[PHYSICS CHEAT SHEET] Area of Study 1

Formulae Lenz’s law: The induced current in a coil must oppose the
Force (𝑁) 𝐹 = 𝑛𝐵𝐼𝑙 change of flux.
Magnetic flux (𝑊𝑏) 𝜙 = 𝑛𝐵𝐴 When the switch was closed a magnetic field built up to the left.
Torque (𝑁𝑚) 𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙𝑤 = 𝐵𝐼𝐴 To oppose this, the induced current must produce a magnetic field
where 𝑤 = the perpendicular distance of the current-wire to the left [for two solenoids connected to one iron core].
from a fixed position. Faraday’s law: The EMF generated in a loop is proportional to
Voltage conversion 𝑉𝑝−𝑝 = 2 2 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 the rate of change of magnetic flux.
Δ𝜙 Iron rods/cores can be magnetised by an electric current
Electromotive Force (𝑉) 𝜀 = −𝑁 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 surrounding it and the magnetic field continues and must
Δ𝑡
period form a closed loop
Δ𝑡 = 4 for average emf
Only a change in current can induce a magnetic field in a core
𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑠 𝑁𝑝
Transformers = = or another loop
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑝 𝑁𝑠
A changing current in the primary produces a changing flux. − + Anode +
Cathode –
This changing flux also threads the secondary and induces a
voltage. 𝑉∝𝐼∝𝐵∝𝜙∝𝐴
DC Motor Motors and Generators
 Current flow in a coil produces rotation due to torques
 Net force = 0 ×
•

 Torque is a maximum when coil is parallel to magnetic

field and 𝟎 when perpendicular to the field
 Split ring is used for DC motors; acts as a switch that is
tuned off when the flux is a maximum (perpendicular to
field)
 The disconnection allows the coil to continue rotating in
the same direction and the split-ring then reconnects the
coil with the current in the opposite direction
 Net effect is that coil rotates in the same direction as
before
AC Motor
 Same as DC Motor, except split-ring is replaced by slip-
ring
 The slip ring ensures that the current is continuously
connected and acts in the same direction on each side
 Hence we produce alternating motion
AC/DC Generator
 Converts motion to current
 Uses the Faraday-Lenz law, ie the rate of change of
magnetic flux induces an emf that produces an opposing
magnetic flux in the coil
 When the coil is parallel to the magnetic field (flux cutting Wave-Particle Duality: The existence of quantised energy
= 0) the rate of change of flux is a maximum and
therefore the emf produced is a maximum.
 DC uses a split-ring commutator
 AC uses a slip-ring commutator
Magnetic fields MUST have closed loops and DO NOT cross
over
To convert RMS to peak value, multiply by 2
To convert a peak value to peak-to-peak, multiply by 2
Voltage and Current are always in RMS unless stated otherwise
Generator: Coil rotates about a stationary magnet.
Alternator: Magnet rotates inside a stationary coil.
Parallel Wires: Currents in same direction will attract
Currents in opposite direction will repel
Stephen Machet 2008
N 𝐵 S
𝐹
× •
𝐼
This shows the direction of current at particular intervals at
the end of a loop, rotating in a magnetic field.
At 90 degrees to field, current is disconnected.
Split rings cause DC to disconnect and then reconnect in the
opposite direction when the loop rotates through 180
degrees (perpendicular to field).
This ensures that the current flows in the same direction on
each side of motor; hence torque (turning force) acts in the
same direction on each side.
The commutator changes the direction of the current in a DC motor
every half rotation in order to keep it rotating in the same direction.
Bright fringe at centre of screen: The light coming from the
slits are in phase and reach the middle of the screen with a
path difference of 0 wavelengths, therefore the waves
constructively interfere to cause a bright fringe in the middle.
Incandescent refers to the thermal vibration of free electrons
that lose energy as photons.
levels can be explained by assuming that the electrons act as
waves when orbiting a nucleus. [Standing wave diagram]
The particle nature is evident when the electrons change
from one energy level to another by ‘jumping’ when they
absorb discreet amounts of light energy (photons).
Bragg’s law states that 𝑛𝜆 = 2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 for constructive
interference of x-rays. 2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 is the path difference
between x-rays that have been diffracted from different
layers . If the path difference is a whole number of
wavelengths, 𝑛𝜆, there will be constructive interference. This
leads to a greater number of photons being detected at these
angles. For 𝑛 = 2, path difference is 2𝜆, and so on...
 [PHYSICS CHEAT SHEET] Area of Study 2 / Detailed Study
Formulae Electromagnetic Spectrum
ℎ𝑐 −19
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑓 = ℎ∆𝑓 = = 𝑝𝑐 1𝑒𝑉 = 1𝑉 × 1.6 × 10
𝜆
ℎ ℎ𝑓 ℎ∆𝑓 𝐸 𝑤
𝑝𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝜆
= 𝑐
= 𝑐
= 𝑐
= 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽 𝑑
𝑃 𝑃𝜆
Number photons per second in a light beam 𝑛 = ℎ𝑓 = where 𝑃 = Power (W)
ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑒𝑉 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝑊
ℎ
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑣 = 2𝑚𝐸 = 𝜆 𝐿
𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆 Node: Where destructive interference takes place
ℎ2 Antinode: Where constructive interference takes place.
𝑉 = 2𝑚𝑞 𝜆 2 (Volts)
Diffraction pattern for electrons which is identical to X-ray
𝜆𝐿
Spacing between bands 𝑊 = where 𝑑 = distance between slits, pattern implies that the X-ray and the electron have the same
𝑑
𝐿 = distance from slit to pattern/wall momentum. De Broglie’s principle says wavelength for X-ray
Young’s Experiment and electron is identical. Hence electron acts as a wave in this
 2 coherent sources: a constant phase difference between sources situation.
− +
 Distance 𝑑 between slits ≈ 𝜆 for maximum diffraction Cathode – Anode +
 Maxima occur when path difference from sources is a
multiple of 𝜆 Detailed Study: Synchrotron
 Minima occur when path difference from sources is an Electric Field not energy
odd multiple of 𝜆2 (ie 𝜆2 , 3𝜆2 , … ) 𝑉 volt 𝐹 newton
𝐸= = = =
 Fringe spacing is inversely proportional to the distance 𝑑 metre 𝑞 coulomb
1
between the slits work done/energy gained (J) = 𝑞 × 𝑉 = ∆𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
 As 𝜆 increases, pattern expands 2
𝜆 𝜆 Magnetic Field
 controls amount of diffraction sin 𝜃 = 𝑞 l 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑 𝑑 𝐼=𝑡 𝑣=𝑡 or 𝑞 = 𝐼𝑡 and 𝑙 = 𝑣𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑇
Diffraction
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎
 One slit (one coherent source) of width 𝑎 𝑞
𝐵𝑞 𝐵
𝜆 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑚
 Significant diffraction occurs when ≈ 1, where 𝑑 = slit size.
𝑑
frequency when given data in coulombs/kg

