3.

METEOROLOGY
Previously the student was introduced to the field of hydrology, the hydrological cycle
and the position of hydrology in Civil Engineering. This chapter progresses and informs
the student about the main components of meteorology such as temperature, wind,
radiation, forming of clouds and humidity.

Outcomes

At the end of this chapter the student will be acquainted with the components of
meteorology, e.g. humidity, temperature, wind, radiation and clouds and related
calculations.

Defining meteorology
Meteorology is the science dealing with the atmosphere and its phenomena,
including weather and climate. The hydrology of a region depends primarily on its
climate and secondly on its topography and geology. The climate of a region
depends largely on where on the earth’s surface this region is located. Climatic
factors that are of importance are precipitation and the way in which it occurs,
humidity, temperature and wind. These aspects will now be discussed.

3.1 Humidity
The relative humidity of an air mass, can be defined as the amount of water vapour
in the air, expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount that the air could hold
at that given temperature, and is also called humidity.

Air easily absorbs moisture in the form of water vapour, this is totally dependent
on the temperature of the water and the air. The higher the temperature the more
water will vaporise and stay in the air.

The moisture in the air has a partial pressure usually measured in either bars (1 bar =
100 kN/m2) or mm mercury (Hg) (1mm Hg = 1,33 mbar) and is called vapour pressure
(e). Although water vapour is lighter than air it is restricted to the lower layers of
the troposphere because temperature decreases with altitude.
The troposphere is the inner layer of the atmosphere varying in height between
9,7 km and 19,7 km, within which there is a steady fall of temperature with increasing
altitude and where nearly all cloud formations occur, and weather conditions are
manifested. The word itself can be broken down into two parts namely tropo and
sphere. Tropo is a learned borrowing from the Greek meaning “turn” or “turning”
often indicating a change or an attraction to something. Sphere of course is any
rounded body - in this case air around the earth.

The interrelationship between temperature (t) and vapour pressure (e) will now be
explained. Let us now visualise a body of evaporating water with air above it and
that this whole system is enclosed so that all the air and water stays inside. If
a source of heat energy is available to the system, the water will evaporate into the
air until a state of equilibrium is reached. This is when the air is saturated with
vapour and can absorb no more water. The molecules of water vapour will then
exert a pressure that is known as saturation vapour pressure (es) for that
temperature (t) of the system. The value of es changes with t as indicated in figure 2

Figure 2: Sketch of the main processes of the hydrological cycle.

Figure 2 is given to show the interrelationship between es and t, and the given symbols
are:

es = saturation vapour pressure (mm Hg)

t = dry-bulb temperature (°C), measured by the dry-bulb thermometer.

e = actual vapour pressure of the air (mm Hg)

td = dew-point temperature (°C)

tw = wet-bulb temperature (°C), measured by a wet-bulb thermometer

ew = the value of es corresponding to temperature tw.

Now let’s say we have a mass of atmospheric air with temperature t and
vapour pressure e. Because point X lies below the curve of the saturation vapour
pressure it could still absorb more water vapour. If it did so while the
temperature stayed constant it would move vertically up along the dashed line
until the air become saturated at es(1). The increase from e to es(1) is known as
the saturation deficit. (es- e), with e the value at point X.

Let’s now say that the same point X, changed in temperature but not in
vapour pressure in other words the air cooled down dramatically, for instance
overnight.

The humidity stays the same and the point X moves horizontally along the
dashed line until it intersects the saturation line again at es(3). At this point X
would be saturated at a new temperature td, the dew-point. If the air cooled
beyond this point condensation will take place and mist could be formed.

Now we can see what would happen in practice. When water is allowed to
evaporate freely into the air the evaporation requires heat, which is withdrawn
from the air itself, the heat being the latent heat of evaporation.

Therefore the humidity and vapour pressure will rise while the temperature will
fall and the point X will move diagonally along the other dashed line to the
saturation vapour pressure curve at es(2) where the point would be called ew at
temperature tw.

The relative humidity can be expressed as

h=
e
(100 )
es

where

h = relative humidity (or humidity)

e = actual vapour pressure (mm Hg)

es = saturated vapour pressure (mm Hg) at the dry-bulb temperature (t).

and can be measured by two thermometers, one dry and the other with its bulb
wrapped in wet muslin (a woven cotton fabric).

For the calculation of e, the following equation can be used:

(ew - e) = Y (t - tw)

where Y = Psychrometer constant which can be taken as 0,485.

Example 2.2
If t = 23,6 °C, tw = 19,6 °C, es at t = 21,84 mm Hg, ew = 17,1 mm Hg, calculate the
relative humidity (h).

