Organization and maintaince of the organisms

Key words to use in the questions/definitions

Longtitudinal section

Transverse section

Pictomitograph

Animal cell

 The main features of animals:

o They are multicellular
o Their cells contain a nucleus with a distinct membrane
o Their cells do not have cellulose cell walls
o Their cells do not contain chloroplasts (so they are unable to carry
out photosynthesis)
o They feed on organic substances made by other living things
o They often store carbohydrates as glycogen
o They usually have nervous coordination
o They are able to move from place to place
 The main features of plants:
o They are multicellular
o Their cells contain a nucleus with a distinct membrane
o Their cells have cell walls made out of cellulose
o Their cells contain chloroplasts (so they can carry out photosynthesis)
o They feed by photosynthesis
o They store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose
o They do not have nervous coordination
 acteria, which have a wide variety of shapes and sizes, all share the following
biological characteristics:
o They are microscopic single-celled organisms
o Possess a cell wall (made of peptidoglycan, not cellulose), cell
membrane, cytoplasm and ribosomes
o Lack a nucleus but contain a circular chromosome of DNA that floats in
the cytoplasm
o Plasmids are sometimes present - these are small rings of DNA (also
floating in the cytoplasm) that contain extra genes to those found in the
chromosomal DNA
o They lack mitochondria, chloroplasts and other membrane-bound
organelles found in animal and plant cells
  Some bacteria also have a flagellum (singular) or several flagella (plural). These
are long, thin, whip-like tails attached to bacteria that allow them to move
 Examples of bacteria include:
o Lactobacillus (a rod-shaped bacterium used in the production of yoghurt
from milk)

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Identifying Cell Structures & Function
 Within the cytoplasm, the following organelles are visible in almost all cells except
prokaryotes when looking at higher magnification (ie using an electron microscope):
o Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are organelles found throughout the
cytoplasm
o Ribosomes are tiny structures that can be free within the cytoplasm or
attached to a system of membranes within the cell known as Endoplasmic
Reticulum
o Endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes looks rough under the
microscope; this gives rise to its name of Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum (often shortened to R.E.R.)
o Vesicles can also be seen using a higher magnification - these are small
circular structures found moving throughout the cytoplasm
o
o Pneumococcus (a spherical bacterium that acts as the pathogen causing
pneumonia)

Cytoplasm Gel like substance Supports internal cell

containg water and strcture site of many
dissolved doutes chemical reactions
like respiration
Cell membrane Made of lipids and Holds cell together
Outside the Controls what enters
cytoplasm and comes out of cell
neucleas Contains gentic controls the
material (sna) and it functions of a cell like
is in the cytoplasm cell division ,
producrs rna

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Mitochondria In the cytoplasm …it Produces atp/energy
has many folds inside by the process of
it which increase its ereobic cellular
surface area respiration the cells
that work more have
more mitochondria
granules They are vesicles in They store food like
the cytoplasm glycogen
Rough Endopalmic reticulum
Smooth endplasmic
reticulum
Ribosome In the cytoplasm Protein sunthesis

Cell wall It isoutside a plant cell

made u
Choloroplasts
Vacuole

Specialized cells

Ciliated cells The move mucus thrugh the
nose,trchea and bronchus
Have hair like projections /
cytoplasmic hair called cilia
Prosuce a stream of liquid called
mucus which traps bacteria and
duste
The are always in a continuous
flicking motion
To move the mucus through the
brounchus and treachea away
from the neucleas

Plaidase mesophyll cells Photosynthesis They are near the epidermis to

get maxiumum sunlight
The have a lot of chilorplasts to
maximse food production
(dtsrtch)
Thethe are couloumnar

