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Jacob Faith Journal
ABSTRACT
This study determined the human exposure levels to criteria air pollutants from LPG
cookers in some commercial kitchens in Ile-ife, Osun state. This research is aimed at
determining the levels of pollution from commercial LPG cookers, their levels of
concentration and subsequent levels of human exposure. This study is a field
intervention determining the levels and the measurement of human exposure to the
necessary criteria air pollutants from commercial LPG cookers in Ile-Ife, Osun state.
LPG cookers pollution level will be monitored and compared to standard ambient air
quality.
The objectives are to identify facilities that use commercial LPG cookers in Ile-ife,
measure the criteria air pollutants (PM2.5, PM10, CO S02) emitted from the cookers
in the ambient environment of the facilities identified, compare the results obtained
with national and international air quality standards for air quality and suggest solutions
to aid in the discussion of the criteria air pollutants of commercial LPG cookers in the
ambient environment.
Concentrations of CO2, SO2, CO, PM10, and PM2.5 were measured at the source and
entrance of six different commercial kitchens the BOSEAN multi-gas air quality
detector.
The measured concentrations for PM2.5 ranged from a minimum of 17μgm−3 to
72.66μgm−3, PM10 values ranged between 32μgm−3- 70μgm−3, CO values ranged between
1717.79μgm−3-2387.68μgm−3, CO2 values ranged between 718036.81μgm−3-
1059659.56μgm−3, and SO2 values ranged between 78.53μgm−3- 157.06μgm−3. The
pollutant concentrations were extrapolated to 1-hour, 8-hours as well as 24-hours. CO
extrapolated values for 1-hour, 8-hours and 24-hours ranged from 856.64μgm−3-
1190.70μgm−3, 478.55μgm−3-665.18μgm−3and 351.83μgm−3-489.04μgm−3 respectively,
PM2.5 extrapolated values ranged between 8.85μgm −3- 36.23μgm−3, 4.94μgm−3-
20.24μgm−3, 3.63μgm−3-14.88μgm−3 for 1-hour, 8-hours and 24-hours respectively,
PM10 extrapolated values ranged between 15.95μgm−3-34.91μgm−3, 8.91 μgm−3 -
19.50μgm−3 , 6.55μgm−3-14.33μgm−3 for 1-hour, 8-hours and 24-hours respectively, CO
extrapolated values range between 856.64μgm−3 – 1190.70μgm−3, 478.55μgm−3-
655.18μgm−3, 351.83μgm−3 -489.04μgm−3 for 1-hour, 8-hours and 24-hours
respectively, CO2 extrapolated values ranged between 358076.61μgm−3-
528439.91μgm−3,200037.19μgm−3-295209.55μgm−3,147067.53μgm−3-217038.34μgm−3
for 1-hour, 8-hours and 24-hours respectively and SO 2 extrapolated values ranged
between 39.16μgm−3 -78.32μgm−3, 21.88μgm−3 -43.76μgm−3, 16.08μgm−3 -32.1 μgm−3
for 1-hour, 8-hours and 24-hours respectively.
The extrapolated values were compared to a 1-hour, 8-hour and 24-hour standards of
ambient air quality according to World Bank, World Health Organization (WHO) and
Federal Ministry of Environment (FMEnv).
The pollutant concentrations were within the standard limits and recommendations to
further reduce the concentrations and their effects were given.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Air pollution is one of the major issues in today’s world irrespective of developing or
developed countries (David, et al., 1996). Rapid increase in population and demand for
energy have resulted in emission of toxic air pollutants that affect the surrounding
environment as well as human health. Air pollution is the introduction into the
atmosphere of chemicals, particulates, or biological materials that cause discomfort,
disease, or death to humans, damage other living organisms such as food crops, or
damage the natural environment or built environment. A substance in the air that can be
adverse to humans and the environment is known as an air pollutant. Pollutants can be
in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases Air pollution occurs when gases,
dust particles, fumes (or smoke) or odour are introduced into the atmosphere in a way
that makes it harmful to humans, animals, and plant (Mahendra Pratap & Vaibhav
Garg, 2013). Air pollution is now considered as the world’s biggest threat to the
environmental health and responsible for the seven million deaths over the world per
year (Pallavi Saxena & Saurabh Sonwani, 2019). In communities that heavily rely on
solid biomass fuels, household emission of pollutants can also be a significant
contributor to ambient air pollution (Lim, et al., 2012)Pollution concentrations can
therefore vary temporally and spatially. Exposure also varies from day to day and from
subject to subject that is, within and between subject variability (Munyao et al., 2022).
Three factors greatly determine exposure, firstly, pollutant concentration in the
environment, second factor is time spent breathing in polluted air and thirdly location
and distance from pollution source ( (Nieuwenhuijsen, 2003). Exposure to pollutants
causes a few deleterious effects and causes pulmonary illness, asthma, and
cardiovascular diseases after long-term exposure. Short-term exposure also creates
problems like headache, mood alteration, dizziness, eye-irritation, nausea, coughing,
etc. US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has set up the National Ambient
Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for six pollutants (Pallavi Saxena & Saurabh
Sonwani, 2019).
