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Proceedings of the 16th

Italian Association of Equine Veterinarians
Congress

Carrara, Italy
January 29-31, 2010

Next SIVE Meeting:

Feb. 4-6, 2011 – Montesilvano, Pescara, Italy

Reprinted in the IVIS website with the permission of the

Italian Association of Equine Veterinarians – SIVE

http://www.ivis.org
Published in IVIS with the permission of SIVE
Practical use of the clinical laboratory
and stall side testing in equine practice
Thomas Divers
DVM, DACVIM, DACVECC
Cornell University, Ithaca NY, USA
INTRODUCTION
The potential value of haematology in equine
practice is well documented by numerous case
series reports and experimental studies. The
maximal use of haematology is to help with
diagnosis and/or prognosis of the ill horse. In
cases where the diagnosis can be arrived at
from the history, signalment, and clinical ex-
am, and the prognosis can be accurately pre-
dicted, haematology may not be the best use
of the client’s financial resources. The infor-
mation on hematology in this handout refers
almost exclusively to adult horses. Responses
in foals may differ and will be mentioned in
the presentation.
HEMATOCRIT
Abnormally high values (spurious poly-
cythemia) are most commonly seen in horses
with abdominal pain and/or colitis or rhab-
domyolysis. The high values are caused by in-
travascular volume depletion and splenic con-
traction. A retrospective study on equine ab-
dominal pain found horses with HCT > 50%
are at increased risk of death. Monitoring of
HCT% and plasma protein after abdominal
surgery is routine and will provide prognostic
information. These values should be used
along with clinical findings such as mucus
membrane color, heart rate, and response to
treatment and peritoneal fluid analysis in pre-
dicting prognosis.
On rare occasion, horses have absolute poly-
cythemia, most commonly associated with
neuroendocrine neoplasia or hepatic disease.
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Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Italian Association of Equine Veterinarians, Carrara, Italy 2010
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LOW HCT
A moderately low HCT (21-26%) is most com-
monly a result of a chronic inflammatory dis-
ease. In many cases, plasma protein will be ele-
vated indicating increased globulin production
from chronic antigenic stimulation and/or ele-
vated acute phase proteins. If the inflammatory
disease involves the bowel (parasites or inflam-
matory bowel disease), the total protein is often
abnormally low. Lower hematocrits (<20%)
may occur from hemolytic or hemorrhagic dis-
orders. For hemolytic diseases, the HCT%,
along with heart rate, clinical signs, PVO2, blood
lactate, and persistence of the hemolytic process
can be used to determine need of transfusion.
There is no single HCT number that serves as a
“transfusion trigger” with a range from 10-20%.
Low HCT will not be seen with acute hemor-
rhage; in fact, animals may die from acute hy-
poxia/hypotension caused by acute hemorrhage
but normal HCT. Severe non-regenerative ane-
mias are rarely seen, but may result from adverse
reaction to erythropoietin injections (red cell
aplasia), fell pony syndrome, and rarely from cy-
totoxic drug reactions or neoplasia. MCV would
be expected to be low in these cases.
When blood is spun in a micro hematocrit tube,
the plasma should always be examined for
icterus, hemolysis and lipemia!!! Lipemia is
common in sick ponies and miniature horses
and can be fatal due to hepatic lipidosis.
PLATELET COUNT
Platelet counts can help determine the severi-
ty of an illness and as a laboratory clue for
Published in IVIS with the permission of SIVE
neoplasia. Horses with severe systemic in-
flammation/coagulopathy may have thrombo-
cytopenia (usually in the 40-70,000 range), in-
creased D-dimers and low anti-thrombin III
levels; fibrinogen is often normal or high.
Horses with marked thrombocytopenia (<
20,000) usually have drug-induced or neopla-
sia related (immune) thrombocytopenia. In the
horse, another cause of “reportedly” low
platelet count is pseudothrombocytopenia.
LEUKOGRAMS
The neutrophil count and morphology are one
of the most valuable laboratory tests in equine
medicine. High neutrophil counts (neutrophil-
ia) can be used, along with acute phase protein
measurements, e.g., serum amyloid, and
serum iron and globulin concentration to help
determine if an inflammatory disease is pres-
ent and, to some extent, the duration of the in-
flammatory response. Other common causes
of a mature neutrophilia include excitement
and either physiologic stress or corticosteroid
administration. If band neutrophils and/or tox-
ic changes are present, this is highly sugges-
tive of a bacterial infection. One mechanism
for this is the causative relationship between
sepsis, increased TNF, and early release of
neutrophils into circulation. Increased adhe-
sion activity associated with sepsis results in
margination of neutrophils and neutropenia.
Although there is no evidence-based publica-
tion to confirm such, this author believes that
most horses that develop laminitis due to sys-
temic inflammatory illness undergo either a
“left shift”, and/or have toxic changes in neu-
trophils 12-36 hours prior to the clinical signs.
Neutropenia with a left shift and/or toxic
changes is frequently observed in acute bacte-
rial infections and/or endotoxemia. In horses
with acute colitis and/or severe systemic in-
