Chapter 4

Chemical Compositions
in a Cell

Prepared by
Teacher H’ng Tai Mei
方岱嵋师
Elements 元素 :

• Element : a substance composed of only one kind

of atom which cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical reactions.

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Compounds 化合物：
•Compound: a substance which consists
of two or more elements chemically
combined in a fixed ratio

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 Compounds

Organic
Inorganic compounds
compounds

- Contains carbon, -do not contain

hydrogen and oxygen carbon
-eg: Carbohydrates, - eg: water, acids,
proteins, lipids, base, mineral
nucleic acids salts.
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 Monomer

Polymer
Chain
Monomer

Monomer

Monomers (单体) are small molecules that build a polymer

(聚合体).

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Main Elements Compound
C H O N
Organic Inorganic

Trace Elements
Na Mg P S Cl K Ca

Ultra-trace Elements
Fe Cu Zn Co

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 (Vitamin and inorganic molecules)

Lipid Others
10% 7%

Carbohydrate Water
15% Protein 65% - 90%
50%
Nucleic acid
18%

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Importance of water in the cell.
1) Medium for biochemical reactions
2) Universal solvent
3) Providing moisture (to alveoli)
4) Maintaining osmotic balance and turgidity
5) Transport medium
6) Lubrication (润滑作用)
7) Providing support
8) High surface tension and cohesion
9) Maintaining body temperature

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• Water – polar molecules with an unequal
distribution of charges, has a positive end and
negative end.
• Polar molecules attract each other as well as
ions and other polar molecules  Universal
solvent

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 Carbohydreates
碳水化合物

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

单糖 二糖 多糖 / 聚糖
(simple sugars) (complex sugars)

Maltose 麦芽糖 Starch 淀粉

Glucose 葡萄糖
Sucrose 蔗糖 Cellulose 纤维素
Fructose 果糖
Lactose 乳糖 Glycogen 肝糖
Galactose 半乳糖
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Carbohydrates
- Consists of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.

- C : H : O = 1: 2 : 1
eg : C6H12O6 – glucose

- 3 main types of carbohydrates: monosaccharides,

disaccharides, polysaccharides.

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a) Monosaccharides 单糖
• Monomers of carbohydrates – basic sub-units of complex
carbohydrates.
• Simplest carbohydrates
• Cannot be broken down further into smaller unit of carbohydrates
• All monosaccharides are reducing sugars which act as the reducing
agent in Benedict’s test.

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a) Monosaccharides 单糖
(i) Glucose (grape sugar) 葡萄糖
- formula： C6H12O6
- found in plants and fruits

(ii) Fructose果糖
- found in sweet fruits and honey

(iii) Galactose 半乳糖

- found in milk

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b) Disaccharides
• Consists of 2 monosaccharides joined together through
condensation.
• Condensation reactions involves the removal of one
water molecule when a bond is formed between 2
molecules of monosaccharides.
• Eg：maltose (麦芽糖), sucrose(蔗糖),
lactose(乳糖)

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 b) Disaccharides
Glucose + Glucose condensation Maltose + Water
Monosaccharides Disaccharides

Glucose + Fructose condensation Sucrose + Water

Monosaccharides Disaccharides

Glucose + galactose condensation Lactose + Water

Monosaccharides Disaccharides

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Condensation :

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b) Disaccharides
• Can be broken down to their constituent monosaccharides
through hydrolysis (水解)

• Hydrolysis: chemical reaction that involves the breaking up

of large molecules by adding water to them.

• Hydro : water , lysis : break

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b) Disaccharides

Maltose + Water hydrolysis Glucose + Glucose

Sucrose + Water hydrolysis Glucose + Fructose

Lactose + Water hydrolysis Glucose + galactose

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hydrolysis

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b) Disaccharides
• Maltose & lactose = reducing sugars
• Sucrose = non reducing sugar
- When sucrose is heated with Benedict’s solutions, the blue
colour of the solution remains unchanged.
- After sucrose is broken down / hydrolysed into glucose &
fructose by boiled with dilute acid, a brick-red precipitate is
formed when tested with Benedict’s solution.