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Red blood cells Transport oxygen throughout
the body
Xylem vessels Transportation of water and
mineral s/conduction of water
(movement of water due to
trabspiration gradient…se
pg)/supports the structure of
plant see page
Ploem vessels Transportation of sucrose and
aminonacids
Root hair cells For absorbtion of water and
minerals
White blood cells They fight off pathogens in the
body see page no.
Nerve cell Conduction of electrical
impulses (this means they
transmit electrical eimpukse to
te brain )
Ovum(egg cell ) Reproduction
(elongated)so there is an
increased surface area for
absorption of sunlight and so
that many of them can fit
umderthe epidemis
They have no neuclesd do there
id slot of dpce for oxygen to
diffudeminto
Biconcave disc shape to
increase surface area
Contains haemoglobin to bind
with oxygen
There are no top and bottom
walls of these vessels ,they are
continuous colums
The cells are dead with no
cytoplasm to aloow passage of
water
The walls are thickened due to
lignin to support the structure
of the plnst
They have thin cell wall to
increase the rate of absorption
of water
They have hair like projections
to increase their surface area
for aabsorption of water
A great number of mitochondria
Long s they can run from the
different parts of the body to
the centreral nervous system
It has extendion to
communicate with other glands
nerves cells and muscles
The axon (extension of
cytoplasm away fro the centeral
body )is covered in a fatty seath
which insuakted the ceel and
speed the nerve impuse
Has a lot of cytoplasm as it
contains nutrients for the
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Spongy mesophyll cells
groeth of an embryo
Haplod neucleas contains
genetic material for fertilization
The cell memebrance changes
adter a single spem has enterd
so no more sperm can further
enter
Photosynthesis The are have air spaces to let
the gasesou exchange occur
eeffeciently
The are round

Guard cells Transpiration,photodyntedid(cuz

it letd co2 diffue in)
Rod cells
Cone cells
Sperm cell Reproduction Head contsin Haplod neucleas
contains genetic material for
fertilization
Acrosome in the head contains
digestive enzymes so it can
penetrate the egg
The tail enables it to sweim
The mid piece id packed with
enegy for fertilization
Muscle cell
Bacterial cell
Virus

similarities max two from: (presence of) cell wall ; (presence of) cell membrane ; (presence of) DNA /
genetic material ; (presence of) ribosomes ; (presence of) cytoplasm ; differences max two from: no
plasmids ; no flagella ; no capsule ; no loop of DNA ; presence of chloroplasts ; presence of mitochondria

Producing New Cells

 The cells in your body need to be able to divide to help your
body grow and repair itself
 Cells grow and divide over and over again
 New cells are produced by the division of existing cells

Specialised Cells

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Specialised cells in animals

 Specialised cells are those which have developed certain characteristics in order

to perform particular functions. These differences are controlled by genes in the
nucleus
 Cells specialise by undergoing differentiation: this is a process by which cells
develop the structure and characteristics needed to be able to carry out their
functions

Specialised Cells in Animals Table

Calculating magnification and specimen size using millimetres as units

 Magnification is calculated using the following equation:

Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size

 Rearranging the equation to find things other than the magnification becomes easy
when you remember the triangle - whatever you are trying to find, place your finger
over it and whatever is left is what you do, so:
o Magnification = image size / actual size
o Actual size = image size / magnification
o Image size = magnification x actual size

Remember magnification does not have any units and is just written as ‘x 10’ or ‘x 5000’

Levels Description
Cells Basic functional and structural units of an
organism (in simpler words they build up and
help an organism to survive whilst carrying out
process to maintain life )
Tisses A group of cells working together to oerform a
same function
Organs A group of tissues working together to oerform a
specific function
Organ sustse A group of organs working together to oerform a
body function

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Organ system Organs Tissue examples
Root system Root ,tuber Epeidermis mwsophyl xylem ,
phloem
Shoot systwm Flower , leaf , stem , fruit xylem , phloem ground tissue
Digwstive system Gullet(oesophegus),small Muscle connective nerve
intestine , large ephethilial
intestine ,pancreas , glablader ,
stomach
Circulatory system Heart viens arteries Muscle connective nerve
ephethilial
Immune sustem Thymus spleen Bone marrow
Respiratory sstem Treachea bronchi lungs Muscle connective ephethilial
Excretory system Kidneys skin liver lungs Muscle connective nerve
ephethilial
Nervous system Brian spinal cord Nerve
Reprosuctive system Ovary , cervix , vigaina , testes , Muscle connective nerve
penis ,uteres ephethilial

