FUNDAMENTALS OF CRIMINAL

INVESTIGATION WITH
INTELLIGENCE
Percentage Weight in Crime Detection and Investigation – 2% (10 items)

Desired Competencies:
1. Recall, apply and understand the principles of: Criminal Investigation; tools of
investigation; rights of persons and law on investigation, detention, and torture;
knowledge, skills, competences, characteristics, attitude of Crime/Criminal Investigator,
kinds and techniques of Investigation; Intent and motive;
2. Apply the different modes, methods, types and techniques of gathering, collection,
preservation, and processing of information such as but not limited to: Intelligence;
Surveillance; Informants; Informers; Regular and Cultivated sources of information;
Undercover; Background Investigation; Cyber Intelligence and Cyber Investigation;
Codes and Ciphers; Classification of Information and Sources; Security and Access of
Document/Information including its classification; and others;
3. Use the principles, procedures, legal requirements, methods and techniques of the
following but not limited to: Arrest with and without warrant; Raid, Search with and
without warrant; search of arrested persons; check and choke points; crime scene
processing; collection of evidence and chain of custody; crime scene photography and
crime sketch; deposition, confession, and admission; and others.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
Criminal Investigation - is an art that deals with the identity and location of the offender and prove his guilt
in a criminal proceeding.
• Criminal Investigation - systematic method of inquiry that is more a science than an art
a. Criminal Investigation is an Art - based on intuition, felicity of inspiration or chance
b. Criminal Investigation is a Science - based on adequate professional preparation and
abundance of certain qualities
• Investigator - person charged with the duty of carrying out the objectives of criminal investigation
• Special Crime Investigation - deals with the study of major crimes based on the application of special
investigative techniques

Important Principles in Crime Investigation

1. Thoroughness - investigator is duty bound to gather all pieces of evidence to prove the guilt of the
suspect/accused beyond reasonable doubt
2. Legality - the evidence should be gathered in the manner prescribed by the Constitution

Six (6) cardinal points of investigation

1. What specific offense has been committed?
2. How the offense was committed?
3. Who committed it?
4. Where the offense was committed?
5. When it was committed?
6. Why it was committed?

Phases of Criminal Investigation

a. Preliminary Investigation - identify the criminal through confession; eyewitness testimony;
circumstantial evidence; and associate evidence
b. Follow Up Investigation - trace and locate the criminal
c. Final Investigation - proved by evidence the guilt of the suspect/s.

Tools of an Investigator in Gathering Facts

a. Information - data gathered from other persons.
b. Interrogation and Interview - questioning of witnesses, suspects, and offended parties
c. Instrumentation - scientific examination of real evidence, application of instrument and methods of
the physical sciences in detecting crime.

CRIMINAL INVESTIGATOR
- the skilled person who is charged with the duty of conducting criminal investigation when a crime
is committed.

Who shall conduct criminal investigation?

- the Police Station, which has territorial jurisdiction of the area where the crime incident was
committed

Common investigation oversights

1. Incomplete Case Folder - lack of material documentation of the case under investigation
Recommended Remedies
- Include the police reports in chronological order such as police blotter, spot, progress
and final investigation report
2. No template for the conduct of investigation - police personnel are not knowledgeable about
crime scene preservation and basic investigation
Recommended Remedies
- Every police personnel should mandatorily undergo investigation training giving priority
to those in the field units.
3. Inadequacy of coordination - SOCO, investigators, prosecutors and other concerned agencies
work separately and independently in the conduct of their investigation.
Recommended Remedies

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 - Case conferences should be encouraged at the start of the investigation.
4. Failure to Prosecute - absence of police investigator during trial to act as prosecutor’s witness due
to retirement and transfer of concerned investigator
Recommended Remedies
- Proper turn-over of case folders handled by investigators who shall retire or be
transferred, as requisite before the issuance of office clearance
5. Chain of Custody - non-observance of proper documentation in the turn-over of evidence from
one officer to another or one office to another.
Recommended Remedies
- Documentation on the turn-over of evidence with actual receipt should be observed and
non-observance should be the basis for administrative sanctions.
6. Less appreciation of electronic evidence - police investigators take for granted the electronic
devices.
Recommended Remedies
- proper training on the preservation and processing of electronic devices should be
prioritized for all investigators in the field

Duty of Criminal Investigator

1. Establish that, in fact, a crime was committed under the law.
2. Identify and apprehend the suspect.
3. To recover stolen property.
4. To assist the state in prosecuting the party charged with the offense.

