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Iron and Steel Making

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Iron (Fe)
Basic information:

Iron is a metal; the fourth abundant element found on earth, next to oxygen, silicon and
aluminium. The average composition of the earth contains 4.15% iron. It is relatively soft and
is rarely used commercially.

Atomic Symbol: Fe, Atomic number: 26, Melting Point: 1535oC and Iron has a
material density is 7.874 g/cm3.

Crystal Structures:
From room temperature to up to 910oC: BCC (Body Centred Cubic) ----α iron
Above 910oC to up to 1388oC: FCC (Face Centred Cubic) --------------- γ iron
Above 1388oC to up to melting point: BCC (Body Centred Cubic) ------ δ iron

Occurrence in nature: Native metallic iron is rarely found in nature because iron which
commonly exhibits valences of O+2 and O+3 combines readily with oxygen and sulphur.

Occurrence in human body: The average adult body contains 3 grams of iron of which 65%
is found in haemoglobin, which helps to carry oxygen from the lungs to the various parts of
the body.

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Iron ore mining

Mining: the activity, occupation, and industry concerned with the extraction of mineral

Mineral: a naturally occurring inorganic element or compound having an orderly internal

structure and a characteristic chemical composition, crystal form, and physical properties
Rock: any naturally formed aggregate of one or more types of mineral particles

Ore: a mineral deposit that has sufficient utility and value to be mined at a profit.
Gangue: the valueless mineral particles within an ore deposit that must be discarded.
Non-metallic minerals (also known as industrial minerals): the nonfuel mineral ores those
are not associated with the production of metals. These include phosphate, potash, halite,
trona, sand, gravel, limestone, sulphur, and many others.

Blast furnace grade iron ore is mined as magnetite or hematite. Both minerals require
additional beneficiation prior to being of sufficient quality for use in iron making. The
minerals undergo grinding, screening and a separation process (either magnetic or flotation)
to separate the iron-containing material from impurities. Following separation, the material
is pelletized into iron ore pellets capable of being transported and charged into a blast
furnace.
Pellets are Fine particles of iron ore mixed with bonding clay and roasted into hard round
balls for blast furnace feed.
The extraction of iron ore involves surface (open-pit) or underground mining techniques,
the mining method selected depends on a variety of factors including the nature and location
of the deposit and the size, depth, and grade of the deposit. Underground mining requires
more energy than surface mining due to greater requirements for hauling, ventilation, water
pumping, and other operations. Surface mining accounts for the majority of iron ore being
produced worldwide.
1. Drilling
Drilling is the act or process of making a cylindrical hole with a tool for the purpose of
exploration, blasting preparation, or tunnelling. Drilling equipment includes explosive
loader trucks, diamond drills, rotary drills, percussion drills, and drill boom jumbos. Drills
are run from electricity and diesel power and, to a lesser extent, indirectly from compressed
air. The energy is used to power components of the drill that perform tasks such as
hammering and rotation.
2. Blasting
Blasting uses explosives to aid in the extraction or removal of to be mined material by
fracturing rock and ore using the energy released during the blast. The energy consumed in
the blasting process is derived from the chemical energy contained in the blasting agents.
This sets blasting apart from other processes, which are powered by traditional energy
sources, such as electricity and diesel fuel. A common explosive used for blasting
operations is ammonium nitrate/fuel oil (ANFO) mixture.

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3. Loading and haulage

In open-pit mines, the broken rocks are excavated by a front-end loader and loaded onto a
dump truck for haulage to the processing plant. Most mines have a loading fleet including
wheel loaders, shovel units, and excavators. The wheel loaders have a capacity ranging from
50 to 90 t, while the shovel units and excavators have capacities ranging from 200 to 250 t.

4. Crushing
Crushing is the process of reducing the size of run-of-mine material into coarse particles
(typically coarser than 5 mm). The efficiency of crushing depends on the efficiency of
upstream processes (rock fragmentation due to blasting or digging in the
extraction process) and, in turn, has a significant effect on downstream processes
(grinding or separations).
5. Screening and separations
Screening is an important step for dry beneficiation of iron ore. Crushing and screening is
typically the first step of iron ore beneficiation processes. In most ores, including iron ore,
valuable minerals are usually intergrown with gangue minerals, so the minerals need to be
separated in order to be liberated. This screening is an essential step prior to their separation
into ore product and waste rock.
6. Stacking and stockpiling
Stackers are used for stockpiling so that bulk goods can later be reclaimed for loading onto a
truck or rail containers for transporting to another stockpile in the port or steelworks or for
ship loading. Mechanical stackers are operated using diesel fuel-based machinery or
electricity.
7. Reclaiming and loading on container/vessel
Iron ores, either fines or lumps, are reclaimed from a stockpile for loading onto a vessel,
container, truck, or ship for transport. Reclaimers use diesel fuel for their energy source.
8. Transport
Iron ores are transported from the mine site to the port for overseas export or to a local
steelworks for making iron in a blast furnace. Ore is usually transported by either rail
or truck to a port. Sometimes, ships are used for transporting ores to the port or a local
steelworks.