Criteria pollutants, as designated under the Clean Air Act of 1971, include pollutants
that are ubiquitous and are known to be harmful to public health and the environment
(Suh, Bahadori, Jose, & John, 2000). Currently, six pollutants are designated as criteria
pollutants: particles with aerodynamic diameters under PM10 and PM2.5, ozone, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. Air quality is described
according to the Air Quality Index (AQI), which is based on the concentration of
pollutants present in the air at a particular location. Air quality index (AQI) is an
indicator developed by government agencies to communicate to the public how
polluted the air currently is or how polluted it is forecast to become (Wikipedia, Air
Quality Index, 2023). As air pollution levels rise, so does the AQI, along with the
associated public health risk. Good air quality indicates that the air is relatively free of
harmful substances, whereas poor air quality indicates the presence of pollutants that
may be hazardous to human health and the environment. For each of these pollutants, a
primary health-based National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) under the
Clean Air Act has been established, which sets the "safe" amount of the pollutant that
can be present in the air. Table 1and 2 shows the standards for criteria air pollutant.
Table 1 Standards of Ambient Air Quality
Maximum Concentration (μg/m3)
Pollutants Averaging time World Bank WHO FMEnv
CO 1-hour 30,000 -
8-hour 10,000 - 22,800
24-hour - - 11,400
SO2 1-hour - - 260
24-hour 125 20 26
PM10 24-hour 80 50 -
Annual 50 20 -
PM2.5 24-hour - 25 -
Annual - 10 -
Source: World bank (1998); Source: WHO (2005); Source: (FEPA,1991)
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Sampling area
Ile-ife is in present day Osun state with latitude of 7° 30'N and longitude of 4°30E. Ile-
Ife is about 218 kilometers north-east of Lagos with a population of over 500,000
people, which is the highest in Osun State according to the population census of 2006
(Wikipedia, Wikipedia contributors, 2023). It is a rural- urban transition zone, like
typical rural communities, biomass fuels (wood and charcoal) consumption is high
although there is prevalence of urbanization which has led to the increased use of LPG
commercial cookers. Within the study area, six locations that uses commercial LPG
cookers were selected based on their proximity to residential and commercial areas.
Open space was another consideration while picking these locations. Measurements
were taken both at the entrances and near the LPG cookers at different time intervals.
We measured the concentrations PM2.5, PM10, carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide
(CO), Sulphur dioxide (SO2) via the gas detector. Temperature and relative humidity
were also monitored.
2.2 Measurement of pollutants
The primary instrument for measuring concentration levels of PM 2.5, PM10, CO, CO2
and SO2 levels were the Bosean multi-gas air quality detector which is well suited for
our application due to its combination of small size, infrared detection technology and
quiet operation to show accurate data. To measure, the gas detector was switched on in
the environment of interest and calibrated prior to the tests in line with the
manufacturer's recommendations, the measured concentration is read directly on the
LCD display of the gas monitor. During this field study, the gas monitor was positioned
1m above ground to correspond to the average breathing zone of adults and to prevent
measurement of fugitive dust mobilized by tides. The sample procedure was completed
between 11:54 am and 3:50 pm, measurement was carried out during cooking hours at
each of the kitchens at the source and entrance. The measured concentrations were
extrapolated to obtain their 1-hour, 8-hours and 24-hours averaging time concentrations
using the atmospheric stability formula (Fakinle, Sonibare, Okedere , Jimoda, &
Ayodele , 2016) given in Equation (1).
C0 = C1 × F (Equation 1)
Where:
C0 = The concentration at the averaging period t0
C1 = The concentration at the averaging period t1
n
t1
F = Factor to convert from the averaging period t1 to the averaging period t0 =( )
t0
n = 0.28, the stability dependent exponent
Table 3 Range of measured data for 5 minutes sampling time at the source in μgm−3
Pollutants Location1 Location 2 Location 3 Location 4 Location 5 Location 6
Table 4. Range of measured data for 5 minutes sampling time at the entrance in μgm−3
Pollutants Location1 Location 2 Location 3 Location 4 Location 5 Location 6
Table 5. Range of values for extrapolated data for location 1 and 2 in μgm−3
Pollutants PM2.5 PM10 CO CO2 SO2
Location 1-hour Source 15.21 24.77 1190.73 405340.04 65.27
1
Entrance 9.47 18.20 1142.18 405640.67 52.21
Table 6. Range of values for extrapolated data for location 3 and 4 in μgm−3
Pollutants PM2.5 PM10 CO CO2 SO2
Location 1-hour Source 36.23 18.04 952.02 528439.86 52.21
3
Entrance 8.48 15.96 1142.18 358076.61 52.21
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