Solution
(ew - e) = Y (t - tw)

(17,1 - e) = 0,485 (23,6 - 19,6)

-e = 1,940 - 17,1

e = 15,160 mm Hg

Therefore

h = 100 (15,160 / 21,84)

= 69,4%
3.2 Temperature
The temperature of the air is measured by thermometers housed in open louvered
boxes, known as Stevenson screens, about 1,25 m above ground level. The
protection is thus given from direct sun rays and precipitation. It could be said that the
nearer an area is to the equator the warmer it would be, but the atmospheric currents,
the seasons of the year, the topography, vegetation and altitude all make a difference
to the general rule.

The mean daily temperature is the average of the maximum and minimum and is
normally within a degree of the true average that is recorded in degrees Celsius.

Example 2.3
t (°C) 6 5 5 12 21 20 14
11

Time (hour) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18
21

By using the above information, calculate the mean daily temperature and the true
average temperature.

Solution
1
Mean daily temperature = (minimum + maximum)
2

=
1
(5 + 21)
2

= 13°C

True average temperature = sum of all readings divided by the amount of readings

1
= (6 + 5 + 5 + 12 +21 + 20 + 14 + 11)
8

= 11,75°C

For the Meteorologists, the minimum and maximum recorded temperatures for a
specific day are also of importance, and they are merely measured with the minimum-
and maximum thermometers.
3.3 Wind
Windspeed and direction are measured by an anemometer and wind vane
respectively. The anemometer is made up of three or more cups that rotate around a
vertical axis. The speed of rotation gives the wind speed and the total revolutions
around the axis shows us the distance a particular parcel of air had travelled in a
specific time.

Because of the frictional effects of the ground or water on the air blowing over it, it is
important to know at what height the observation was made.

The following equation is used for calculating the windspeed and height in relation to
each other.

n
U Z
 = 
 Uo   Z o 

Where the symbols mean:

Uo = windspeed at height Zo

U = windspeed at some higher-level Z

n = coefficient which varies from location to location

The relative humidity, dry bulb temperature and windspeed are necessary in the
determination of evaporation. Looking at the formula, Zo is normally 2 m which is the
standard height the windspeed Uo is measured at. When the coefficient n for that
area is known, the windspeed at any other height can be determined. When a high
building is to be erected in that area, e.g. a multi-storey building, silo or even chimney
for a power station, the windspeed is to be calculated for the height under
consideration.
Example 2.4
A windspeed of 5,2 m/s was recorded at standard height. Take the coefficient for that
area as 0,01 and calculate the windspeed at 8 m - height.

Solution
The standard height is 2m and is to be put into equation as follows:

n
U Z
 = 
 Uo   Z o 

0,01
 U  8 
 5,2  =  2 
   

u = 5,273m/s

Example 2.5
An anemometer recorded windspeeds of 9 m/s and 6 m/s at 25 m and 10 m heights
respectively. Determine the coefficient for that location.

Solution
n
U Z
Equation   =   now becomes
 Uo   Z o 

n
 6   25 
 9  =  10 
   

and by taking logs, n can be calculated as follows:

log 1,5 = n.log 2,5

n = 0,443
3.4 Radiation
For the determination of evaporation, it is necessary to have accurate values for
radiation available for that specific area. A weather station normally has a radiometer
for the recording of incoming short-wave radiation from the sun, and the short- and
longwave radiation from the surface of the earth.

When exposed to radiant energy, the vanes of the radiometer revolve around its axis
and then transforms the radiant energy into mechanical energy - which is then
measured. The vanes are surrounded by a glass vessel and we can summarise by
saying that the radiometer is an instrument that demonstrates the transformation of
radiant energy into mechanical energy. Radiation changes daily and with the latitude
and can be averaged to monthly radiation values, for convenience. Radiation has
units of g.cal/cm2/day.
SELF EVALUATION
1. Define the following words/terms generally used in the field of Hydrology:
(a) Hydrology

(b) evaporation

(c) Meteorology

(d) Dry-bulb temperature

(e) Wet-bulb temperature

(f) Saturation vapour pressure

2. Calculate the relative humidity of an air mass with the following information:
t = 26 °C, tw = 20 °C, es = 24 mm Hg, ew = 15 mm Hg, Y = 0,485.

3. Determine the mean daily and the true average daily temperature from the data
given in the table below.

Time (hour) 03 06 09 12 15 18 21
24

t (°C) -2 -3 0 8 9 8 4 3

4. An anemometer on top of a water tower (15 m above ground level) shows a

windspeed of 12,4 m/s. Calculate the windspeed at a standard height.
Take n = 0,147
REFERENCE

Bedient, P.B., Huber, W.C. 1992. Hydrology and Floodplain Analysis. Addison -
Wesley Publishing Company.

Merwe, J.V.D. 2002.Water Engineering Theory III Study Guide. Universirty of South
Africa.