Determination of Human Exposure Level to Criteria Air Pollutants from

some Nigeria’s Domestic LPG Cookers

Bankole Faith Tolulope

CHE/2016/032
Department of Chemical Engineering
Faculty of Technology
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State
Email: ftbankole@student.oauife.edu.ng
ABSTRACT
This study determines the exposure level of human to criteria air pollutants from domestic
LPG cookers in the ambient environment of Ile-Ife, Osun state, Nigeria. This work measured
the concentration of pollutants (PM2.5, PM10, CO, CO2 and SO2) present in seven (7) kitchens.
The kitchens investigated in this study utilizes domestic Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)
cookers and were randomly selected, coordinates of the sampling points were acquired using a
Global Position System (GPS) device. PM 2.5, PM10, CO, SO2 and CO2 concentrations were
measured at the source and the entrance of each kitchen using BOSEAN multi-gas air quality.
The changes in the source and entrance measurement were partially affected by temperature
and humidity with location siting playing major roles too. This study established that the
exposure levels humans have to these pollutants are becoming increasingly dangerous hence
the need for measures and cautions to defend the lives of residents that depend largely on these
cookers.

Keywords: Criteria air pollutants, PM2.5, PM10, air quality monitor, domestic LPG cookers,
ambient environment.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Air pollution refers to the release of pollutants into the air. Air pollutants are a major threat to
all living beings and ecosystem sustainability (Hatamimanesh et al., 2021). The earth’s
atmosphere has been highly polluted before the industrial revolution. The sources of pollutants
are mostly anthropogenic activities, and scientists relate that the increase in air pollutants is
attributed to uncontrolled industrialization, inadequate emission management, and a lack of
strong environmental policies (Roy, Bhattacharya, & Kumari, 2020).  Air pollutants, are
usually considered as a primary source of worry among environmental health offenders. These
contaminants are constantly discharged into the indoor and outdoor environment (Kabir &
Kumar, 2012). According to research, the concentrations of air pollutants in indoor
surroundings are higher than in outdoor situations. Air pollution is a major issue in low and
middle-income countries, accounting for up to 80% of total air pollution exposure (Sandra,
Julius & Osaretin, 2018). Everyone is exposed to air pollution because breathing air is a must
for living. Air pollution, even at low levels, may have an impact on human health depending
on the time of exposure. Science has clearly shown from the results of some research that air
pollution leads to disease, increased hospitalizations, and even premature death (Alexis et al.,
2008; Rim-Rukeh, 2015). Criteria air pollutants are a group of six common air pollutants that
have significant impacts on human health, the environment, and the overall quality of the
atmosphere. These pollutants have been designated as "criteria pollutants" by environmental
agencies because they meet specific criteria relating to their prevalence, potential for harm, and
ability to be regulated. A range of domestic energy sources, including electricity, liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), kerosene, charcoal, and firewood, are used worldwide for cooking,
heating, and lighting. Worldwide, more than three billion people depend on solid fuels,
including biomass (wood, dung and agricultural residues) and coal, to meet their most basic
energy needs: cooking and heating. A number of air pollutants such as NO2, SO2, O3, carbon
dioxide (CO), volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds (VOCs), PM, radon, and
microorganisms have been recognized to exist indoors (Leung, 2015). Some of these pollutants
(NOx, SO2, O3, PM) are common in both indoor and outdoor environments, and some of them
may have originated from outdoors.
Air pollution monitoring is at low level in Africa; however, we do not know the actual health
impact of air pollution in all places due to lack of monitoring of air pollution levels. The
implication of this is that there will more emissions and pollutants in the atmosphere if not
controlled (Karlsson, 2004). As reported by (WHO, 2015), air pollution has killed more people
globally than malaria, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis or breast cancer. Considering the potential for
detrimental physical and financial impacts caused by high concentrations of air pollutants, it is
important to accurately evaluate, observe and regulate these compounds. The World Health
Organization (WHO) has noted that long term inhalation or contact with these substances can
lead to a notable workplace hazard at such distribution hubs. Thus, it is imperative to assess
ambient air quality in the household for potentially hazardous aromatics and particulate matter
when possible. Several air quality regulations are in place to keep levels of air pollutants
within allowable limits during specified durations. These standards take the form of National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for countries, and organizations such as the World
Bank and the World Health Organization (WHO) also keep registries of air quality standards
and guidelines. These guidelines aim to protect public health by establishing allowed
concentration limits for short term (1-hour, 8-hour, and 24-hour) and long-term pollutants
concentrations. Table 1 summarizes the Standard Ambient Air Quality Guidelines of the World
Bank Group, the Standard Ambient Air Quality Guidelines of the World Health Organization
and the Standard Ambient Air Quality Guidelines of the Federal Ministry of Environment
respectively. This problem statement is about the determination of human exposure level to
criteria air pollutants from Nigeria domestic LPG Cookers. The objectives of the study are to:
identify facilities that use domestic LPG cookers in Ile-Ife, measure, the Criteria Air Pollutants
emitted from the domestic LPG cookers, compare the results obtained with the standard air
quality control and provide solution to tackle Criteria Air Pollutants from domestic LPG
cookers and improving indoor air quality in domestic kitchen settings in Ile-Ife.