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c) Polysaccharides 多糖
• Polymers formed by the condensation of glucose
monomers.
• Insoluble in water, do not taste sweet, do not
crystallise.
• Eg : Starch 淀粉 , Glycogen 肝糖, Cellulose 纤维
素

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c) Polysaccharides 多糖
• Starch: found in wheat, rice, potatoes, bread, corn.
Starch has two types of molecular
1. amylose, up to 90% of starch is belong to amylose.
2. amylopectin
• Glycogen: main reserve of carbohydrates in animals & yeasts.
Animals store it in the liver & muscle cell.

Polysaccharides + water hydrolysis monosaccharides

condensation

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Disaccharide

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Test for starch:
 Reagent: iodine solution

 Procedure:
1) 3 drops of iodine solution are added to food
sample.
2) Any change in each mixture is observed &
recorded.

 Observation:
Food sample with starch : turns blue black.
Food without starch: remains brownish-yellow.
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Test for reducing sugar:
Reducing sugar are glucose, galactose, fructose, maltose, lactose.
Non reducing sugar: sucrose
o Reagent: Benedict’s solution
• Procedure:
1) 1ml of Benedict’s solution is added to food samples.
2) The mixture is shaken & heated by placing the test tube in a boiling water
bath.
3) Any change in colour is observed.
• Observation:
Food sample with reducing sugar : A brick-red precipitate沉淀物 is formed
Food without reducing sugar : Food samples remain light blue colour

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Test for Non-reducing sugar:
Sucrose is non reducing sugar.
Reagent: Dilute hydrochloric acid & Benedict’s solution
Procedure:
1) A few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid are added to food sample.
2) The mixture is then heated in a boiling water bath for 5 minutes.
3) The boiling tube is removed and the mixtures is cooled under a
running tap water.
4) 1ml of Benedict’s solution is added to food samples.
5) The mixture is shaken & heated by placing the test tube in a boiling
water bath.
6) Any change in colour is observed.
 Observation:
A brick-red precipitate is formed H’NG TAI MEI 方岱嵋师
Protein 蛋白质
• Large complex organic molecules made up of the elements
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen.
• Some also contain Sulphur & Phosphorus.
• Elements: C H O N S P
• Fish, meat, milk, nuts & eggs are rich in protein.

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Protein 蛋白质
• Proteins are made up of monomers or units called amino
acids. (氨基酸)
• Amino acids have an amino group (-NH2) & a carboxyl
group (-COOH).
• Chemical structure:

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Protein 蛋白质
• 2 molecules of amino acids linked together by a peptide
bond formed through condensation.
• A dipeptide can be broken down into amino acids through
hydrolysis.

condensation
amino acid + amino acid dipeptide + water
hydrolysis

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Protein 蛋白质
• Further condensation reactions link more amino acids to
either end of the dipeptide to form a polypeptide chain.

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Protein 蛋白质
• Proteins or polypeptides that are broken down through
hydrolysis reaction into amino acids by the digestive enzymes
are absorbed into the blood stream.

• These amino acids are then used to synthesise protein

molecules that are needed by the body

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 Types of amino acids
(20 types)

Essential amino acids Non essential amino acids

(9 types) (11 types)

- Amino acids that can

- Amino acids that be synthesised by the
cannot be synthesised body.
by the body
- can only be obtained - derived from other
from a healthy diet. amino acids.
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Protein 蛋白质
• Animal proteins: First class proteins because they contains
all the essential amino acids needed by the body.

• Plant proteins: Second class proteins because they do not

contains all the essential amino acids.

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Protein Structure
(a) Primary Structure
- Primary structure of protein refers to linear sequence of
amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

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Protein Structure
(b) Secondary Structure
- Polypeptide chain that is coiled to form an alpha-helix
(α-helix) chain or folded into beta-pleated sheets (β-
pleated).

