Section 2 .

Stationary Waves
2.2.1 Standing waves 2.2.2 Definition of a standing wave

• A progressive wave transfers energy as the wave • Examination questions on this topic often begin by
travels through the transfer medium. asking what is meant by a standing wave.

• However, a second category of wave exits, one A standing wave is produced

that does not transfer energy between its when a travelling wave meets its
beginning and end. reflection and superpose in such a
way that nodes and antinodes are formed.
• These waves are called standing or stationary
A node is a point of zero displacement of the
waves.
transfer medium and an antinode is a point of
maximum displacement.
• The photograph shows such a wave on a string.

• Unlike a progressive wave, where every point on the

wave has the same amplitude, every
point on a standing wave has a
different amplitude.

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2.2.3 Standing wave demos
Video Clip 2.2.1 Standing wave on a string. Video Clip 2.2.3 Chladni’s figures - 2D standing waves

Video Clip 2.2.2 Chaldni's figures on a square plate. Video Clip 2.2.4 Chladni’s figures on a round plate.

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2.2.4 Modes of vibration N A
N

• The simplest shape that can fit on a fixed string is the

Fundamental or first harmonic - f0
fundamental mode.
N N
A A
• It must have node N at each end, since the string is
fixed and energy is not lost when the wave reflects,
First overtone or second harmonic - f1 = 2f0
and an antinode A in the middle.

• Successive modes have nodes at each end and

increasing number of loops, each one being an
Second overtone or third harmonic - f 2 = 3f0
antinode, with a node between them.

• The first overtone is the next possible mode of

oscillation beyond the fundamental.
Third overtone or fourth harmonic - f3 = 4f0
• If the frequency of the first overtone is 2 × that of the
fundamental, it is the second harmonic. Video clip 2.2.5 Harmonics on a guitar.

• So the overtone number is the mode of oscillation

which is possible above the fundamental.

• The harmonic number is the multiple of the

fundamental frequency that the mode supports.

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2.2.5 Standing waves on strings
oscillator
• Investigating the relationship
pulley wheel
between frequency and tension.

• The speed of a wave on a string

depends on the tension T  in the string
load giving the
and its mass per unit length µ. string tension

mass
• The speed is in fact given by • Measurements of frequency and hanger
tension are taken and a graph plotted.
T
v= • f  is plotted against T and the line should
µ
so if v= fλ 1
be straight with a gradient of    since
2l μ
1 T
then f =
2l µ
1 T
since λ = 2l f= 2l μ
y = mx = c
1
So  f= × T+0
2l μ

•The value of µ can be found my measuring the mass

and length of the string and comparing with the
calculated value.

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2.2.6 Standing waves in pipes

• There has to be a node at the closed end of the pipe, as energy

cannot be lost on reflection.

• The air is made to vibrate at the open end, so there must be an

antinode there.

• The length of the tube is a quarter the wavelength of the

fundamental.

• The first overtone is three quarters of wavelength. Its frequency

is therefore 3fo. So the second harmonic does not exist. Only odd
harmonics can exist.

i Many musical instruments such as

organs use open pipes to produce

standing waves.

The bass notes in a large church

organ can have wavelengths of several

metres. The pipes only need to be a

quarter of this length.

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 Section 2 . 3

Diffraction
2.3.1 Definition
• When a wave encounters an obstacle or passes
through an aperture, the waves spread around
the obstacle or out from the aperture. This is
diffraction.
• This happens most if the wavelength of the
waves is similar to the size of the obstacle.
• Sound waves will diffract through a doorway or
round a tree.
• X-rays can diffract through the gaps between
molecules in a crystal lattice.
• In harbours, waves can spread out around the
harbour walls where one might expect the water to be
calm.
•
If a wave encounters an obstacle or
aperture of similar size to its wavelength,
the wave will spread out around the obstacle or
through the aperture.

• Radio waves can spread out over a mountain top

• Remember, the wave does not change direction, it
and into the valley.
spreads out.
• Light is not easily observed to diffract since the
wavelength turns out to be very small indeed. We • The nearer the wavelength to the size of the obstacle,
the greater the amount of diffraction.
can hear, but cannot see, around corners.

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2.3.2 Examples of diffraction

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22
2.3.3 The diffraction grating

• The diffraction grating is a device for analysing

light and measuring the wavelength of light.

• It relies on a phenomenon knows as

interference, which will be explained fully in the
next section.

• A diffraction grating consists of many thousands

• The picture above shows a gas discharge tube being
of very fine lines ruled on to a piece of glass.
observed through a diffraction grating.
• When light is shone through the grating, a series
• The light source is viewed normally straight through
of well-defined bright regions is observed,
the grating.
separated by large areas of darkness.
• To each side, one observes the various wavelengths
of the light being emitted by the tube at slightly
different angular positions.

• The longer wavelengths are seen at greater angles.