Table 1: Standard Ambient Air Quality Guidelines of the World Bank Group

Maximum Concentration (µg/m3)

Pollutants Averaging time World Bank WHO FMEnv
CO 1-hour 30,000 - 22,800
8-hour 10,000 - 11,400
24-hour - - -
NOX 1-hour 150 200 75-113
24-hour 100 40 -
Annual - - -
SO2 1-hour 125 20 260
24-hour - - 26
PM10 24-hour 80 50 -
Annual 50 20 -
PM2.5 24-hour 25 25 -
Annual 35 10 -
Source: World Bank (1998); WHO (2005); FEPA (1991)

2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Study area description
The study was carried out in Ile-Ife Region of Osun State, Nigeria. The study area, Ile-Ife, is an
ancient city of Yoruba which is in the South-Western part of Nigeria. The city is located in
Osun State. Ile-Ife has an area of 1,791km2 and is about 218km (135 miles) Northeast of Lagos
which has a population of 509,813 as at the 2006 census (Ajala & Olayiwola, 2013). Ile-Ife is
governed by Obas with Ooni of Ife as the title. The city had a substantial size between the 12th
and 14th centuries with houses featuring potsherd pavements. The main city of Ile-Ife is
divided into two Local Government Areas: Ife East, with its headquarters at Oke-Ogbo and Ife
Central with its secretariat at the Ajebandele area of the city. Both local governments are
composed of a total of 21 political wards and they both have an estimated population of
355,813 people (NPC, 2009). It is located at the coordinates; latitudes 7°31′N and 7°34′N and
longitudes 4°30′E and 4°34′E as shown in Figure 1; and is situated on an elevation ranging
between 240m and 270m above the sea level (Ajala & Olayiwola, 2013). Ile-Ife is a rural area
with settlements where agriculture is the native occupation of the residents Seven sampling
points were selected for their proximity to residential and commercial areas as chosen for the
study.