Iron and steel making

During the middle Ages in Europe, the invention of the cannon created the first real
demand for iron; only then did it finally exceed copper and bronze in usage. Also, the cast
iron stove, the appliance of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, significantly increased
demand for iron. In the nineteenth century, industries such as railroads, shipbuilding,
construction, machinery, and the military created a dramatic growth in the demand for iron
and steel in Europe and America. Although large quantities of (crude) pig iron could be
produced by blast furnaces, the subsequent processes for producing wrought iron and steel
were slow.

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The necessity to improve productivity of these vital metals was the ‘‘mother of
invention.’’ Henry Bessemer in England developed the process of blowing air up through
the molten iron that led to the Bessemer converter (patented in 1856). Pierre and Emile
Martin in France built the first open hearth furnace in 1864. These methods permitted up to
15 tons of steel to be produced in a single batch (heat), a substantial increase from previous
methods. In the United States, expansion of the railroads after the Civil War created a huge
demand for steel. In the 1880s and 1890s, steel beams were first used in significant
quantities in construction. Skyscrapers came to rely on these steel frames.
When electricity became available in abundance in the late 1800s, this energy source
was used for steelmaking. The first commercial electric furnace for production of steel was
operated in France in 1899. By 1920, this had become the principal process for making
alloy steels. The use of pure oxygen in steelmaking was initiated just before World War II
in several European countries and the United States. Work in Austria after the war
culminated in the development of the basic oxygen furnace (BOF). This has become the
leading modern technology for producing steel, surpassing the open hearth method around
1970. The Bessemer converter had been surpassed by the open hearth method around 1920
and ceased to be a commercial steelmaking process in 1971.

 There are basically five (5) stages in the iron and steel processing operations by which
raw materials are to be converted to finished steel products. These are:

(i) Raw Materials preparation and Coke Making.

(ii) Iron making

(iii) Steel Making.

(iv) Continuous Casting or Continuous Rolling.

(v) Finishing Operations.

 The first four stages are usually called the PRIMARY END while the last stage is
termed the FINISHING END.

There are sub classifications under iron and steel making processes based on the type of
process taken, and those are illustrated as follows:

1) Iron Making

1.1) Indirect Reduction (Blast Furnace Process)

1.2) Direct Reduction Process

1.2.1) Coal Based DR Process
1.2.2) Gas Based DR Process

2) Steel Making

2.1) Primary Steel Making

2.1.1) LD (Linz-Donawitz) Converter Process or basic oxygen furnace BOF

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2.1.2) Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Process

2.2) Secondary Steel Making

2.2.1 Ladle Refining Furnace (LRF) Process

1. Iron Making
Iron making is a reduction reaction process in which the iron oxide (ore) is reduced to iron.
There are two principal categories of iron making processes, viz.
1.1) Indirect Reduction (Blast Furnace Process),
2.2) Direct reduction Process

1.1) Blast Furnace Process:

Is a counter current process in which the raw materials flow down wards in contact with up
flowing hot reducing gas i.e. CO. The blast furnace is a large, counter current, chemical
reactor in the form of a vertical shaft which is circular in cross section used to produce iron.
A blast furnace is a refractory-lined chamber with a diameter of about 9 to 11 m (30–35 ft) at
its widest and a height of 40 m (125 ft),

Raw Materials:
Iron Ores: Iron ore is a mineral rich in iron oxides, including other elements, and is usually
found in the form of
Magnetite:.........Fe3O4.......................Black. .......72.4% Fe
Hematite:...........Fe2O3.......................red...... ......70.0% Fe
Limonite:...........2Fe2O3.3H2O.... .....Brown.........60.0% Fe
Siderite:.............FeCO3......................brown........48.3% Fe
Pyrite:................FeS2............................................46.6% Fe
98% of all mined iron ore is used in the steel production process.

Coke
Coal is a mineral consisting mainly of sedimentary fossilized carbon with smaller amounts
of other elements, such as sulfur, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and more. Coal is found under
the earth crust as lignite, or brown coal — the lowest ranking coal, bituminous coals and
anthracite. It is extracted either from underground by shaft mining or at ground level by
open-pit mining.
Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide and is also
used in the production of metallurgical coke as blast furnace fuel. Some smaller blast
furnaces can utilize charcoal as a carbon source, but the larger blast furnaces require the
strength and durability of coke.
Coke is produced by igniting bituminous coal under reduced oxygen conditions in oven
batteries specially designed for this process. The coking process generates the following
main volatiles as byproducts: coke oven gas, tar, ammonium sulfate, benzol, toluol and
naphtha.

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A coke battery is made up of multiple ovens. Coal is crushed and blended prior to being
charged in a coke oven. A larry car charges the individual oven with the blended coal. In the
coke oven, the coal is heated to 1,800°F for up to 18 hours. During that time, the volatiles of
the coal are driven into the offgas and a pure carbon form called “coke” remains. The coke,
when exposed to oxygen, will immediately ignite and begin to burn. When the coke is
pushed from the oven into a railcar, it is quickly quenched to cool the coke and stop the
burning process. The cooled coke is then dumped onto a coal wharf where it is taken to a
facility to be screened and sized prior to being charged into the blast furnace..