flammation, a change from neutropenia to neu-
trophilia is commonly observed during the first
3-4 days of the illness. Although this is gener-
ally thought to be a favorable response (less
margination of neutrophils and less systemic
inflammatory mediators), I am not aware of
published data to support this. Persistent neu-
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Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Italian Association of Equine Veterinarians, Carrara, Italy 2010
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tropenia may be seen in some horses in associ-
ation with drug administration, e.g., TMP-S,
NSAID. Acute viral infections may cause se-
vere neutropenia with variable lymphocyte
counts, but left shift and toxic changes are
usually absent. Lymphocyte, monocyte, and
eosinophil counts are of less value to the
equine practitioner and, due to a word limit for
this abstract, will not be discussed.
An important analyte often reported with the
equine hemogram is plasma fibrinogen. Plas-
ma fibrinogen is an acute phase protein and a
component of the coagulation pathway. In-
creases in fibrinogen may occur with either lo-
cal or systemic inflammatory responses with
elevations occurring as quickly as 24-36
hours. Although this measurement is of clini-
cal value, other measurements, such as abnor-
mal neutrophil numbers, low serum iron, and
increased serum amyloid occur more quickly
following inflammation and should be used
along with plasma fibrinogen in determining
presence or absence of inflammation and re-
sponse to therapy.
Total plasma protein is an important measure-
ment in clinical practice. Horses with inflam-
mation, either acute or chronic, often have el-
evations in plasma protein with the most ele-
vated amount occurring in horses with chron-
ic infection (abscessation). Abnormally low
total protein concentration is most commonly
associated with enteric loss or hemorrhage.
Protein-losing nephropathy and “third spac-
ing” of protein, i.e., peritonitis, is rare in the
horse. Additionally, liver disease in the horse
rarely causes low total protein; albumin may
be decreased, but this is often offset by in-
creased globulins.
Serum or plasma routine chemistries are used to
detect electrolyte abnormalities, organ system
disease, inflammatory markers, and some meta-
bolic diseases. Hyponatremia is common with
diarrheal and some urinary system diseases. The
finding of hyponatremia, hypochloremia and
neutropenia in a colicy horse or foal is sugges-
tive of colitis/enteritis, even if there is no diar-
rhea present. The degree of hyponatremia in
foals is important to establish as to rapid correc-
tion may result in neurologic signs/disease. Hy-
ponatremia and hypochloremia are also pres-
Published in IVIS with the permission of SIVE
ent with acute or chronic renal failure, rup-
tured bladder and severe myopathy/myositis.
These finding may also be present with severe
edema, peritonitis and or body cavity effusion.
Another cause of marked hyponatremia and
hypochloremia in foals < 10 days of age is hy-
droureter; an interesting and as yet unpub-
lished syndrome. With ruptured bladder (in
foals) and severe muscle disease, the potassi-
um is often elevated and in foals with ruptured
bladder, the hyperkalemia may be a serious
management problem. With acute or chronic
renal failure the potassium is variable, gener-
ally either normal or high. Of course, another
cause of hyperkalemia in Quarter horses is
HYPP. The “dash board” effect on chemistries
is not as dramatic in horses as some other
species with glucose (decreasing) being the
only consistently dramatic finding when sam-
ples are carried in the truck all day before sub-
mission. Low potassium is most common in
foal diarrhea, often reaching a life threatening
level! Although anorexic horses may maintain
normal serum potassium, their total body
potassium is always low. Only 1.5% of body
potassium is in plasma.
Bicarbonate measurement is very useful in de-
termining the metabolic acid/base status of the
horse or foal and the need for either enhanced
fluid therapy (perfusion) or less commonly bi-
carbonate administration. A low bicarbonate is
a metabolic acidosis (if the pH is also low then
there is a metabolic acidosis with acidemia).
The most common cause of a metabolic aci-
dosis is titration of HCO3 by lactic acid or oth-
er strong anions that are not routinely meas-
ured. Lactic acid can be indirectly measured
by measuring lactate. The point of care meas-
urement of lactate is of great value in the im-
mediate evaluation of critical care horses and
foals. The magnitude of the elevation in lac-
tate is not as important prognostically as the
lactate measurement following aggressive
treatment, ie. if it does not go down the prog-
nosis is guarded or worse. A lactate above 6.0
meq/l has been associated with prognosis in
horses with large colon volvulus. Other strong
anions accumulations such as sulfates are
most commonly elevated by renal dysfunction
and can cause a metabolic acidosis. The anion
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Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Italian Association of Equine Veterinarians, Carrara, Italy 2010
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gap [(sodium + potassium)- (chloride + bicar-
bonate)] is usually elevated (normal, 15
meq/l) if there is an increase in lactate or sul-
fates and this magnitude often gives us a clue