Figure 1. Map showing Ife East and Ife Central Local Government Areas, Ile-Ife, Osun
State, Nigeria ( (Department of Geography, 2018).
2.2 Air Pollutants Measurement
PM2.5, CO, and CO2, were measured at seven designated sampling locations using BOSEAN
multi-gas air quality detector. It is suitable for the application because it is handheld, battery-
operated and portable units measuring five gases (PM2.5, PM10, C0, C02, and SO2) and ability to
provide accurate and real-time measurements. To measure, the multipurpose air quality
detector, BOSEAN was switched on and properly calibrated in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions prior to conducting the measurements and the measured
concentration is read directly on the LCD display. The equipment was positioned 1m above
ground level in order to prevent human error and the equipment from toppling. The
measurements were conducted at the source of the Criteria Air Pollutants and entrance of the
facility where domestic LPG cookers are in use. The sampling process was done between
9.00am and 4: 00pm.This approach ensured that data collection covered relevant areas
associated with the cooking activities and prospective exposure zones. The measured
concentrations were extrapolated to obtain 1 hour, 8-hour and 24-hour averaging time
concentrations. To obtain their 1 hour, 8-hour and 24-hour averaging time concentrations using
the atmospheric stability formula (Fakinle et al., 2016) was used and it is given in the equation
below.
C 0=C 1 × F
Where:
C0 = The concentration at the averaging period t0,
C1 = The concentration at the averaging period t1
F = Factors to convert from the averaging period t1 to the averaging period t0
And F=¿
Where n = 0.28, the stability dependent exponent
3. Results and discussion
The coordinates of the locations used for the study are shown in Table 2. The ambient
temperature, relative humidity and wind speed during the field work were 32-34 0C, 52-59%
and 4.4mph respectively. The temperature range of 32-340C is relatively narrow, and it has
little or no impact on the measured criteria air pollutants from the domestic LPG cookers
because the temperature range falls within a typically outdoor range and is not extreme enough
to affect. Also, the relative humidity range shows that the surfaces in the environment may be
damp which can cause Criteria Air Pollutants to adhere to these surfaces, thus reducing their
presence in the air. The wind speed could aid the spread of Criteria Air Pollutants into the
environment from the domestic LPG cookers. The data values obtained from the seven
sampling points are represented in Tables 3 and 4 for both the source and the entrance.
The range of the measured 5 mins concentrations for PM2.5 and PM10 at the source were 22.00-
45.33 µg/m3 and 31.00-69.50 µg/m3 respectively (Table 3) while at the entrance they were
21.00-32.33 µg/m3 and 31.00-43.50 µg/m3 respectively which on extrapolation to 1-hour, 8-
hours and 24 hours gave the values shown in Table 5. Location 2 had the highest concentration
at the source which could be attributed to the busy nature of the location as a canteen, they had
quite a number of domestic LPG cookers available to keep with the increasing demand of
customers at that location.
The range of the measured 5 mins concentration for both CO and SO2 at the source are
1539.52-2160.58 µg/m3 and 78.65-157.30 µg/m3 respectively while at the entrance is 1145.19-
2290.39 µg/m3 and 26.22-104.87 µg/m3 respectively. Location 7 had the highest concentration
at both the source and entrance for CO levels owning to the fact that the location had
traditional cooking methods prevalent there with the low usage of the domestic LPG cooker
also contributing to the high values gotten there. The levels of CO at the entrance are also
greater than the source as the windspeed and wind direction in that location carried the CO
further and faster from the source. Location 6 had the highest SO 2 emission levels, it happened
to be an industrial area, so the levels emitted from the LPG cookers was being combined in the
surrounding with the existing SO2 gases in the ambient environment.

Table 2: Latitude and Longitude of Study Locations.

Location LATITUDE LONGITUDE

Location 1 7°48'73.36"N 4°54'49.72" E

Location 2 7°48'71.01"N 4°56'48.47" E

Location 3 7°50'25.14"N 4°51'20.13" E

Location 4 7°49'81.85"N 4°55'15.03" E

Location 5 7°51'79.94"N 4°52'34.70" E

Location 6 7°49'90.32"N 4°55'15.57" E

Location 7 7°50'21.73"N 4°51'23.36" E

Table 3: Measured data for 5 mins sampling time at the source in (µg/m3)
Pollutan
t Location 1 Location 2 Location 3 Location 4 Location 5 Location 6 Location 7
22. 45.3 22.0 33.6 29.7 33.6 28.4
PM2.5 00 3 0 7 8 7 8
31. 69.5 34.0 31.0 50.2 51.7 32.5
PM10 00 0 0 0 5 5 0
1,963. 1,539.5 2,672.1 1,751.3 2,058.2 1,987.6 2,160.5
CO 19 2 2 5 8 6 8
850,824. 770,529.2 733,033.4 810,677.0 784,795.8 771,413.2 776,168.7
CO2 97 1 0 9 6 3 8
131. 104.8 78.6 131.0 78.6 157.3 104.8
SO2 08 7 5 8 5 0 7

