CHAPTER 1

THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

WHAT IS POLITICAL SCIENCE?

Political scientists of old define political science as the study of the state in all its elements, aspects and
relationships. Such elements and aspects include its government and its organs and institutions through
which the state functions. It further includes certain aspects of human behavior, how governments and
people actually conduct themselves in a political society. However, to modern political scientist the
definition of political science' goes far more beyond the traditional connotation. To them, it is also a
systematic study of politics - "an attempt by systematic analysis to discover in the confusing detail
whatever principles may exist of wider and more general significance," not only about the State, its
organs and institutions but also other institutions or polities as well such as political attitudes of people
and their leaders, controversial issues and other aspects concerning the States' operation, powers and
functions. The systematic study of politics is distinguished from the practice of politics. The student of
politics, or political scientist may serve as an adviser to the political practitioner. The political
practitioner is a politician. But of course, the same person may at the same time be a political scientist
and a politician. However, a political scientist as contrasted from a politician is deeply involved in the
study of politics. He endeavors continuously to observe political phenomenon and does researches on
political activities. Consequently he strives to become a scholar on political studies.

Dahl cited two examples: Niccolo Machiavelli, that great political philosopher of the Italian Renaissance
and Woodrow Wilson, a great President of the United States. Machiavelli began his career as a politician
and became a political scientist when his political career ended. He served as a secretary of the Republic
of Florence for 14 years. He served in diplomatic missions to popes, emperors, and kings and the end of
that period. He was a victim of Florentine factionalism which caused him unhappiness, but it was also
the source of inspiration that made him a great political scientist via his two masterpieces: The Prince
and The Discourses. His writings were so lacking in the standards of morality that many people
considered him to represent political evil. Yet, according to Dahl, Machiavelli "loathed despotism and
believed devoutly in the virtues of republican institutions." If people in his time or even at present
believed that his descriptions of politics seemed to be immoral it was because political practice in
Renaissance Italy was synonymous with "ruthless egoism" as Machiavellie knew from his direct
observation. He wrote honestly what he believed to be the truth. Unfortunately, he was condemned
seemingly to eternity for his truthfulness.

Woodrow Wilson, on the other hand, was a historian and political scientist first before he became a
politician in his capacity as state governor and later, President of the United States. As a political
scientist he wrote a book on Congress, entitled: "Congres- sional Government," which is still widely read
in the United States, and another book: "International Ideals," concerning the relations of the American
President with the Senate on matters of foreign policy. Wilson unfortunately ignored his being a political
scientist when he was President, just as modern politicians ignored the advice of political scientists
when they engage themselves in politics.

Understanding Politics. To have a clearer understanding of politics, it is essential to examine the main
question: What is political science? It is imperative, therefore, to divide the question into two suggested
by the words: "political" and "science."
First, what is politics? From a historical viewpoint, the term "politics" came from the Greek word, polis
or city-state. Aristotle in 4 his famous book: The Politics made the observation that every polis, or city-
state a kind of association and that "man by nature is a political animal." From this view, it can be
deduced that

the essence of social existence is politics and that two or more men interacting with one another
are invariably involved in a political relationship
This relationship may be characterized by "rule", "authority," or "power." The first page of Aristotle's
book: The Politics made references to certain kinds of authority: the authority of the statesman as
distinguished from the authority of the head of a family or of the master over his slave. In the imposition
of this authority, or rule, or power over others there arises conflicts and ways by which human beings
cope with conflicts.

Indeed, when men live together in associations, they "create rules, authorities, or governments to deal
with conflicts and the very attempts to rule also help generate conflicts." Thus Dahl says:

Politics arises, then, whenever there are people living together in associations, whenever they
are involved in conflicts, and wherever they are subject to some kind of power, rulership, or
authority
But not all associations or organizations have equal power. The state is the biggest political organization
which has the greatest power within a certain particular territory. And that power is sovereign over all
other powers. Such power is exercised by its political machinery, the government. Therefore, the
government of the state is at the very center of politics and that of political science. The various
institutions that make up the government of the state, like the executive, the legislature, the judiciary,
local governments, and other government institutions, are all involved in politics

It was Aristotle who said that the only way by which men could maximize their capabilities and attain
the higher development of their social life was through political interaction with others can
institutionalized setting - the state. This is because the state is - designed to resolve social conflicts and
set collective goals that would attain and promote the good life..