Discussion bout vacuoles

Movement into and out of cells

Diffusiom

Why it occurs

Diffusion is a type of transport that simply occurs when there is a concentration difference where
the molecules move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.When particles in liquids and gases randomly collide and disperse, diffusion takes
place.For living things, diffusion is a crucial mechanism because it governs how molecules enter
and exit cells.Because their particles travel swiftly and erratically, gases and liquids are
frequently the particles that experience diffusion.In the modern world, diffusion is a crucial
process for all living organisms.This is because diffusion allows chemicals to enter and exit cells.

Gases diffuse because

How it occurs

When the same type of particle,lets suppose particle A is more in no. at one place than the other , a
concentration gradient is formed.due to this the particles move from an area of higher concentation
tolower concentration until the concentration is constant/same /has reaxhed an equilibrium state
(better to use the word equilibrium)

Importance of diffusion

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-important to grt rid of c02 and letting in o2 in animals bodus and other species which respire aerobicall

As carbondioxide can make our internal ph acidic and denature enzyumes

1.c02 is high in body 02 low in body

Particles move from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration

Carbondioxide enters the lungs through the pulmonary artery and it diffuse out of the caeplarries and
then diffuse out into the external environment

-when c02 concentration is ,ore outside it moves down the concentration gradient from area of higher
concentration to lower concentration through the stomata , through theair spaces in spongy mesophyll
cells and to the palisade mesophyll cells to.it further diffuses through the cell membrane to carry out
photosynthesid

The concept of decompression sickness

Nitrogen is an inert gas and is no use to humans so it usually causes no problems

But as a diver dives deeper into the body of water the preassure in the air tank results in more nitrogen
diffusin into the tissues .since its not useful it builds up.as the diver starts to go back up the air preassure
will decrease and they will try to diffude out but in doing soo they will caus eair bubbles to form in the
blood steam restricting bood flow.to solve this we should move up slowly (recompression)

-in ilium vitams like vitamin c and are absorbed into the blood stram by diffusion

Enzymes

Key words to use in the questions/definitions

Catalyst : a substance that speeds up the rate of reaction without being used up
Enzyme a biological catalyst made up of protein
Complementary

Active site it is the site on an enzyme which has a specific shape to its substrate

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 Substrate the molecule the enzyme attaches with to break iota up or build it into other molecules

Product the end molecule formed after enzymes have joined up or broken down a substances s

Enzyme substrate complex: the bond between the substrate and the enzyme

Intracellular enzymes: molecules made within the cytoplasm and sued for functions within the
cytoplasm

Extracellular enzymes: molecules made within the cytoplasm but sent outside the cell

Catabolic

Anabolic

Name of enzyme What itbinds with What is formed Regionof Where it is Ph

(substrate ) (product ) production used

Amaylase Starch Maltose Salivary amaylase Silavary

(salivary / in silavry glands / amaylase in
pancreatic ) pancreatic mouth and
amaylase in pancreatic in
pancreas small intestine
(deuodenum)
Protease (trypsin Protein Amino acids/poly - - 2ph
and pepsin is a peptides or in
type of protease ) scientific words
(Protease is an
enzyme that
catalyses the
hydrolysis of
peptide bonds
present in
proteins.)
Trypsin Protein Amino acids / pancreaas 2ph
peptides
Pepsin protien Amino acids poly Glands in the It is used in the 2ph
pepetides stomach lining stomach

Lipase Fats Faaty acids +

glycerol
Peptidase

Dehydrogenase

Catalase

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Ligase In our syllabus it - - - 37 degrees
joins the sticky celciys ?7 ph
ends of base
sequences (more
on pg
Maltase Maltose Glucose

Restriction enzyme Cuts a base - - -

sequence (more
infor on pg

Enzymes and metabolism

Enzyme structure

Enzymes are proteins. Their amino acids fold into three-dimensional structures that can
be represented by simple shapes.