METHODS OF IDENTIFICATIONS OF CRIMINALS

1. Confession and Admission
A. Confession - this is an expressed acknowledgement by the accused in criminal cases of the truth
of his guilt as to the crime charged or of some of the essential part thereof. There is no implied
confession for it is positive and direct acknowledgement of guilt. It is the best means of identifying
criminal.
Rules in Confession
a. Must be in writing
b. Written in a language which the accused does not speak
c. Made freely and voluntarily
• Voluntarily – means that the accused speak of his free will and accord, without
inducement of any kind and with the full and complete knowledge of the nature and
consequences of the confession.
• Freely- when the speaking is so free from the influence affecting the will of the accused
at the same time the confession was made.
Requirement for confession as proof of guilt
1. Other corroborative evidence must support it.
2. Corpus delicti- must be established separately (the actual commission of the crime charged.
It refers to a particular crime and signifies that specific offense had been actually committed
by someone being composed of two elements: that certain results were produced, that
someone is criminally responsible
3. Confession must be made voluntarily.

2. Statement of witnesses
B. By Eye-Witness Testimony
- description made by eyewitness
Methods of Identification made by eyewitness
1. Verbal Description- portrait parle; vividly describing in words the appearance of a person by
comparing and thru personal appearance
2. Photographic files - rogues gallery
3. General photograph - files of photograph in any given establishment.
4. Police line-up - selecting the suspect from a group of innocent persons to eliminate the power
of suggestions as factor of identification
5. Cartography - the art of sketching the image of a person or the art of making map

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3. Circumstantial Evidence
It is sufficient for conviction if:
a. There is more than one circumstance.
b. The facts from which the inferences are derived are proven.
c. The combination of all the circumstances is such as to produce a conviction beyond reasonable
doubt.
4. Associative Evidence
- links the suspect to the crime scene or offense

Kinds of Physical Evidence

1. Corpus Delicti – objects or substance which are essential parts of the body of the crime.
2. Associative Evidence – it links the suspect to the crime scene or offense.
3. Trace Evidence – articles that can establish the physical contact of suspect with the victim to probe
his physical presence in the crime scene.

CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION

Crime scene
- the area surrounding the place where the crime occurred
Processing the crime scene
- application of diligent and careful methods by an investigator to recognize, identify, preserve
and collect fact and items of evidentiary value that may assist in reconstructing that which
actually occurred

Duties of the first responder

1. Proceed to the crime scene to validate the information received.
2. Record the exact time of arrival and all pertinent data regarding the incident in his issued pocket
notebook and notify the TOC.
3. Cordon off the area and secure the crime scene with a police line or whatever available material to
preserve its integrity.
4. Check whether the situation still poses imminent danger and call for back up if necessary
5. Identify possible witnesses and conduct preliminary interview and ensure their availability for the
incoming investigator-on-case.
6. Arrest the suspect/s if around or in instances wherein the suspect/s is fleeing, make appropriate
notification for dragnet operations
7. Prepare to take the ‘’Dying Declaration’’ of severely injured persons with the following requisites:
a. that death is imminent and the declarant is conscious of that fact
b. that the declaration refers to the cause and surrounding circumstances of such death
c. that the declaration relates to facts which the victim is competent to testify to
d. that the declaration is offered in a case wherein the declarant’s death is the subject of the
inquiry.
8. Evacuate the wounded to the nearest hospital using emergency services
9. Account for the killed, wounded and arrested persons for proper disposition
10. Conduct initial investigation
11. Brief the investigator-on-case upon arrival and turn over the crime scene
12. Conduct inventory on the evidence taken at the crime scene
13. Inventory receipt should be properly signed by the first responder, SOCO and the investigator

Composition of an investigation team

1. Team Leader
2. Investigator/recorder
3. Photographer
4. Evidence custodian
5. Composite illustrator/artist
Note: all investigators in any police unit must be a graduate of prescribed investigation course with a
rank of at least Police Corporal.

GOLDEN RULE
- never touch any object at the crime scene unless photographed, measured and indicated in the
sketch

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Crime scene sketch
- graphic representation of the scene of the crime with complete measurements of the relative
distances of relevant object and conditions obtaining therein.
General kinds of sketch
1. Rough Sketch – made by the investigator at the crime scene which is full of important details
but without the scale of proportion.
2. Finished Sketch - with a scale of proportion and drawn by a draftsman
Methods/systems of locating objects on sketch:
a. Rectangular coordinates - at right angles from each of two walls
b. Coordinates constructed on transecting base line - choose relatively fixed points for baseline
c. Triangulation - made from each of two fixed objects to the point you want to plot or locate so as
to form an imaginary triangle.