Flux
Flux is used to collect impurities present in the iron ore. Lime stone (CaCO3) and dolomite
(MgO) major types used as a flux.
Limestone is a sedimentary rock of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), composed mainly of the
minerals calcite and aragonite. Depending on the degree of purity, it may also contain silica,
clay, silt and sand. As mined, limestone will not readily react during the steelmaking
process and requires processing prior to use.
Limestone is burned in a rotary lime kiln to create what is called “burnt” lime (CaO). The
lime kiln is a cylinder tilted at a slight angle from charge end down to the burner end.
Limestone is charged at the one end and, as the cylinder rotates, it falls toward the burner
end. The burner reduces the limestone into lime and carbon dioxide by the reaction:
CaCO3 => CaO + CO2. Upon exiting the kiln, the lime is cooled, screened and sized for use
in the steelmaking process.
In the blast furnace process, limestone is the flux material for producing the slag to collect
the impurities from the hot metal. Limestone fines are also used in the production of sinter
and direct reduced iron to improve their reactivity.
Dolomitic lime is a type of limestone that contains a high amount of MgO in addition to
CaO. MgO is a critical component in steelmaking slag’s to provide the proper basicity to the
slag further increasing the slag’s ability to absorb steelmaking impurities such as FeO, SiO2,
P2O5, MnO, Al2O3 and sulfur.

Air or Oxygen rich air: Source of Oxygen (O2) used to carry out exothermic reaction with
carbon.

Process Description:

 A blast furnace utilizes primarily coke, iron ore and limestone to produce pig iron. It is a
continuously operating process where alternating layers of iron ore pellets, coke and
limestone are charged into the top of the blast furnace.
 Inside the blast furnace, the three key ingredients are heated by hot blast air heated to
1,000–1,200°C, which is blown in through the tuyeres at the bottom of the furnace.
Additional fuels such as oil, natural gas and pulverized coal are also added to the hot
blast to aid in the efficiency of the blast furnace.

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Schematic of Blast Furnace:

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The following reactions take place.

a) The oxygen in the air reacts with the coke to form hot reducing gases (mostly carbon
monoxide) which ascend through the burden and provide heat for melting;

2C + O2 2CO (Exothermic reaction)

b) Carbon monoxide and carbon reacts with the iron ore to reduce it to iron;

3Fe2O3+ CO 2Fe3O4 + CO2

Fe3O4 + CO 3FeO + CO2
FeO + C Fe + CO

c) The lime stone that is added as a flux decomposes to calcium oxide (CaO, also called as
quick lime).
CaCO3 CaO + CO2

d) The calcium oxide combines with silica to form liquid slag.

CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3

 The process repeats itself from the bottom of the blast furnace to the top, at which time
the CO and CO2 is captured in the offgas system. The offgas of the blast furnace is sent
through a dropout chamber to remove particulate matter from the gas. The hot gas is
then circulated through a series of refractory checkers in a blast furnace stove, thereby
heating the checkers. A valve is switched and cool air is then circulated through these
pre-heated checkers, which pre-heat the air that is then sent to the tuyeres of the blast
furnace creating the hot blast. The cooled, cleaned offgas is then sent for further
processing or for energy generation..
 Molten iron (hot metal or pig iron) and slag (molten oxides) are produced and
accumulate in the hearth. Slag being lighter, floats over the hot metal.
 The hot metal and slag are drained out through their respective tap holes into a ladle.
 The iron ore reduces to elemental iron with approximately 4% dissolved carbon, 0.7%
SiO2 (impurity from the iron ore) and 0.01% sulphur (impurity from the coke). On
regular intervals, the blast furnace tap hole is drilled out to allow the molten iron to tap
into a runner and down into a torpedo car or molten iron ladle for transportation to the
steelmaking facilities — typically to a basic oxygen furnace, but an electric arc furnace
can also utilize molten iron. As the molten iron travels down the runner, a refractory
gate redirects the slag on top of the molten iron to a slag pot. The slag is cooled and
processed as road or construction aggregate.

1.2) Direct Reduction Process of Iron Making:

Direct reduction is the process of converting iron ore into metallic iron without melting. The
product of DR process is called as direct reduced iron (DRI). Direct reduced iron (DRI), also
called sponge iron due to its porous nature, is produced in a reactor by direct reduction of iron
ore in solid form, utilizing natural gas as the reducing agent to produce pellets or briquettes

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(hot briquetted iron or HBI). The product contains 90–97% iron, the balance being mainly
carbon and trace amounts of other impurities. DRI is consumed primarily by electric arc
furnaces of mini-mills, which can melt only rich sources of metal, such as steel scrap and
DRI, but not iron ore. There are a number of DRI production processes in the industry.

Direct reduced iron (DRI) can be produced in pellet, lump, or briquette form. When
produced in pellets or lumps, DRI retains the shape.

The removal of oxygen from the iron oxide during direct reduction leaves voids, giving the
DRI a spongy appearance when viewed through a microscope therefore DRI is also called as
sponge iron. Thus, DRI in these forms tends to have lower apparent density, greater porosity,
and more specific surface area than iron ore.