This important function is performed by government. There are also other organizations, associations
and institutions that affect the operation of government - "that help determine what the organs of
government actually do: what rules the government adopts\and enforces." The most important of these
organizations are political 119 parties. They field candidates during elections, and if they win they
conduct the affairs of government, and if they lose they criticize and fiscalize the actions and policies of
the governing party or coalition of parties. They offer to the people alternative policies which the people
may consider in the next elections.

There are in addition to parties, other organizations called interest groups which may pressure and
influence government to make policies favorable to their respective members. These interest or
pressure groups may be non-government organizations, like labor unions, farmers and fishermen's
associations, associations of doctors or nurses, business and other peoples' organizations. They exist and
thrive mostly in democratic countries.
Political parties, interest and pressure groups are clearly at the center of politics, and, therefore, of
political science. Speaking of politics, ordinary citizens cannot be ignored, since they participate in
elections and in other political activities. Such forms of participation are also elements of politics.

The Boundaries of Politics. There are political scientists who say that the meaning of politics extends to
"any activity involving human beings associated together in relationships of power and authority where
conflicts occur. In this regard, politics exists every- 10 where: within labor unions, business
organizations, organizations of doctors, nurses, farmers, consumers, and even private clubs, school
campus associations - anywhere where groups of individuals assemble. From this perspective, the
domain of politics is not limited to the state and its institutions, or with such organizations as and
interest or pressure groups, but extends to other organizations in an enormous range of human activity
involving conflicts.

Politics in the Distribution of Advantages and Disadvantages. Some political scientists, like Froman,
define politics in a broad sense, as "distribution of advantages and disadvantages among people through
interaction with each other to satisfy their different wants and needs."" Their interaction produces
conflict, or may result in competition deriving from opposition of preferences. Attempts are made to
reach some sort of compromise and accommodation to reconcile differences. If a compromise is
reached all concerned in the controversy will be able to benefit. Oftentimes, however, there is more
competition, and cunning machinations in the struggle for power rather than accommodation, and in
the process some partici- pants benefit more than others, reaping more "payoffs" or advantages than
disadvantages. This kind of politics exists in many countries today, especially the developing countries.

"Man by nature has dual tendencies - one towards the good and another towards the bad."12 Likewise,
politics is either good or bad. Unfortunately, people are puzzled why in the practice of politics many
politicians are more inclined towards bad politics in gaining power and self-aggrandizement rather than
towards good politics in synchronizing government activities with those of private groups for the
attainment of development goals for the general welfare.

An intellectual ideologue and a good politician deplored the tendency of many Philippine politicians
towards bad politics syno- nymous to "ruthless egoism" as Machiavelli described it during Renaissance
Italy. He wrote:

Soon our people will demand an answer to the puzzle of why a nation with so many talented individuals
fails as a group. One answer is that Filipino leaders in all social and political strata have not functioned
as a responsible elite unlike their counterparts abroad. Philippine politics itself tends to be irresponsible.
To a large extent, it is obsessed only with narrow interests of its various sectors and factions.

People should forget their hatred for politics. No human bein can escape politics. Politics is the essence
of democracy. A consti tutional democracy cannot continue to exist without it.

In defense of politics Brademas advised the political skeptics to read Bernard Crick's In Defense of
Politics, where they could find the following passage:

To renounce or destroy politics is to destroy the very thing which gives order to the pluralism and variety
of civilized society, the thing which enables us to enjoy variety without suffering either anarchy or the
tyranny of single truth
Political Science: A Scientific Study. How scientific is political science? This question generated a great
deal of discussion for a long, long time among political scientists. To some people the word "science"
connotes simply any systematic approach to human knowledge, a body of systematized knowledge on a
certain field of inquiry. One could speak therefore of the science of physics, biology, chemistry,
mathematics, astronomy, geology or any other discipline of the natural sciences. Systematized
knowledge on these sciences stresses the notions of certainty, precision, and reliability. It is these
characteristics that other scholars tend to restrict the word "science" to "the natural sciences in studies
that involve the obser- vation of nature and the development of laws and theories explaining the
phenomena of nature."16

Students who insist on certainty in understanding their natural environment may become disappointed
when they discover that a presumption of certainty is an unlikely vision if they shift their attention to the
observation of social phenomena.

Many writers object to calling political science a science claim- ing that the study of the state and its
institutions, other political organizations associated with it, and of political phenomena, yields to
variability and flexibility and lacks the notions of constancy and rigidity. But the consensus among most
political scientists is that it is a corpus of systematic knowledge about a particular area of inquiry, hence
a science. To them political science is a mass of systematically researched and organized knowledge
about the state and its institutions, including closely related organizations and asso ciations acquired
through long years of observation and experience. Their thinking conforms with that of Aristotle, father
of political