Chain of Custody
- the number of persons who handled and possessed the pieces of evidence the money they were
collected, marked and tagged, up to the time of the final disposition of the case.
- all seized evidence must be in the custody of the evidence custodian and deposited in the
evidence room or designated place for safekeeping
What should be marked on the evidence?
1. Exhibit Case Number
2. Initials and or signature of the collecting officer
3. Time and date of collection

When is there a need for SOCO Assistance?

1. In cases where the crime scene needs special processing due to its significance or because of its
sensational nature.
2. If the situation involves a clandestine drug laboratory, biological weapons, radiological or
chemical threats.

Releasing of the crime scene

1. Ensure that appropriate inventory has been made.
2. Release is accomplished only after completion of the final survey and proper documentation of
evidence, witness/es, victim/s and suspect/s.
3. If the crime scene is within a private property - released to the lawful owner witnessed by any
barangay official.
4. In case of government facility - released to the administrator.

Crime Scene Reconstruction

- assessment made by the investigator after the crime scene investigation, oh how the crime is
committed.
Kinds of crime reconstruction
1. Physical Reconstruction – based on the physical appearance of the crime scene mainly focused
on the pieces of physical evidence
2. Mental Reconstruction – some conclusions could be formulated taking into account all available
pieces of evidences

THREE TOOLS OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

1. INSTRUMENTATION
- scientific examination of real evidence, application of instrument and methods of the physical
sciences in detecting crime.
2. INTERVIEW AND INTERROGATION
• Interview - the questioning of a person believed to possess knowledge that is in official interest to
the investigator.
• Interrogation Defined - the questioning of a person suspected of having committed an offense or
of a person who is reluctant to make a full disclosure of information in his possession which is
pertinent to the investigation.
3. INFORMATION
- all evaluated materials of every description including those derived from observation, reports,
rumors, imagery, and other sources from which intelligence in produced.

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Definition of terms:
• Hot Case - the violation of law has just been unearthed or discovered and the suspects or the
witnesses to the case are still emotionally upset or excited.
• Cold Case - a dormant case where a suspect or witness has the luxury or ample time to mull over
the ramifications of the case and to put their alibi or defense or otherwise form subjective
impression of the case.
• Deductive Reasoning - forms a general conclusion prior to having a complete explanation based
on facts.
• Inductive Reasoning - forms a general conclusion after further investigation and evidence
gathering.

PROCEDURE AT THE CRIME SCENE

1. Upon Arrival at the Crime Scene
a. Record time/date of arrival at the crime scene, location of the scene, condition of the
weather, condition and type of lighting direction of wind and visibility
b. Secure the crime scene by installing the crime scene tape or rope (police line)
c. Before touching or moving any object at the crime scene determine first the status of the
victim, whether he is still alive or already dead. If the victim is alive the investigator should
exert effort to gather information from the victim himself regarding the circumstances of the
crime, while a member of the team or someone must call an ambulance from the nearest
hospital. After the victim is remove and brought to the hospital for medical attention,
measure, sketch, and photograph. Only a coronal or a medical examiner shall remove the
dead body unless unusual circumstances justifies its immediate removal.
d. Designate a member of the team or summon other policemen or responsible persons to
stand watch and secure the scene, and permit only those authorized person to enter the
same.
e. Identify and retain for questioning the person who firs notified the police, and other possible
witnesses.
f. Determine the assailant through inquiry or observed him if his identity is immediately
apparent. Arrest him if he still in the vicinity.
g. Separate the witnesses in order to get independent statements.
2. Recording - As a rule, do not touch, alter or remove anything at the crime scene until the evidence
has been processed through notes, sketches and photographs, with proper measurements.
3. Searching for Evidence
a. A general survey of the scene is always made, however, to the location of obvious traces of
action, the probable entry and exit points used by the offender(s) and the size and shape of
the area involved.
b. The investigator examines each item encountered on the floor, walls, and ceiling to locate
anything that may be of evidentiary value. You should:
1. Give particular attention to fragile evidence that may be destroyed or contaminated
if it is not collected when discovered.
2. If any doubt exists as to the value of an item, treat it as evidence until proven
otherwise.
3. Ensure that the item or area where latent fingerprints may be present is closely
examined and that action taken to develop the prints.
4. Carefully protect any impression of evidentiary value in surfaces conducive to making
casts or molds. If possible, photograph the impression and make a cast or mold.
5. Note stains, spots and pools of liquid within the scene and treat them as evidence.
6. Treat as evidence all other items, such as hairs, fiber, and earth particles, foreign to
the area in which they are fund – for example, matter found under the victim’s
fingerprints.
7. Proceed systematically and uninterruptedly to the conclusion of the processing of
the scene. The search for evidence is initially completed when, after a thorough
examination of the scene, the rough sketch, necessary photograph and investigative
note have been completed and the investigator has returned to the point from which
the search began. Further search may be necessary after the evidence and the
statements obtained have been evaluated.