DR process can be broadly classified in two viz. 1) Coal based, and 2) Gas based
1.2.1) Coal Based Process:
Raw Materials:
1) Iron ore in the form of pellets or lumps.
2) Coke (Source of Carbon).
3) Flux: Lime stone/Dolomite (MgO).
4) Air

Process Description (General):

 This process utilizes non-coking coal as reducing agent along with pellet or lumpy rich
grade Fe ore and dolomite.

 The reduction is carried out in an inclined rotary kiln (Inclined rotating cylindrical vessels
containing internal refractory insulation) which rotates at a predetermined speed. The
mixture of raw materials flows along the rotary kiln in contact with reducing gas.

2C + O2 2CO

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3Fe2O3 + CO 2Fe3O4 + CO2

Fe3O4 + CO 3FeO + CO2
FeO + C Fe + CO

 Small quantities of limestone/ Dolomite are added to prevent sulphur pick up by iron at
elevated temperature from the coal.
 A temperature profile ranging from 800-1050oC is maintained along the length of the kiln
at different zones and as the material flows down due to gravity the ore is reduced.
 The hot reduced sponge iron along with semi-burnt coal, discharged from kiln is cooled in
water cooled cylindrical rotary cooler to a temperature of 100–200 degree centigrade.
 The discharge from cooler consisting of sponge iron, char other contaminations are passed
on through magnetic separators to separate sponge iron from other impurities.

1.2.2) Gas Based Process:

Raw Materials:
1) Iron ore in the form of pellets or lumps.
2) Natural gas (Source of Carbon) + Hydrogen.
3) Flux: Dolomite (MgO)

Process Description (General):

 A vertical retort is used for the reduction of iron ore as against a rotary kiln in coal based
sponge iron process.
 This process utilizes natural gas as the reducing agent.
 Natural gas is reformed to enrich with H2 and this enriched and reformed gas mixture is
preheated. When the gases are travelling upwards the charge moves downward by gravity.

 The CO, C and H2 reduce the iron ore to iron in the following manner.

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Fe2O3 + CO 2Fe3O4 + CO2

Fe2O3 +H2 2Fe3O4 +H2O
Fe3O4 + CO 3FeO + CO2
Fe3O4 + H2 FeO + H2O
FeO + C Fe + CO
FeO + H2 Fe + H2O

 Gas-based sponge iron is not subjected for magnetic separation, as no contamination with
non–magnetic is possible either it can be cooled indirectly or briquetted in hot condition to
get hot briquetted iron (HBI).

The Main DRI quality parameters are product metallization and carbon content. DRI
metallization is defined as the ratio of metallic iron (FeM) to the total iron (FeT) in the
product.

The target of the DRI producers is to achieve the metallization of around 95%.

2. Steel Making
Steels are made by removing excess C and other impurities of pig iron by oxidation" process
followed by deoxidation" process, and addition of C and other alloying elements to the
required level. Oxidation is carried out by blowing air or oxygen through molten pig iron in
either of following furnaces: Steel making can be studied in two sections viz, 1) Primary and
2) Secondary Steel Making.

2.1) Primary Steel Making:

is an oxidation reaction process, in which the impurity elements like Mn, Si and P etc from
iron are removed by oxidation. There are several primary steel making processes of which
we’ll take a look on L.D Converter Process and Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Process.

2.1.1) LD (Linz-Donawitz) Converter Process:

The converter is a pear-shaped, refractory-lined reactor into which the hot metal is treated to
produce primary steel.
The basic oxygen furnace process is a method of primary steelmaking in which carbon-rich
hot metal, delivered by the blast furnace, is made into steel. It was originally developed in
the early 1950s in the Austrian cities Linz and Donawitz and is thus referred to as the LD
process.
In this process, hot metal, steel scrap and flux (burnt lime) are charged into a furnace
commonly called a converter. The scrap/metal mix is blown with pure oxygen via a water-
cooled lance. The oxygen reacts with the silicon and carbon dissolved in the hot metal
generating heat, CO2 gas and SiO2, among other byproducts. The CO2 is generated as a gas
and the SiO2 is absorbed into the slag created from the burnt lime addition. The process
removes the carbon via oxidation from 4% to approximately 0.04%. Once the carbon level

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has been sufficiently reduced in the steel, the lance is removed and the vessel is rotated to
tap the steel into a ladle. The vessel then rotates back to pour out the slag in preparation for
the next heat. Since steel delivered by the BOF may not meet the customer’s metallurgical
specifications, it may require final refinement in a secondary metallurgical station and/or a
vacuum degasser prior to solidification.
Raw Materials:
1) Hot Metal (Molten Iron)
2) Coke ( Source of Carbon)
3) Flux: Lime and Dolomite, In steelmaking, CaO is an extremely reactive material
added to the steelmaking process to create slag. Slag in steelmaking absorbs the oxide
impurities of the steelmaking process to produce steel with the correct chemical
quality and composition
4) Oxygen.

Process Description:

 Pure oxygen (>99 %) is blown onto the liquid hot metal through a water cooled lance
which reacts with carbon in an exothermic reaction, providing temperature for the process.