• The more lines per millimetre there are on the

diffraction grating, the greater the angular separation
of the orders of bright lines that are observed.

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• A monochromatic (single wavelength) source,
such as a laser, produces a pattern of sharply
defined dots.

• There is a mathematical relationship between the

wavelength of the light and the angle at which
each order is observed. • The rainbow colours seen in a CD are due to the very
close grooves in the CD acting as a reflection
diffraction grating.
The order n of wavelength λ
•
which is observed through a diffraction
grating with N lines m-1 on it is given by
sinθ
nλ = or nλ = dsinθ
N
1
where the separation of the lines d is .
N

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 Section 2 . 4

Wave Interference
2.4.1 Wave or particle? • Two identical sets of water waves which
overlap, interfere with each other to give
• Isaac Newton had the world convinced lines of maximum water disturbance.
that light was made of particles which he
• They can also gives lines of zero water
called corpuscles.
disturbance.
• He argued that particles would reflect off a Thomas Young
• Can particles do that?
surface in the same way as light off a
mirror.

• And that particles changed direction in the

same way as light when they changed their
speed. But in the opposite direction.

• Christiaan Huygens, however, argued that

light was a wave.

• Nearly two hundred years later, Thomas

Young showed the world who was right.

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 optical
optical screen
2.4.2 Double slit interference screen
(front view)
double slit
• Thomas Young performed this experiment in
1803, proving light is a wave.

• Newton had said it was made up of particles.

• Two sets of coherent light waves overlap.

• Where they arrive at the screen in phase, they

add up to give a bright light or fringe. monochtromatic
light
• Where they arrive out of phase, they e.g. a laser
destructively interfere to give darkness.

• A pattern of light and dark lines is observed on

the screen. destructive constructive
interference interference

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• For interference to occur, the two sets of waves need to be coherent.

• This means they are of the same frequency and wavelength and constant phase.

• If the path difference from S1 to the screen at

P and from S2 to the point P is a whole
wavelength, the waves arrive in phase. coherent
waves
• They will interfere constructively and a bright
X
fringe is observed at P.
θ
• The same is true for path differences of any θ
d
whole numbers of wavelengths. D

• If the path difference is an odd number of λ

viewing screen
half wavelengths, the waves arrive in anti-
(wall)
phase and destructively interfere.

• A dark fringe will be seen here. seen

By similar triangles,
λ X
=
d D

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2.4.3 Single slit interference

• Less easy to understand is how light passing

through a single slit can produce an interference
pattern too.

• A wave front can be thought of as an infinite

number of point sources.

• This is Huygen’s construction.

• Where all the secondary wavefronts interfere

constructively is the new position of the wave.

• A single slit contains an infinite number of

circular wave sources. They can travel the same
distance to the screen and interfere
constructively (1 & 2).

• At a particular angle, each source of circular

waves has a partner halfway across the slit
where the path difference between them is half a
wavelength (3 & 4). They will interfere
destructively.

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• A single slit interference pattern contains a wide, bright central maximum, with dark and bright regions on both
sides.

• The central bright region is twice the width of the other maxima.

• The longer the wavelength, the greater the separation of the maxima.

2λ
• The angular width of the central maximum is sinθ = .
W

i Although a detailed understanding of single slit interference is not required in

IAL AS Physics, it does help to explain why the overall intensity of the double slit

pattern varies across its width. The pattern due to both single slits lying on top of

each other provides an envelope for the double slit pattern.

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2.4.4 Double slit experiment

• The overall intensity of the interference fringes is

determined by the single slit “envelope”.

• Some fringes may even be missing.

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 Video clip 2.5.1 Young’s double slit experiment.

• Be careful not to look directly into the laser or to

get reflected light into your eyes.

• Diagram is NOT to scale. Slit separation may be

0.2 mm, but the distance to the screen is
probably several metres.

• Fringes will be a small number of millimetres

apart.

• Measure across at least 10 fringe gaps to

improve accuracy of measurement.

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 • Repeat measurements for several distances to
screen.

λ X
• Equation is d
=
D

• Rearrange to give
λ
X = dD
y = mx + c
X fringe separation (mm)

D 10 X (mm) X (x10-3 m)
1.0 30 3.0
1.1 35 3.5
1.2 37 3.7
1.3 41 4.1
1.4 44 4.4
1.5 47 4.7

D screen distance (m)

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• The gradient of the line = 3.1 x 10-3   (no units as they
cancel)

• From our rearranged equation, we see that the gradient is

λ
equal to .
d
λ = 3.1× 10−3 × d
• So  
λ = 3.1× 10−3 × 2.0 × 10−4
⇒ λ = 6.2 × 10−7 m

• Actual wavelength of helium-neon laser is 6.3 x 10-7 m.

• Percentage difference is 1.6%.

• Uncertainty in measuring X is likely to be bigger, ± 0.1 mm,

about 3%.

Video clip 2.5.2 Double slit analogy.

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