Photoelectric Effect Circular Motion

𝑚 𝑣2 𝑚𝑣 𝑝 (momentum)
A photon shines onto a piece of metal. If it has sufficient 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑟
= 𝑞𝑣𝐵 where 𝑟 = 𝐵𝑞
= 𝐵𝑞
energy, it may be absorbed by a delocalised electron within Bragg’s Law for thompson (elastic) scattering; reflected x-rays undergo
the metal. The ejected electron from the interior must then constructive interference; largest spacing with smallest angle.
overcome the repulsive forces (work function 𝑊) inside the 𝑛𝜆 = 2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝑑
𝜆
metal to escape to the surface.
Undulators produce coherent, collimated, extremely bright
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝑊 ⇒ 𝐸electron + 𝑊 = ℎ𝑓photon
(intense) light over a very narrow range of frequencies.
The circumference of the orbit associated with the energy Wigglers produce incoherent, brighter light over a range of
level must have a whole-number multiple of the electron’s frequencies.
de Broglie wavelength, so only photons of an appropriate Both require a set of magnets of alternating polarity.
wavelength/frequency will excite an electron.
Properties of Synchrotron Light/Radiation
Ionisation energy: amount of energy required to be
transferred to an electron to enable it to escape from a  High brightness/intensity
material.  Wide spectrum (1012 − 1020 𝐻𝑧)
Work function: the minimum amount of energy required to  Low divergence (<1 thousandth of a degree) (collimated)
release an electron from the surface of a material.  Tuneable (Monochromators select desired frequency/ies)
Speed dependant on medium W  Polarised (Electric fields are strongly aligned)
Two light beams pass through each other without W  Pulses of radiation (Series of pulses of <1 nanosecond)
interacting Due to its wide spectrum of frequencies, synchrotron light can
penetrate proteins and small molecules with minimal diffraction,
Refraction occurs when light moves from one W
which gives clearer images than normal X-rays, etc.
medium to another
Compton scattering is the collision of a photon with an
Light diffracts through narrow openings W
electron that results in a scattered photon with less energy,
Different colours correspond to different energies W&P
with the difference in energy appearing as kinetic energy of
of light
the electron.
Reflection: angle of incidence = angle of reflection W&P
Thomson scattering occurs when a photon is scattered by an
Light exerts a pressure P
atom without any loss of energy, and no change in
Beams of light are bent by gravity P
wavelength and frequency. This occurs in Bragg diffraction.
Photoelectric effect P
Diffuse scattering is the broadening of an X-ray diffraction
pattern as a result of increased temperature.
Stephen Machet 2008