2C + O2 2CO

 The oxygen is blown continuously until the impurity elements like manganese (Mn),
Silicon (Si), Phosphorous(P) are oxidised and removed into the slag.
 Since the line of oxidation of phosphorous in the Ellingham diagram lies very close to the
line of oxidation of iron, any attempt to oxidise P may result in the oxidation of iron. So to
overcome this problem basicity of the slag is maintained between 2 to 4 by adding lime.

 At this basicity the P oxidises at lower values of ΔG and temperature without oxidising
iron.
2Mn + O2 2MnO
Si + O2 SiO2
4P + 5O2 2P2O5
 Once the P level of < 0.04% is achieved in the primary steel, it is sent for secondary steel
making.

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2.1.2) Electric Arc Furnace Process of Primary Steel Making:

Raw Materials:
1) Coke ( Source of Carbon)
2) Flux: Lime and Dolomite.
3) Oxygen.
4) DRI (source of Iron) and Steel Scrap, Steel Scrap consists of recyclable materials left
over from product manufacturing and consumption, such as parts of vehicles, building
supplies, and surplus materials. Unlike waste, scrap is an important industrial
commodity and can have significant monetary value. Scrap is generally classified in
various groups in accordance with their density, contaminants contents and other
properties, as follows:

 Auto bundling/busheling
 No 1 heavy melt
 Plate and Structural
 Automotive Shred
 many other sorting categories related to their source and metallurgical properties

According to research conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, recycling

scrap metals can be quite beneficial to the environment. Using recycled scrap metal in
place of virgin iron ore can yield:

 75% savings in energy

 90% savings in raw materials used
 86% reduction in air pollution
 40% reduction in water use

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 76% reduction in water pollution

 97% reduction in mining wastes

Every ton of new steel made from scrap steel saves:

 1,115 kg of iron ore

 625 kg of coal
 53 kg of limestone

Recycling Fe units in the scrap back into liquid steel is a fundamental production goal.

In the electric arc furnace (EAF), electrical energy is utilized to create a heat of steel.
Recycled steel scrap or other iron raw material is charged into the furnace. High-power
electric arcs delivered via graphite electrodes are sent through the scrap generating heat and
melting the scrap into liquid steel. Many EAFs also utilize burners in the walls of the
furnace to inject oxygen, carbon, and/or natural gas to improve heat utilization and slag
development. Once the heat has been melted, the steel is tapped into a ladle for further
processing and the slag is poured off in preparation for the next heat.
The main task of most modern EAFs is to convert the solid raw materials, such as steel
scrap, direct reduced iron (DRI), and hot briquetted iron (HBI) to liquid crude steel as fast
as possible and then refine it further in subsequent secondary steelmaking processes.
Key components of the EAF are: the refractory lined vessel and cover; the electric melting
power supply consisting of the main transformer with controls, power-conducting cables,
arms and electrodes; the scrap or DRI charging buckets or delivery equipment, depending
on the type of EAF installation; as well as other related equipment.

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Process Description:
 The scrap along with lime and coke is charged into the furnace.
 The heat required to melt steel scrap and DRI is provided by electric arcs created between
theelectrodes and scrap in the furnace.
 After the scrap has been melted, the DRI is continuously added through the chute provided
on the roof of furnace and the temperature is normally increased so that refiningreactions
can be carried out.
 Oxygen and carbon may be injected into the steel and slag phasesrespectively which react
toliberate heat energy thereby reducing the power consumption.

2C + O2 2CO

 Lime is added to maintain the basicity of slag between 2 to 4, which is required for
dephosphorization.
2Mn + O2 2MnO
Si + O2 SiO2
4P + 5O2 2P2O5

 The favourable conditions for dephosphorization are:

 Oxidizing atmosphere
 Low temperature (1400oC to 1550oC)
 Basicity around 2 to 4

 Dololime is added to protect the refractory lining of the furnace from the reaction with
SiO2present in the slag.
 In addition to absorbingimpurities from the steel, the slag also protects the steel from the
atmosphere. Furthermore, itprotects the furnace walls from the arcs, thereby increasing the
electrical efficiency. It istherefore of great importance to maintain a high slag quality and
provide it with foamingproperties.
 Once the P level of < 0.04% is achieved in the primary steel, it is sent for secondary steel
making.

2.2) Secondary Steel Making

The oxidising process in the converter is usually followed by ‘secondary steel making’.
The main objectives of secondary steel making are:
 Deoxidation and desulphurization.
 Adjustment of chemical compositions (as per the grade required).
 Temperature adjustment in time for the downstream casting process.
 Removal of undesirable gases such as hydrogen and nitrogen.
These steps are performed in the ladle furnace and in a vacuum degassing system

2.2.1) Ladle Refining Furnace (LRF) Process]

A ladle metallurgy furnace is used to relieve the primary steelmaking furnace of most
secondary refining operations, and its primary functions are:

 Reheating of liquid steel with electric power delivered by graphite electrodes

 Homogenization of steel temperature and chemistry through inert gas stirring

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 Formation of a slag layer that protects refractory from arc damage, concentrates and
transfers heat to the liquid steel, trap inclusions and metal oxides, and provide the
means for desulphurization.