- Example of protein with (α-helix) structure: keratin (hair

protein) (角质蛋白)

- Example of protein with (β-pleated) structure: silk

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Protein Structure
(b) Secondary Structure

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Protein Structure
(c) Tertiary Structure
- The way the alpha helix chains or beta-pleated sheets
are folded or coiled into a three-dimensional shape of a
polypeptide chain.
- Examples: enzymes, hormones, antibodies, plasma
proteins血浆蛋白.

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Protein Structure
(d) Quaternary Structure
- The combination of 2 or more tertiary structure polypeptide
chains to form a large, complex & functional protein
molecule.
- Eg: haemoglobin (4 polypeptide chains)

Quaternary Protein Structure

Is a protein consisting of more than one
polypeptide chain.

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Test for Protein
Reagent: 20% sodium hydroxide solution, 1% copper(II) sulphate solution
(Biuret test)
Procedures:
1) 20% sodium hydroxide solution is added to food samples and shaken
well.
2) A few drops of 1% copper (II) sulphate solution are then added slowly to
each of the mixture
3) Each mixture is shaken well and allowed to stand.
4) Any colour change is observed.
Observation:
food sample with protein : turns purple.
food sample without protein : turns blue

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Lipids 脂质
• Lipids are organic compounds that contain the elements
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) , Oxygen (O).
• Some lipid contains Phosphorus (P) & Nitrogen (N)
• Types of lipids: fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, steroids.

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(a) Fats & Oils （they are triglyceride)
• Triglycerides甘油三酯 an ester that is formed through the
condensation of 1 molecules of glycerol甘油 & 3 molecules of
fatty acids脂肪酸.

ester is a chemical compound derived from an acid (organic or

inorganic) in which at least one –OH (hydroxyl) group is
replaced by an –O–alkyl (alkoxy) group

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• Triglycerides can be broken down into fatty acids & glycerol
by hydrolysis reactions.
• Each molecule of fat or oil consists of one molecule of
glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids.
• Fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated.

condensation

+
+ 3H20
hydrolysis

3 molecules
glycerol of fatty acids triglycerides water
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 Saturated fats 饱和脂肪 Unsaturated fats 不饱和脂肪

The fatty acids do not have The fatty acids have at least
any double bonds between the one double bonds between the
carbon atoms. carbon atoms.

Solids at room temperature. Liquids at room temperature.

Saturated fats cannot form any
chemical bonds with other
atoms. This is because all the
bonds between the carbon
atoms have the maximum
number of hydrogen atom.
Unsaturated fats are able to
react with additional hydrogen
atoms.
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 Saturated fats 饱和脂肪 Unsaturated fats 不饱和脂
肪
Raises the level of LDL (bad Lowers the levels of total
cholesterol) in the blood cholesterol and LDL in the
blood
*LDL: low-density lipoprotein
Eg: animal fats (lard猪油), Eg: vegetable oils such as
red meat, coconut oil, palm corn oil, olive oil, soybean
kernel oil, full cream milk, oil, palm oil
butter

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Chemical structure of triglycerides

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Without double bond

With 1 double bond

With 2 or more double bond

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(b) Waxes 蜡
• Waxes are long chains molecules. This long chain cause
waxes waterproof.
• Found on the cuticles of the epidermis of leaves, fruits and
seeds of some plants.
• Sebum皮脂: excreted from the oil glands in the skin.
Contains wax that soften the skin.

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(c) Phospholipids
• The main component of plasma membranes.
• Control the permeability of plasma membranes.

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(d) Steroids 类固醇
• Complex organic compounds which include cholesterol & sex
hormones such as testosterone, oestrogen, progesterone.
• Cholesterol 胆固醇 ( a type of steroid)
- major component in plasma membranes.
- it has to be present for steroid synthesis
- the raw material for the synthesis of vitamins D.
- the liver controls the level of cholesterol in the
blood (converting it to bile salts and putting it into the bile
where it can be eliminated in the feces. )

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Test for Lipid
• Procedures:
1) A small amount of food sample is rubbed on filter paper.
2) The filter paper is then held against the light.
3) Observation are recorded.