as to the severity of the disease. The anion gap
may not be increased in spite of increased in
unmeasured anions if albumin values are low
such as commonly occurs in horses with colitis.
Hypoalbuminemia can cause a mixed metabol-
ic acidosis (increased lactic acid/lactate) and
mild metabolic alkalosis (increased bicarbon-
ate) with a normal calculated anion gap. The
important clinical message is fluids are still
needed to combat both the lactic acidosis
(poor perfusion most likely) and the hypoal-
buminemia (colloids) in those horses. Ex-
tremely severe and sometimes persistent
metabolic acidosis is most common in foals
with diarrhea. Many of these cases require bi-
carbonate therapy in order to correct the aci-
dosis suggesting excessive loss of bicarbonate
rather than titration with acid or relative ex-
cess administration of chloride. When admin-
istering bicarbonate to foals serum potassium
must be monitored very carefully!! A common
cause of hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis
with a normal anion gap is large volume of
NACL treatment. Hypochloremic metabolic
alkalosis with elevated anion gap is common
with excessive sweating, e.g., myopathy, ex-
haustion, diarrhea and renal failure; severe
cases may develop metabolic acidosis. Bicar-
bonate should rarely if ever be administered to
these horses.
Blood glucose, if measured within 1 hour or
on separated plasma samples should be rou-
tine in sick foals as hypoglycemia is common.
Although sick horses rarely have hypo-
glycemia, they may have a nutritional need for
glucose supplementation, especially pregnant
mares. High blood glucose is common in “col-
icy” horses and horses with hyperammone-
mia. High blood glucose is also present in
many horses with Cushing syndrome, but is
rare with equine metabolic syndrome. Horses
with hyperlipidemia syndrome and triglyc-
erides > 1500 mg/dl may have a poor progno-
sis although this is quite variable. In some cas-
es the triglycerides decease remarkably fast
and the hose/pony quickly recovers!
Published in IVIS with the permission of SIVE
Muscle disease is best detected by elevations
in CK and/or AST (if it has been 2-7 days
since the possible muscle “episode”. Horses
with CIR should be jogged for 10-15 minutes
and a CK sample taken 3 hours later to help
confirm myopathy. QHs with PSSM generally
have very high CK and AST when clinically-
affected, while draft/warmbloods may have
only modest elevations in some cases.
Renal function tests include BUN and creati-
nine. Differentiating prerenal azotemia from
primary renal dysfunction is best done by
combining history, clinical exam, CBC and
other chemistries, urinalysis and speed of re-
turn to normal values following fluid therapy.
Thoroughbreds generally have lower crea-
tinines than QHs or WBs, and this should be
considered when evaluating renal function,
particularly if the horse is being treated with
nephrotoxic drugs; in other words a TB whose
creatinine is 1.8 mg/dl (still within published
normal range for the horse) while on amino-
glycosides could be highly significant.
Liver disease is detected by measuring liver
enzymes in the serum. These enzymes may be
from hepatocellular origin or biliary in origin
and are helpful in determining the etiopathol-
ogy of the liver disease. Consideration of half
life and liver specificity of the enzymes should
also be duly noted in the evaluation. GGT is
the most sensitive enzyme for detecting seri-
ous liver disease in horses but it test disease
and not function. Its decline often lags behind
the other enzymes during recovery from he-
patic injury and greatest elevations occur with
biliary diseases. Function test include direct
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Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Italian Association of Equine Veterinarians, Carrara, Italy 2010
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bilirubin concentration, indirect bilirubin (not
specific for liver as hemolysis and fasting also
cause elevations), prothrombin and partial
prothrombin times, ammonia and total bile
acids. Bile acids are increased prior to the oth-
er test in the progression of most equine he-
patic diseases. Bile acids are increased some
due to anorexia and foals < 6 weeks of age of-
ten have higher concentrations than the nor-
mal adult range.
Point of care instruments can provide rapid re-
sults for most electrolytes including ionized
calcium, blood gases, glucose, lactate and car-
diac troponin I and are now used more in our
hospital than is the bench testing in the clini-
cal pathology laboratory.
REFERENCES
Orsini, J.A., Elser, A.H., Galligan, D.T., Donawick, W.J.,
and Kronfeld, D.S. Prognostic index for acute ab-
dominal crisis (colic) in horses. Am J Vet Res
1988;49(11):1969-1971.
Proudman, C.J., Edwards, G.B., Barnes, J., and French,
N.P. Factors affecting long-term survival of horses
recovering from surgery of the small intestine.
Equine Vet J 2005;37(4):360-365.
Divers, T.J. Blood transfusion therapy in horses. In: Pro-
ceeding 7th Internation Vet Emer Crit Care Sympo-
sium 2000; pgs. 658-661.
Hinchcliff, K.W., Kociba, G.J., and Mitten, L.A. Diagno-
sis of EDTA-dependent pseudothrombocytopenia
in a horse. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1993;203(12):
1715-1716.
Johnston K, Holcombe SJ, Hauptman JG,. Plasma lactate
as a predictor of colonic viability and survival after
360 degrees volvulus of the ascending colon in
horses. Vet Surg. 2007 Aug;36(6):563-7.