Secondary functions that can be included with a ladle furnace are:

 Alloy additions to provide bulk or trim chemical control

 Cored wire addition for trimming or morphology control
 Provide a means for deep desulphurization
 Provide a means for dephosphorization
 Act as a buffer for downstream steelmaking equipment

Process Description:
 The primary steel is tapped into the ladle where it is deoxidized with aluminium and
silicon (FeSi).
4Al + 3O2 2Al2O3
Si + O2 SiO2

 Sample of the steel is taken after tapping and deoxidation in advance for further refining.
 The steel in the ladle is then transported further to the heating unit where it is heated using
electric energy through three graphite electrodes.
 Either Argon/Nitrogen is purged from the bottom to bring about homogeneity of liquid
metal composition and temperature.
 The basicity of slag is maintained around 4 by adding lime, which is required for
desulphurization.
2CaO + 2S 2CaS + O2

 The favourable conditions for desulphurization are:

 Reducing atmosphere.
 High Temperature (around 1600oC).
 Basicity around 4.
 Alloying is done through lumpy ferroalloys( FeSI, FeMn, FeCr, FeV, FeM etc) and wire
feeder. Also slag formers are added.

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 The ladle proceeds to the vacuum degassing where dissolved gases and inclusions are
removed.

2.2.2) Vacuum Degassing Process:

In an RH degasser, the degasser inserts two snorkels into the ladle top. One snorkel injects
argon gas during the process to draw steel up that leg of the degasser to pool within the lower
vessel of the RH degasser then proceed down the downleg back into the ladle, which
circulates the steel through the process. The steel sent from the steelmaking converter to an
RH degasser is usually in a high-oxygen state. The internal chamber of the degasser is
depressurized to 1–2 torr during the process to assist in drawing the steel up into the vessel
and to change the partial pressure over the steel surface, enhancing the reaction between
carbon and oxygen. At the low pressure, the partial pressure of CO to CO2 is such that the
carbon and oxygen in the steel bath quickly react to form CO and CO2 which, as gases, are
evacuated from the chamber. Through the RH process, the carbon content in the steel bath
can be reduced from 0.04% to as low as 0.001%.
A vacuum tank degasser (VTD) is used to reduce the concentrations of dissolved gases (H2,
N2, O2) in the liquid steel; homogenize the liquid steel composition and bath temperature;
remove oxide inclusion materials from the liquid steel; and provide conditions that are
favorable for final desulfurization. VTDs can be a tank in which the ladle is set down into
the tank and a water-sealed lid is applied to ensure the vacuum or the ladle can act as the
tank whereby a lid is sealed to the top of the ladle prior to evacuation. During operations at
the VTD, the liquid steel is stirred by percolating argon gas through a refractory stir plug
arrangement in the bottom of the ladle to promote homogenization and gas evolution. The
argon connection to the ladle is established when the ladle is set in place inside the vacuum
tank.
The chambers in both processes are evacuated to the required operating pressures by one of
three ways: steam jet ejectors, a water ring pump or a mechanical pump.

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Vacuum degassing processes refer to the exposure of molten steel to a low-pressure

environment to remove gases (chiefly hydrogen and oxygen) from the steel. The effectiveness
of any vacuum degassing operation depends upon the surface area of liquid steel that is
exposed to low pressure. The mechanisms of hydrogen and oxygen removal from liquid steel
are related directly to exposed surface area molten steel.

The steel after secondary treatment is sent to cast into billets, blooms or slabs as semi finished
product, later this semi finished products are sent to the rolling mill where they are converted to
finished products like rods, wires, sheets, etc.

casting
is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold where it
solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity. The term casting is also applied to the part that is
made by this process. It is one of the oldest shaping processes, dating back 6000 years
(Historical Note 10.1). The principle of casting seems simple: melt the metal, pour it into a
mold, and let it cool and solidify; yet there are many factors and variables that must be
considered in order to accomplish a successful casting operation. Casting includes both the
casting of ingots and the casting of shapes. The term ingot is usually associated with the
primary metals industries; it describes a large casting that is simple in shape and intended for
subsequent reshaping by processes such as rolling or forging. Shape casting involves the
production of more complex geometries that are much closer to the final desired shape of the
part or product.

Fig, Flow chart for converting pig iron into useful casted iron and steel

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Figure Four typical casting processes: (a) and (b) Green sand molding, in which clay-bonded sand is
packed around a pattern. Sand cores can produce internal cavities in the casting. (c) The permanent
mold process, in which metal is poured into an iron or steel mold. (d) Die casting, in which metal is
injected at high pressure into a steel die. (e) Investment casting, in which a wax pattern is surrounded
by a ceramic; after the wax is melted and drained, metal is poured into the mold.