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 c. In large outdoor areas, it is advisable to divide the area into strips about four (4) feet wide.
The policeman may first search the strip on his left he faces the scene then the adjoining
strips.
d. It may be advisable to make a search beyond the area considered to be immediate scene of
the incident or crime. For example, evidence may indicate that a weapon or tool used in the
crime was discarded or hidden by the offender somewhere within a square-mile area near
the scene.
e. After completing the search of the scene, the investigator examined the object or person
actually attacked by the offender.
4. Collecting Evidence - accomplished after the search is completed, the rough sketch finished and
photographs taken. Fragile evidence should be collected as they are found. All firearms (FAs) found
to have tampered serial numbers (SNs) shall be automatically subjected to macro etching at the
Philippine National Police Crime Laboratory (PNP-CL). A corresponding report to the Firearms and
Explosive Office (FEO) must be made for verification purposes. In the collection, the investigator
should touch the evidence only when necessary.
5. Removal of Evidence - investigator places his initials, the date and the time of discovery on each
item of evidence and the time discovery on each item of evidence for proper identification. Items
that could not be marked should be placed in a suitable container and sealed.
6. Tagging or Evidence - any physical evidence obtained must be tagged before its submission to the
evidence custodian.
7. Evaluation of Evidence - each item of evidence must be evaluated in relation to all other evidence,
individually and collectively.
8. Preservation of Evidence - it is the investigator’s responsibility to ensure that every precaution is
exercised to preserve physical evidence in the state in which it was recovered/obtained until it is
released to the evidence custodian.
9. Releasing the Scene - scene is not releases until all processing has been completed. The release
should be effected at the earliest practicable time, particularly when an activity has been closed or
its operations curtailed.
10. Sketching Crime Scenes

POLICE INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence - the product resulting from the collecting information
• Police Intelligence - evaluated and interpreted information concerning organized crime and other
major police problems
- end product resulting from the collection, evaluation, analysis, integration, and
interpretation of available information regarding the activities of criminal

Types of Intelligence according to its end-users

1. National intelligence – interpretation of intel developed by all government departments
2. Departmental intelligence – knowledge required by a department of the government
3. Military intelligence – intelligence concerning one or more aspects of foreign nations or areas of
operations which are significant to planning
4. Police intelligence – significant to police planning operation
Major categories of Intelligence
1. Strategic intelligence – are not of immediate value
2. Counter-intelligence – concerned with the defense of the police organization against penetration
by individuals or group
3. Line intelligence – immediate in nature

Basic Principles of Intelligence Operations

• Objectivity - only the well guided succeed, there must be unity between knowledge and action
• Interdependence - subdivided into component elements to insure complete coverage, eliminate
duplication and to reduce the overall task or manageable sizes
• Continuity – continuous
• Communication - communicated to all the decision makers in manner that they will understand
the form that will permit its most effective use
• Usefulness - intelligence is useless if it remains in the minds, or in the files of its collectors
• Selection - essential and pertinent to the purpose at hand, picking the most promising of a
multitude of leads
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 • Timeliness - communicated to the decision maker at the appropriate time to permit effective use
• Security - protect and preserve the integrity of its activities

PHASES OF INTELLIGENCE CYCLE

• PHASE 1 - Directing the collection efforts
• PHASE 2 - Collection of information
• PHASE 3 - Processing the collected information
• PHASE 4 - Dissemination and use