• Observation:
food sample with lipid :shows a translucent (透明的)mark
food sample without lipid : Remains opaque (不透明)

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Nucleic acids 核酸
• Complex macromolecules which store genetic
information in the form of a code.
• Basic unit : nucleotides (核苷)
• The structure of a nucleotides

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Nucleic acid

Nucleotide

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 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Nitrogenous base
Nucleotide

Phosphate group

Pentose sugar
Deoxyribose Ribose

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 Purine
Nitrogenous
Nucleotide base

Guanine (G) Adenine (A)

Pyrimidine
Phosphate group

Pentose sugar DNA RNA

Cytosine (C) Thymine (T) Uracil (U)

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Pyrimidine Purine

Hydrogen bond

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- The double helix
structure of DNA.

- A,T,G,C stand for the

4 nitrogenous bases:

A – adenine
T – Thymine

G – guanine
C – cytosine

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Nucleotide vs Nucleoside Nucleoside

Nucleotide
Nitrogenous base
Elements?

Ans: C, H, O, N, P

Phosphate group
Pentose sugar

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Nucleotide T

Phosphodiester bond

H H Condensation H

Phosphodiester bond

Nucleotide G
H H

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Sugar-phosphate backbone Monomer vs Polymer

monomer
polymer

polymer
Monomer???

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 3’
5’

H
H

5’
3’ H
H

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Term:
• Nucleotide
• Polynucleotide
• Nucleoside
• Sugar-phosphate
backbone
• Phosphodiester bond
• Hydrogen bond

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• 2 types: (i) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
(ii) ribonucleic acid (RNA)

• DNA :
-double-stranded polynucleotide, double helix
- found in nucleus, chloroplast, mitochondria
- contains genetic information inherit (继承)
from parents

• RNA:
- found in cytoplasm, ribosomes, nucleus
- copies the information carried by DNA for
use in protein synthesis.
- Bases for RNA are Adenine, Uracil, Guanine and Cytosine.

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 DNA RNA
Double-strand Single-strand

Deoxyribose Thymine (T) Ribose Uracil (U)

Guanine (G) Adenine (A) Cytosine (C) Phosphate group

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• Chromosomes 染色体 are formed from DNA polynucleotide
chains that are wound 缠绕 around a protein called histone 组
织蛋白.
• Histones do not carry genetic information.
• DNA molecules combine
with histone proteins to
form nucleosomes 核小体.
• Nucleosomes are
intertwined交织在一起 to
form the chromosome
structure.
1. The information for the synthesis
of enzymes is carried by the DNA.
The sequences of bases on the
DNA are codes to make proteins.

2. In the nucleus, DNA double helix unwinds and exposes it’s

strands for the synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) strand. The
mRNA is synthesised according to the instruction on the DNA.
3. The mRNA leaves the nucleus & move to ribosome.
4. The mRNA attached to the ribosome.
5. The genetic information on mRNA is translated into the
sequence of amino acids.
6. These amino acids are bonded together to form a specific
enzyme (polypeptide / a chain of amino acids) and is ready
for release into the cytoplasm.
 • Store genetic information
• Structure and support
• Transport Nucleic acid
• Solvent
Carbohydrates
• Coolant Water
• Reactant • Ribose sugar in
DNA and RNA
Compounds in • Energy
the cell production and
storage
• Enzymes • Support
• Hormones
• Haemoglobin Protein • Hormone Lipid
• Energy store
• Support
• Transport H’NG TAI MEI 方岱嵋师
Question
The diagram shows the formation of molecule R in milk.

Based on the diagram, explain:

(a) the formation of molecule R [2%]
(b) the breaking down of molecule R [2%]

Explanation must be based on the process of

condensation and hydrolysis.
Answers
(a) The formation of molecule R involves the process of
condensation.
Bonds are formed between two monosaccharide molecules,
which are glucose and galactose.
Condensation involves the removal of one water molecule. A
disaccharide, that is lactose, is formed.
(b) The breakdown of molecule R involves the process of
hydrolysis.
The bonds in the disaccharide, which is lactose, break
down.
Hydrolysis involves the addition of one water molecule.
Glucose and galactose are formed.