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Slab

A slab is the semi-finished flat product of the continuous casting process (slab caster) for
further processing by a hot strip mill into plate and/or strip. It has a rectangular cross-section
ranging from 6 to 20 inches (150 to 500 mm) thick and 40 to 120 inches (1,000 to 3,050
mm) wide.
The slab casting process begins with a steel ladle suspended over a tundish. The tundish
provides a buffer between the changing of ladles to allow the continuous process of the
caster. The tundish also provides the last opportunity for any inclusions (impurities) to float
out of the steel into the slag prior to entering the solidification mold. The steel in the tundish
flows to the nozzles suspended over the continuous casting mold. The slab being cast by a
slab caster will typically be 9 inches (225 mm) thick and can vary in width from 40 to 120
inches (1,000–3,050 mm).As the steel flows into the caster mold, the caster mold is
oscillating up and down to “push” the liquid steel deeper into the mold. The mold itself is
typically copper-lined and water-cooled. The molten steel in the mold receives a steady
amount of mold powder, which melts and provides a lubricating barrier between the molten
steel and the copper mold. Enough heat is removed within the mold to solidify the surface
of the slab as it exits the mold into the spray chamber while the internal steel is still molten.
The spray chamber provides steady water sprays to the slab surface to further solidify the
steel within the slab. The point in the process where the slab is completely frozen is referred
to as the metallurgical length of the caster.
Eventually, the solidified slab is bent from vertical to horizontal and then it is cut by gas
torches into individual slabs that can be handled by an overhead crane, rail car, or a rubber-
tired carrier to transport the slabs to the hot rolling process.
Bloom
A bloom is the semi-finished product of the continuous casting process (bloom caster) used
in the production of heavy structural long products and rails. Depending on the final
product, blooms can be of square or rectangular cross-section with sides typically ranging
from 8 to 24 inches (200 to 600 mm).
The casting process begins with a steel ladle suspended over a tundish. The tundish provides
a buffer between the changing of ladles to allow the continuous process of the caster. The
tundish also provides the last opportunity for any inclusions (impurities) to float out of the
steel into the slag prior to entering the solidification mold. The steel in the tundish flows to
the nozzle suspended over the continuous casting mold.As the steel flows into the caster
mold, the caster mold is oscillating up and down to “push” the liquid steel deeper into the
mold. The mold itself is typically copper-lined and water-cooled. The molten steel in the
mold receives a steady amount of mold powder or oil, which provides a lubrication barrier
between the molten steel and the copper mold. Enough heat is removed within the mold to
solidify the surface of the steel as it exits the mold into the spray chamber while the internal
steel is still molten. The spray chamber provides steady water sprays to the steel surface to
further solidify the steel core. The point in the process where the steel is completely frozen
through the cross-section is referred to as the metallurgical length of the caster.
Eventually, the solidified product is bent from vertical to horizontal and then cut by a gas
torch system into individual blooms. The blooms are small enough to be handled by an

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overhead crane, rail cars, or mobile carriers to transport them to either a beam mill, rail mill
or a seamless pipe mill.
Billet

A billet is the semi-finished product of the continuous casting process (billet caster) used in
the production small structural, bars, wire and other long products. Billets can have a square
or rectangular cross-section with sides typically ranging from 4 to 7 inches (100 to 175
mm).
The casting process is the same as the casting process of bloom.
Eventually, the solidified product is bent from vertical to horizontal and then cut by a shear
system into individual bars. The bars are small enough to be handled by an overhead crane,
rail cars, or mobile carriers to transport the bars to either the wire mill, the rod mill or the
bar mill.
Thin slab

A thin slab is the semi-finished flat product of the continuous casting process (thin-slab
caster) with thickness ranging from 55 to 110 mm. The process is very similar to the slab
caster process but because the cross-sectional area is significantly smaller, the caster height
is less and the slabs are cut via shear instead of torches.
Eventually, the solidified product is bent from vertical to horizontal and then cut by a shear
system into individual slabs. Most thin slab casters are in-line with a transfer furnace, to
even the slab temperature, and a descaler to remove any oxide scales prior to entering the
rolling stands to be rolled into hot rolled coils (HRC). The rolled strip is cooled by water
sprays and is coiled at the coiling stand at the end.
This process conserves energy by eliminating the need to completely reheat a cold slab to
rolling temperature prior to the hot rolling process.

Near net shape

Near-net shape is the semi-finished product of the continuous casting process (near-net-
shape caster) used in the production of heavy structural beams and rounds for seamless
tubes and pipes. The cross-sections are designed resembling that of the final products,
resulting in a reduction of rolling passes and processing costs.
Eventually, the solidified product is cut by a gas torch system into individual pieces for the
next stages of production. If beam blanks have been cast, the pieces are sent to the beam
mill to be rolled into beams. If rounds are cast, they are typically sent to the pipe mill to be
rolled and pierced into seamless pipe. Round bars can also be used for other applications
such as bearing production.

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POURING, CLEANING, AND HEAT TREATMENT

Moving the molten metal from the melting furnace to the mold is sometimes done using
crucibles. More often, the transfer is accomplished by ladles of various kinds. These ladles
receive the metal from the furnace and allow for convenient pouring into the molds. Two
common ladles are illustrated in Figure, one for handling large volumes of molten metal
using an overhead crane, and the other a ‘‘two-man ladle’’ for manually moving and pouring
smaller amounts.

One of the problems in pouring is that oxidized molten metal can be introduced into the
mold. Metal oxides reduce product quality, perhaps rendering the casting defective, so

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measures are taken to minimize the entry of these oxides into the mold during pouring.
Filters are sometimes used to catch the oxides and other impurities as the metal is poured
from the spout, and fluxes are used to cover the molten metal to retard oxidation. In addition,
ladles have been devised to pour the liquid metal from the bottom, since the top surface is
where the oxides accumulate.