Enzymes structure

They r protiens

They can be used again

They are specific

Speeds up rate of reaction

Have active sught complementary to their substrat e

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Form enzyme susbstrate complex

Living cells solve this problem by producing proteins called enzymes. Enzymes speed
up cellular reactions at body temperature by providing a more favourable environment
for the reacting molecules to meet in. They also remain unchanged by cellular reactions
and therefore can be reused by the cell.

The chemicals that enzymes act upon are called substrates. The chemicals produced
by the action of an enzyme are called products.

Most chemical reactions within cells require a catalyst to get

started.Enzymes, which are large protein molecules found in the body,
provide the perfect catalyst because they can change the chemicals within
the cells without changing themselves. Most chemical reactions within
cells do not occur spontaneously. Instead, they need a catalyst to get
them started. In many cases, heat may be a catalyst, but this is inefficient
because heat cannot be applied to molecules in a controlled fashion. Thus,
most chemical reactions require interaction with an enzyme. Enzymes
bind with particular reactants until the chemical reaction occurs, then free
themselves. The enzymes themselves are not changed by the chemical
reaction
Metabolism refers to any chemical
process occurring within or between
cells. There are two types of
metabolism: Anabolism, where
smaller molecules are synthesized to
make larger ones; and catabolism,
What Are Enzymes? where larger molecules are broken
down into smaller ones.
 Enzymes are:
o Catalysts that speed up the rate of a chemical reaction without being
changed or used up in the reaction
o Proteins
o Biological catalysts (biological because they are made in living cells,
catalysts because they speed up the rate of chemical reactions without being
changed)

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 o Necessary to all living organisms as they maintain reaction speeds of all
metabolic reactions (all the reactions that keep an organism alive)
 For example, if we did not produce digestive enzymes, it would take
around 2 - 3 weeks to digest one meal; with enzymes, it takes around
4 hours

How do enzymes work

Functions of an enzymeb

They break sown complex molecues into simpler ones at a fast rate

They can speed up the rate of reaction

They can lower the activation energy needed for reaction

How do they work

 Enzymes are specific to one particular substrate (molecule/s that get broken down
or joined together in the reaction)

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Their active site , which is complementary to the the substrate forms fx together an
enzyme substrate complex for a little time and then ccccc The product is made from the
substrate(s) and is released How enzymes catalyse biological reactions

Enzymes act on substrates by attaching to them. The part of an enzyme that one or
more substrates molecules can attach to is called the active site.


 The diagram below shows how an enzyme catalyses
the degradation (breakdown) of one substrate into two products.

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 

 Enzymes can also catalyse the synthesis (joining together) of two substrates to

form one product.
 For example, the enzyme phosphorylase catalyses the synthesis of glucose-1-
phosphate (the substrate) to form starch (the product). Watch the video below to
see the correct procedure for carrying out an investigation into this reaction.

Why is temperature lower than
the optimum temperature lower
wnzym activity
Thwre is little heat so little kinetic
energy
Enzymes and substrate will move
more slowely
Fwewwr number of successful
collisonsd
Frequency of collisions decreased
Why is there max activity at
iptimum temperature
Thwre is heat so more kinetic
energy
Enzymes and substrate will
move das faster
More number of successful
collisonsd
Frequency of collisions
increased
Why does high temperature
denature enzymes
Enzymes are protein molecules
that get denatured at high
temperatures. High heat breaks
hydrogen and ionic
bonds leading to disruption in
enzyme shape and alteration of
active site . The enzyme loses its
activity and can no longer bind
to the substrate.beacuse its
active sigh is denatured hat it is
no longer complementary to
its specific substrate. At low
temperatures enzyme activity
is low because the enzyme
and substrate molecules have
less kinetic energy so there