PHASE 1- Directing the collection efforts

• Priority Intelligence Requirements (PIR)
- an item of intelligence, information of characteristics of the area of operation and the enemy,
which the commander feels he needs before he can reasonably arrive at a decision.
PHASE 2- Collection of information
• Methods of Collection
a. Overt- open
b. Covert- Secret
PHASE 3 - Processing the collected information
1. Collation – organization of raw date and information into usable form
2. Recording – reduction into writing or some other form of graphical representation
3. Evaluation – examination of raw information to determine intelligence value
• Pertinence – usefulness
• Reliability – dependable
• Accuracy – truth of info
4. Interpretation – process of establishing the significance of info
• Analysis – determination of significance of info relative to the info and intelligence already
known
• Integration – combination of elements to form a logical feature or hypothesis
• Deduction – formulation of conclusions from the theory developed

RELIABILITY OF ACCURACY OF SOURCES OF INFORMATION

INFORMATION INFORMATION
A - Completely 1 - Confirmed by other T - Direct observation by the commander and
Reliable sources chief of a unit
B - Usually Reliable 2 - Probably true U - Reports by penetration agent or resident
agent

C - Fairly Reliable 3 - Possibly true V - Report by PNP/AFP troops involved in

encounter

D - Not usually 4 - Doubtfully true W - Interrogation of capture enemy

reliable agent/foreigner
X - Observation of government and civilian
E - Unreliable 5 - Improbable
employee or official
Y - Observation by a member of the populace
F - Reliability 6 - Truth cannot be
cannot be judge judged Z - Documentary

PHASE IV - Dissemination and use

• Criteria
a. Timeless - must reach the users on time to be of value
b. Propriety - message must be clear, concise and complete, as well as in the proper form for
the receiver to readily understand its contents

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 INFORMATION COLLECTION AND ITS SOURCES
Information
- a communicated knowledge by others obtained by personal study, investigation, research, analysis,
observation.
- includes those derived from observation, rumors, imagery and other sources.
Open Sources- 99% of the info.
Close Sources- 1% of info.
• Overt Intelligence - gathering of information or documents procured openly without regard as to
whether the subject or target become knowledgeable of the purpose
• Covert Intelligence - secret procurement of information

Persons as Sources of Information

• Informants (Assets) - people selected as sources of information, which could be voluntary or in
consideration of a price
a. Informant - refers to persons who gives information to the police voluntarily or involuntarily
without any consideration.
b. Informer - those who give information to the police for a price or reward.
• Informant Net - is a controlled group of people who worked through the direction of the agent
handler

Classification of Informants
• Anonymous Informant - through telephone with the hope that the informant cannot be identified
• Automatic informants – by virtue of their positions are obligated to furnish information
• Confidential Informant - gives information about violation of the law that includes criminals
• Criminal Informant - gives information pertaining to the underworld about organized crimes with
the understanding that his identity will be protected
• Double Crosser - wants to get more information from the police more than what he gives
• False Informant - reveals information of no consequences or value
• Frightened Informants - weakest link in criminal chain
• Incident Informant - casually imparts information to an officer with no intention of providing
subsequent information
• Mercenary - information for sale
• Ordinary (out-of-their-will) Informants - under the compulsion
• Recruited Informant - selected, cultivated and developed into a continuous source of information.
• Self-Aggrandizing - gives bits of information
• Special Employee – of a specific operational nature
• Special Informant - specialized cases only
• Spontaneous or Automatic Informant - by the nature of their work or position in society, have a
certain legal responsibility to report info to the police
• Voluntary Informant - gives information freely and willfully as a witness to a certain act
• Women Informant - most dangerous type of informant

Infiltration – insertion of action agent inside the target organization

Penetration – recruitment of action agent

Procurement
- the aggressive effort to acquire certain specific information that may not be readily available.
Procuring Agents
• Agent in place – recruited within a target who is just beginning a career or an insider
• Double agent – an enemy agent, captured, turned around and sent back to where he came from
• Expendable agent – false information is leaked by enemy
• Penetration agent – infiltrates and reaches enemy to get info and manage to get back alive
• Agent of influence – uses influence
• Agent provocation – provoking agent

Cover - means by which an individual, group or organization conceals the true nature of its activities and is
existence from the observer
• Cover story – biographical data through fictional portrayal of the personality of the agent assumed
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 • Cover support – agent assigned to support the cover story
Types of Cover
• Natural Cover - using actual or true background
• Artificial Cover - using biographical data adopted for the purpose
• Cover With a Cover - justification of existence
• Multiple Cover - any cover you wish