After the casting has solidified and been removed from the mold, a number of additional
steps are usually required. These operations include

(1) Trimming, involves removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash, fins, chaplets,
and any other excess metal from the cast part.

(2) Removing the core, if cores have been used to cast the part, they must be removed. Most
cores are chemically bonded or oil-bonded sand, and they often fall out of the casting as the
binder deteriorates. In some cases, they are removed by shaking the casting, either manually
or mechanically. In rare instances, cores are removed by chemically dissolving the bonding
agent used in the sand core. Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out.

(3) Surface cleaning, is most important in the case of sand casting. In many of the other
casting methods, especially the permanent-mold processes, this step can be avoided.
Surface cleaning involves removal of sand from the surface of the casting and otherwise
enhancing the appearance of the surface. Methods used to clean the surface include
tumbling, air-blasting with coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and
chemical pickling

(4) Inspection, Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is needed to detect their
presence. Inspection Methods Foundry inspection procedures include

(1) Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as misruns, cold shuts, and severe
surface flaws;
(2) Dimensional measurements to ensure that tolerances have been met; and
(3) metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests concerned with the inherent
quality of the cast metal. Tests in category (3) include: (a) pressure testing—to locate leaks in
the casting; (b) radiographic methods, magnetic particle tests, the use of fluorescent
penetrants, and supersonic testing—to detect either surface or internal defects in the
casting; and (c) mechanical testing to determine properties such as tensile strength and
hardness. If defects are discovered but are not too serious, it is often possible to save the
casting by welding, grinding, or other salvage methods to which the customer has agreed.

(5) Repair, if required, and (6) Heat treatment. Steps (1) through (5) are collectively
referred to in foundry work as ‘‘cleaning.’’

Casting Defects

Some defects are common to any and all casting processes. These defects are illustrated in
Figure below and briefly described in the following:

(a) Misruns, which are castings that solidify before completely filling the mold cavity.
Typical causes include (1) fluidity of the molten metal is insufficient, (2) pouring

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temperature is too low, (3) pouring is done too slowly, and/or (4) cross-section of the mold
cavity is too thin.
(b) Cold Shuts, which occur when two portions of the metal flow together but there is a
lack of fusion between them due to premature freezing. Its causes are similar to those
of a misrun.
(c) Cold shots, which result from splattering during pouring, causing the formation of solid
globules of metal that become entrapped in the casting. Pouring procedures and gating
system designs that avoid splattering can prevent this defect.

(d) Shrinkage cavity is a depression in the surface or an internal void in the casting, caused
by solidification shrinkage that restricts the amount of molten metal available in the last
region to freeze. It often occurs near the top of the casting, in which case it is referred to as a
‘‘pipe.’’ See Figure, The problem can often be solved by proper riser design.
(e) Micro porosity consists of a network of small voids distributed throughout the casting
caused by localized solidification shrinkage of the final molten metal in the dendritic
structure. The defect is usually associated with alloys, because of the protracted manner in
which freezing occurs in these metals.
(f) Hot tearing, also called hot cracking, occurs when the casting is restrained from
contraction by an unyielding mold during the final stages of solidification or early stages of
cooling after solidification. The defect is manifested as a separation of the metal (hence, the
terms tearing and cracking) at a point of high tensile stress caused by the metal’s inability to
shrink naturally. In sand casting and other expendable-mold processes, it is prevented by
compounding the mold to be collapsible. In permanent-mold processes, hot tearing is reduced
by removing the part from the mold immediately after solidification.

Effect of alloying elements on steel properties

alloying is changing chemical composition of steel by adding elements with purpose to

improve its properties as compared to the plane carbon steel.

Manganese (Mn) – improves hardenability, ductility and wear resistance. Mn eliminates

formation of harmful iron sulphides, increasing strength at high temperatures.

Nickel (Ni) – increases strength, impact strength and toughness, impart corrosion resistance
in combination with other elements.

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Chromium (Cr) – improves hardenability, strength and wear resistance, sharply increases
corrosion resistance at high concentrations (> 12%).

Tungsten (W) – increases hardness particularly at elevated temperatures due to stable

carbides, refines grain size.

Vanadium (V) – increases strength, hardness, creep resistance and impact resistance due to
formation of hard vanadium carbides, limits grain size.

Molybdenum (Mo) – increases hardenability and strength particularly at high temperatures

and under dynamic conditions.

Silicon (Si) – improves strength, elasticity, acid resistance and promotes large grain sizes,
which cause increasing magnetic permeability.

Titanium (Ti) – improves strength and corrosion resistance, limits austenite grain size.

Cobalt (Co) – improves strength at high temperatures and magnetic permeability.

Zirconium (Zr) – increases strength and limits grain sizes.

Boron (B) – highly effective hardenability agent improves deformability and machinability.

Copper (Cu) – improves corrosion resistance.

Aluminium (Al) – deoxidizer, limits austenite grains growth.

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Steel making summery (flow line)

Figure Summary of steps in the extraction of steels using iron ores, coke and limestone.
(Source: www.steel.org. Used with permission of the American Iron and Steel Institute.)

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