Table 4: Measured data for 5 mins sampling time at the entrance in (µg/m3)
Pollutan
t Location 1 Location 2 Location 3 Location 4 Location 5 Location 6 Location 7
21. 23. 29.0 21.3 17.6 25.0 32.3
PM2.5 00 00 0 3 7 0 3
36. 32. 39.5 31.0 31.0 38.0 43.5
PM10 50 50 0 0 0 0 0
1,145. 1,526. 1,908.6 1,908.6 1,526.9 1,145.1 2,290.3
CO 19 93 6 6 3 9 9
 733,033. 755,828. 730,034.0 6,256,032.7 733,033.4 724,635.3 762,426.7
CO2 40 22 8 2 0 1 2
104. 78. 52.4 52.4 26.2 104.8 78.6
SO2 86 65 3 3 2 7 5

Table 5: Extrapolated Data for 1-hour, 8-hourd and 24-hours Interval at both Source
and Entrance (µg/m3)
Location Time Sampling Pollutant Concentration (µg/m3)
Interval Point PM PM10 CO CO2 SO2
2.5
Location 1 hour Source 10.9 15.4 979.0 424,296.5 65.3
1 7 6 2 3 7
Entrance 10.4 18.2 571.0 365,555.2 52.2
7 0 9 4 9
8 hours Source 6.1 8.6 546.9 237,030.5 36.5
3 4 2 3 2
Entrance 5.8 10.1 319.0 204,215.0 36.5
5 7 4 9 2
24 hours Source 4.5 6.3 402.1 174,265.0 26.8
1 5 0 6 5
Entrance 4.3 7.4 234.5 150,139.1 21.4
0 8 6 2 8
Location 1 hour Source 22.6 34.6 767.7 384,253.9 52.3
2 1 6 4 7 0
Entrance 11.4 16.2 761.4 376,922.7 39.2
7 1 6 5 2
8 hours Source 12.6 19.3 428.8 214,661.0 29.2
3 6 9 1 1
Entrance 6.4 9.0 425.3 210,565.4 21.9
1 5 8 7 1
24 hours Source 9.2 14.2 315.3 157,818.9 21.4
9 3 2 7 8
Entrance 4.7 6.6 312.7 154,807.9 16.1
1 6 4 3 1
Location 1 hour Source 10.9 16.9 1,332.5 365,555.2 39.2
3 7 6 5 4 2
Entrance 14.4 19.7 951.8 364,059.5 26.1
6 0 2 2 5
8 hours Source 6.1 9.4 744.4 204,215.0 21.9
3 7 2 8 1
Entrance 8.0 11.0 531.7 203,379.5 14.6
8 0 3 1 1
24 hours Source 4.5 6.9 547.3 150,139.1 16.1
1 6 0 2 1
Entrance 5.9 8.0 390.9 149,524.8 10.7
4 9 3 0 4
Location 1 hour Source 18.4 31.4 1,142.1 3,226,850.3 65.3
4 5 2 9 7 7
Entrance 10.6 15.4 951.8 3,119,810.8 26.1
4 6 2 4 5
8 hours Source 10.3 17.5 638.0 1,802,659.2 36.5
1 5 8 1 2
Entrance 5.9 8.6 425.3 1,715,151.4 14.6
4 4 8 8 1
 24 hours Source 7.5 12.9 469.1 1,325,316.7 26.8
8 0 1 3 5
Entrance 4.3 6.3 390.9 1,281,353.9 10.7
6 5 3 6 4
Location 1 hour Source 15.9 27.4 951.8 385,597.9 39.2
5 6 3 2 6 2
Entrance 8.8 15.4 761.4 36,555.2 13.0
1 6 6 4 7
8 hours Source 8.9 15.3 531.7 215,411.8 21.9
1 2 3 2 1
Entrance 4.9 8.6 425.3 204,215.0 7.3
2 4 8 8 0
24 hours Source 6.5 11.2 390.9 158,370.9 16.1
5 7 3 7 1
Entrance 3.6 6.3 312.7 150,139.1 5.3
2 5 4 2 7
Location 1 hour Source 17.1 21.1 951.8 377,820.1 78.4
6 2 9 3 9 4
Entrance 12.4 18.4 571.0 361,367.2 52.3
7 5 9 1 0
8 hours Source 9.5 11.8 531.7 211,066.8 43.8
6 4 3 2 2
Entrance 6.9 319.0 319.0 201,875.4 29.2
6 4 4 7 1
24 hours Source 7.0 8.7 390.9 155,176.5 32.2
3 0 3 2 2
Entrance 5.1 7.5 234.5 148,419.0 21.4
2 8 6 3 8
Location 1 hour Source 12.1 18.7 1,142.1 377,221.9 52.3
7 3 0 9 0 0
Entrance 16.1 21.6 1,142.1 380,213.3 39.2
2 9 9 5 2
8 hours Source 6.7 10.4 638.0 264,204.5 29.2
8 5 8 7 1
Entrance 9.0 12.1 638.0 212,403.7 21.9
1 2 8 4 1
24 hours Source 4.9 7.6 469.1 154,930.7 21.4
8 8 2 9 8
Entrance 6.6 8.9 469.1 156,159.4 16.1
2 1 2 3 1