Access - capability of agent to obtain the desired info

1. Primary access – access of desired info
2. Secondary – access through principal source where he has direct access
3. Outside – employed outside target area, monitors info from a third person

Control - authority to direct agent to carry out task in an acceptable manner and security
1. Positive control – with professionalism and rapport
2. Negative control – with blackmail and threat
Escrow account – putting salary in a bank, can be withdrawn only after fulfilling the condition

3 Kinds of Surveillance
• Tailing or Shadowing – surveillance of persons
• Casing or Reconnaissance – surveillance of places
• Roping – surveillance of other things, events, and activities
Types of Surveillance
According to Intensity and Sensitivity
• Discreet - subject person to be watched is unaware
• Close - subject is aware that he is under observation varies on each occasion
• Loose - applied frequently or infrequently, period of observation varied on each occasion
According to Methods
• Stationary - observation of place usually a bookie stall, a gambling joint, a residence (fixed
position)
- Stakeout Surveillance - used when you know or suspect that a person is at or will come to a
known location
• Moving - follow the subject from one place to another to maintain continuous watch of activities.
• Technical - by the use of communication and electronic hardware, gadgets, systems and
equipment
- Bugging - listen and record discreetly conversation of other people
- Wiretapping - interception of telephone conversation.

Types of Foot Surveillance

1. One-man shadow – single surveillant performs the surveillance
2. Two-man shadow – two-man team
3. Three-man shadow (ABC surveillance) – most effective

Definition of Terms:
• Surveillance plan – plan established according to type of personnel and the instructions for
surveillance
• Pre-surveillance conference – held among team members before conducting surveillance
• Subject – person, place or thing under surveillance
• Safehouse – place where police undercover man meets his action agent for debriefing or
reporting purposes
• Drop – convenient and secure place where an informant leaves a note for the action agent
• Convoy – associate of subject to detect surveillance
• Decoy – person or vehicle used to elude surveillants
• Contact – any subject picks or deals while under surveillance
• Made – subject recognizes the surveillant
• Lost – surveillants do not know the subject’s whereabout

ODEX
• Observation – complete and accurate awareness of surroundings using all major senses
• Description – factual reporting of what was observed
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Elicitation – extracting information where one is not aware of the purpose of conversation

Approach – setting people to start talking

a. Flattery
1. teacher-pupil approach – request him to enlighten you and solicit his opinion
2. Kindred soul approach – show concern by showing concern for his welfare
3. Good Samaritan approach – offers help
4. Partial disagreement approach – use I’m sure if I fully agree
b. Provocative approach
1. Teaser Bait approach – accumulates source of knowledge of a particular subject
2. Manhattan from Missouri – questions all statements and opposition
3. Jow blow approach – I know the answer to anything approach
4. National pride approach – defend country and its policies

Probe – keeping the person to talk incessantly

1. Competition probe – used in connection with teacher-pupil approach
2. Clarity probe – elicit additional info in unclear responses
3. High pressure probe – pin down a subject in a specific area
4. Hypothetical probe – get the subject to react to a hypothetical situation

4 classified matters:
1. Top Secret – cause exceptionally grave damage
2. Secret – endanger national security, cause serious injury
3. Confidential – prejudicial to the interest and prestige; cause administrative embarrassment
4. Restricted – requires special protection

Tactical Interrogation
- the need for obtaining information of highest degree of credibility on the minimum of time

Cryptography – study of encoding information in the form of codes and ciphers

• Codes – system on which arbitrary group of symbols represented by other letter than by a
complete words, phrases or sentences
• Cipher – system in which individual letters are represented by other letter
• Stenography – deals with hidden or secret writing, relies on different ways to hide or disguise
writing

Steganography
• A method of hiding the existence of a message using tools such as invisible ink, microscopic
writing, or hiding code words within sentences of a message.

Codes and Ciphers

Codes
- substitute arbitrary symbols—typically, letters or numbers—for the components of the original
message.
Ciphers
- use algorithms to transform a message into an apparently random string of characters.
• Substitution Ciphers- require a cipher alphabet to replace plaintext with other letters of
symbols.
• Transposition Ciphers- use the shuffling of letters in a word to make the word
incomprehensible.
Caesar cipher
- a shift cipher, one of the simplest forms of encryption in which each letter of the message is
replaced by a letter a certain number of positions down in the alphabet.

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