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An increase or decrease in
the pH changes the ion
concentration in the
solution.
These ions alter the
structure of the enzymes
and at times the substrate,
either due to formation of
additional bonds or
breakage of already existing
bonds. Ultimately, the
chemical makeup of the
enzyme and substrate are
changed.
Many ionic bonds hold the
tertiary structure of an
enzyme and, therefore, the
active site’s shape. Each
enzyme has a range of pH
values called its optimum pH,
at which the rate of reaction
is catalyzed fastest. The
reason pH has such an
important effect on enzymes
is their proteins. enzyme-
substrate complexes form most
at this temperature
are fewer collisions between
them.
A pH environment has
a significant effect on
an enzymes. It can
affect the
intramolecular forces
and change the
enzyme's shape --
potentially to the point
where it is rendered
ineffective

So, therefore, less

product is formed, and
the rate of reaction is
going to decrease. The
rate of reaction will
decrease.

Wnzymes and specifity

By specidcity w mean that they obnly bind with a susbstrate which has complementary shape theriactive
site (that fix up with the substarted active sight ).they are specific to only one type of molecule /
substreate

Effect of concentration on enzyme activity

Exam style questions

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; presence of nucleus ; presence of large vacuole ; AVP ;

total of six from: max. four for description: 1 sucrase / enzyme, is active between pH2 and pH12 ; 2
activity, increases and decreases / reaches a peak ; 3 peak / maximum or 100% activity, at pH 6 ; 4
steeper increase between pH 5–6 / steeper decrease in activity between pH 9–10 ; 5 minimum / 10%,
activity at pH 12 ; 6 more activity in, acidic conditions / low pH, than, alkaline conditions / high pH ;
explanation: 7 (change in) pH affects the shape of, sucrase / active site / enzyme ; 8 at pH 6, most
enzyme-substrate complexes form / AW ; 9 at, low / high / extremes of, pH, enzyme is (partially)
denatured ; 10 ref to substrate molecules can no longer bind with enzyme (at low / high / extreme pH,
so activity decreases)

hh

any three from: active transport ; against a concentration gradient / from low concentration to high
concentration ; protein changes shape to move (chloride) ions ; uses energy ;

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any three from: idea of presence of chloride ions (in duct) decreases water potential ; (water moves by)
osmosis ; down water potential gradient / from high water potential to low water potential ; (movement
of water) through partially permeable membrane ;

always name the activity of a cell while telling neucleas function

Suggest the advantages to the environment of using artificial photosynthesis on a large scale.

(any two from: 1 reduces, extraction / conserves, (named) fossil / non-renewable, fuels ; 2 (temporarily)
removes, carbon dioxide / greenhouse gases (from atmosphere) / does not add more, carbon dioxide /
greenhouse gas (to the atmosphere) / idea that the process is carbon neutral ; 3 does not cause /
prevents a further increase in, enhanced greenhouse effect ; 4 does not cause / prevents further
increase in global warming / prevents further climate change ; 5 it is a sustainable process / uses
renewable fuel source / described ; 6 AVP ; e.g. described example of less environmental impact caused
by use of non-renewable (fossil) fuels ;

The main difference between cilia and microvilli is that cilia are involved in

the rhythmic movement of the cell or movement of objects over the cell
surface whereas microvilli enhance the absorption of nutrients by increasing
the surface area of the cell.

any two from: nucleus ; mitochondria ; (r)ER ; vacuole ; AVP ;

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B is the palisade, mesophyll / tissue / layer / cells ; cells are tightly packed / AW ; ref. to many
chloroplasts / lots of chlorophyll ; (cells) positioned at the top of the leaf ; (large vacuole) ensures
chloroplasts are at the edge of cells ; AVP ;

Explain why some parts of a plant can act as both a source and a sink

acts as a ) source when it is (moving sucrose from) a region of production / photosynthesising ; (acts as a
) sink when it is, growing / storing / respiring / a region of utilisation ;

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