When comparing the results gotten with the standards set by regulatory bodies provided in
Table 1, the extrapolated 24-hours ambient concentrations were used for the PM 2.5 and PM10,
the extrapolated 1-hour concentration was used for the SO 2, and the extrapolated 8-hours
concentration was used for the CO. the PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations were within the limits of
the maximum guidelines set the various bodies at both sampling points in all the locations.
The extrapolated 1-hour concentration for SO2 were within the guidelines of the World Bank
and the FMEnv but exceeded the maximum concentration of 20 µg/m 3 of WHO (2005) in all
the locations. The high levels could be accredited to layout of the environment. Residential
areas around there tend to influence the level of SO 2. The extrapolated values for the CO levels
were within the guidelines set by all the bodies both at the source and the entrance for all
locations. The levels of the criteria air pollutants are illustrated in Figures 2 to 4

The air quality around these locations could be generally described as good in relation to the
SO2, PM2.5 and PM10 with only the levels of exposure to the CO in the vicinity of these
locations causing slight cause for concern.

PM2.5 and PM10 Levels Across Various Locations

16.00

14.00

12.00
Concentration (µg/m3)

10.00

8.00

6.00

4.00

2.00

-
Location 1 Location 2 Location 3 Location 4 Location 5 Location 6 Location 7

Locations
PM 2.5 PM10

Figure 2: PM2.5 and PM10 Levels Across Various Locations

 SO2Levels Across Various Locations

Location 1
13% Location 2
17%
Location 3
Location 4
20% 13% Location 5
Location 6
Location 7
10%
10%
17%

Figure 3: SO2 Levels Across Various Locations

CO Levels Across Various Locations

Location 7 469.12

Location 6 390.93

Location 5 390.93
Locations

Location 4 469.11

Location 3 547.30

Location 2 315.32

Location 1 402.10
- 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00
Concentration

Figure 4: CO Levels Across Various Locations

4. Conclusion
The data obtained from the research indicate that the ambient temperature, relative
humidity, and wind speed during the fieldwork were within typical ranges, with the
temperature range having little to no significant impact on measured criteria air pollutants
from domestic LPG cookers. The results also reveal that the relative humidity in the
environment may contribute to the adherence of these pollutants in the ambient
environment, potentially reducing their presence in the air. However, the wind speed could
aid the quick dispersion of these gases into the environment. Based on the comparison of
 data values with air quality standards, it was observed that PM 2.5, PM10, and CO were
within the guideline values set by the World Health Organization (WHO). However, SO 2
levels exceeded the recommended guideline values, suggesting a need for further attention
and potential mitigation measures. From the study, there is need to educate those using the
outdoor cooker about the importance of proper ventilation and safe cooking practices and
also set up the LPG cooker in a well-ventilated area, away from high foot traffic and where
the prevailing wind can carry any fumes away from gathering spaces. Positioning the
cooking area so that the prevailing wind helps dissipate any fumes away from the cooking
and seating areas would also reduce the exposure humans have to these dangerous levels.

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