches of

rainfall" (Lewis, 1995, p. 109). The pH appropriate for growth is between 5.5 and 7.5

(Haimaway, 1996). Bromegrass grows well with alfalfa.

Reed canary grass is not ideal for regions with hot summers. Canary grass can

withstand winters, drought and even wet soils. However, reed canary grass is low in

palatability. (Lewis, 1995)

Timothy grass is high in palatability, but cannot withstand heat or drought.

Timothy is most likely grown in the northern states (Lewis, 1995). It is also frequently

raised in California and Colorado.

Concentrates

Most horses need concentrates at some time in their lives, particularly when

growing, woricing, and lactating. A concentrate is a foodstuff, other than a forage or

59
roughage, that is composed mainly of grain and is high in energy and low in crude fiber

(under 18%) (Lewis, 1995). Concentrates are composed of ground and mixed grains with

added supplements. Concentrates should never be overfed because this is the main cause

of laminitis. Overfeeding high energy will also result in founder and abdominal

problems. The risk of overfeeding is decreased when the concentrate is fed by the weight

ofthe ration and not by volume.

Concentrates can be processed several different ways. They can be fed without

processing, or the feed can be processed by rolling, pelleting,flaking,cubing, or

cracking. Processing can be beneficial with less dustiness and less waste and selective

feeding. Wheat and grain sorghum (milo) are processed to break the hard hulls, which

are unpalatable for the horse. However, the broken kernels of grains can "become

oxidized during prolonged storage and develop staleflavorsthat decrease their

palatability" (Lewis, 1995, p. 77). Oxidation breaks down vitamins and essential fatty

acids.

Oats

Oats are a very popular grain fed to horses. Oats are medium in energy, contain

high amounts of protein, and require little or no processing. The hulls of oats are a high

source of fiber. They are less likely to cause founder or digestive problems because they

contain 10 to 12%fiberas compared with other cereal grains at 2 to 5%fiber(Lewis,

1995). Although oats are very palatable and safe, they are more expensive than other

cereal grains.

60
 Com

Com is another commonly fed grain. Com is very high in energy and is therefore

unsafe to feed in quantity. It has more starch than oats, but has lower quality and

quantity of protein. Because of com's high energy content, overfeeding could result in

founder, diarrhea, or colic.

Other grains less commonly fed and used in grain mixes include barley, milo, and

wheat. These grains are less palatable than com and oats. Molasses can be added to

these grains to increase palatability for the horse.

Feeds may also be classified as haylage or silage. These are feeds cut at a high

moisture and high nutrient content and stored in a silo under anaerobic conditions. The

process allows the feed to maintain the moisture and nutrient content and can be stored

for several years if well preserved. Haylage refers to a legume or grass, and silage is any

feed containing a grain that undergoes the process of anaerobic storage.

The protein content of a feed can be increased by adding soybean oil meal or

linseed oil meal. Soybean meal is higher in the indispensable amino acid lysine and is a

better protein quality additive. Horse feeds containing more than 20% crude protein are

generally classified as a protein supplement (Lewis, 1995). Other protein supplements

are cotton seeds, sunflower seed meal, and rapeseed (canola). Protein supplements may

be needed during work, lactation, growth, or reproduction if the feed provided has

inadequate amounts of cmde protein.

61
 Conclusion

Many choices are available for the different nutmtional needs of horses. One fact

that must always be considered is that every horse is different. Although basic guidelines

are set for feeding a growing, working, lactating, etc. horse, no two horses are the same,

and therefore feeding practices must be considered individually.

People have found ways to adequately feed horses so that the horse's needs are

met as well as ours too. Commercially prepared feeds, concentrates, complete feeds, and

supplements provide horses with the required nutrients as well as allowing for shorter

eating periods and longer working or exercising periods. Of course, forage must always

be given to encourage healthy gut function and to prevent boredom. Feeding an

appropriate and healthy diet makes both horse and a owner happy.

62
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64