CENG 407: Transportation Engineering I (Route Surveying)

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Liberia
Lecture Notes by: Engr. Amos Y. Barclay

Lecture Notes 1

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 CENG 407: Transportation Engineering II (Route Surveying)

• What is Route Location Survey?

Surveys are required in relocation or establishment of new roads, for
the development of…
▪ project plans and
▪ estimation of costs.
A key element in this process is Route Location Survey:
I.e., the process of determining the most feasible location (route) of
the highway, street, pipeline, or transmission line that will link
predetermined locations.
This is an important initial step in the design of the new route
(road).
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 CENG 407: Transportation Engineering II (Route Surveying)

• Highway planning is essential for creating an integrated and

sustainable transportation network that meets the present and
future needs of communities and regions.

..Is the systematic process of designing, developing, and evaluating

transportation corridors for highways or major roadways.

Also, it involves a series of studies, assessments, and decision-making

steps to ensure that new highways or improvements to existing ones
are designed and constructed efficiently, safely, and in consideration
of various environmental and social factors.

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Principle of Highway of Location

▪ Roadway elements such as curvature and grade must blend with each
other to produce a system that provides for the easy flow of traffic
at the design capacity, while meeting design criteria and safety
standards.

▪ The highway should also cause a minimal disruption to historic and

archeological sites, and to other land-use activities.

▪ Environmental impact studies are therefore required in most cases

before
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a highway location is finally agreed upon.
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 CENG 407: Transportation Engineering II (Route Surveying)

Route Survey and Location

▪ Selecting the location of a proposed highway is an important
initial step in its design. The decision to select a particular
location is usually based on
▪ topography,
▪ soil characteristics,
▪ environmental factors such as noise and air pollution, and
▪ economic factors

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The highway location process involves four phases:

▪ Desk Study
▪ Reconnaissance survey
▪ Preliminary location survey
▪ Final location survey
• Location of Recreational and Scenic Routes
• Location of Highways in Urban Areas
• Principles of Bridge Location

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Desk Study
….The first phase in any highway location study is the examination of all available data of the
area in which the road is to be constructed
All of the available data are collected and examined.
These data can be obtained from existing engineering reports, maps, aerial photographs, and
charts, which are usually available at one or more of the state’s institutions/Agencies. It is usually
adopted as the base data prior to the reconnaissance survey.

Information obtained include but not limited to:

▪ Aerial Map of the highway
▪ Existing hydrology and environmental data
▪ Previous engineering survey reports (if available)
▪ And other basic data requirements

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Aerial Photographs
▪ Provide aerial view of the route

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Aerial Photographs

▪ Highlights natural and built features

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Reconnaissance Survey -The objective of this phase of the study is to identify

several feasible routes, each within a band of a limited measurement (in feet or
meters).
This is usually the first significant step when using CGS. It consists of field
investigations to verify conditions as determined from the desk study.
Generally, the engineer’s task at this stage is to obtain sufficient information on
the topography and nature of the area to determine which routes deserve
further study by ‘cut and try’.
A study is made of the profiles and grades of all alternative routes when using
Ground Location techniques, and estimates made for grading, surfacing,
structures, and ROW
A comparison of alternative routes in this way will aid the final selection of the
most likely location.
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Reconnaissance survey (cont’d)

When using photogrammetric techniques, at this stage control points between the two terminal
points are determined and flight lines between these control points established.
It is customary for the width of coverage to be about 0.4-0.6 the distance b/n the control
points.
Potential routes are examined on the basis of the following requirements:
– Directness of route
– Traffic service for population and industrial area
– Suitability of terrain encountered
– Adequacy and economy of crossings at watercourses and at other transportation routes
– Extent of adverse social, environmental, and ecological effects

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Reconnaissance Study (cont’d)

When rural roads are being considered, there is often little information available
on maps or photographs, and therefore aerial photography is widely used to obtain
the required information.

Feasible routes are identified by visual inspection of the Highway Engineer based
on his/her experience, topographic survey, examination of the aerial photographs
and desk study, taking into consideration factors such as:

▪ Terrain and soil conditions

▪ Serviceability of route to industrial and population areas
▪ Crossing of other transportation facilities, such as rivers, railroads, and
highways
▪ Directness
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▪ During this phase, feasibility study of route is carried out and the following data
are collected.

▪ Geodetic survey
▪ Traffic survey
▪ Geotechnical investigation and soil profiles
▪ Hydrologic and hydraulic studies of drainage structures
▪ Environmental and social studies
▪ Serviceability of route to industrial and population areas
▪ Crossing of other transportation facilities, such as rivers, railroads and other
highways
▪ Directness of route
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Preliminary Location Survey

After the preferred location has been established within a reasonably narrow band,
location on the ground (the traditional method) calls for a preliminary or ‘P’ line
which will follow as closely as possible to the apparent position of the final
centerline.
Using Ground Survey Techniques, at this stage the survey is made to gather
information about all physical features that affect the tentatively selected route.
In general the work is carried out by a regular survey party consisting of Party
chief, Instrument man, Chainmen, and Rodmen.
A primary traverse or baseline is established. This is an open traverse consisting of
tangent distances and deflection angles following approximately the line
recommended in the reconnaissance report.
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Preliminary Location Survey (Cont’d)

During this phase of the study, the positions of the feasible routes are set as
closely as possible by establishing all the control points and determining
preliminary vertical and horizontal alignments for each.

Preliminary alignments are used to evaluate the economic and environmental

feasibility of the alternative routes.

▪ Economic Evaluation
▪ Environmental Evaluation

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Preliminary Location Survey (Cont’d)
After establishing the P-line, the topographic features are recorded. The
extent to the right and left of the traverse line to which the topography
should be determined will vary, and it is usually left to the judgment of the
party chief.
In any case it should not be less than the proposed width of the right-of-way.
The amount of level work on preliminary survey should be minimal.

– In flat areas no centerline profiles are needed;

– In rolling terrain a profile of the traverse centerline would be sufficient.
– In rugged terrain a few cross sections, in addition to the traverse centerline, are valuable.

The output from this stage is a preliminary survey map showing tangents with
bearings and distances, all deflection angles, ties to property corners or state control
monuments.
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Economic Evaluation
Economic evaluation of each alternative route is carried out to determine the
future effect of investing the resources necessary to construct the highway.

Factors usually taken into consideration include road user costs, construction
costs, maintenance costs, road user benefits, and any disbenefits, which may
include adverse impacts due to dislocation of families, businesses, and so forth.

The results obtained from the economic evaluation of the feasible routes provide
valuable information to the decision maker

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Final Location Survey

Serves the dual purpose of permanently establishing the centerline

and collecting the information necessary for the preparation of
plans for construction.
Conventionally, the method of establishing the final location in the
field is by direct chaining along tangents, first setting the points
of intersection of tangent lines (PIs) and then closing out the
horizontal curves between the tangents, using deflection angles
and chaining to set the curve stations.
This method is still in use, although electronic distance-measures
(EDMs)
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 CENG 407: Transportation Engineering II (Route Surveying)

Final Location Survey (Cont’d)

The final location survey is a detailed layout of the selected route. The horizontal
and vertical alignments are determined, and the positions of structures and
drainage channels are located. The method used is to set out the points of
intersections (PI) of the straight portions of the highway and fit a suitable
horizontal curve between these.

Detailed design of the vertical and horizontal alignments is then carried out to
obtain both the deflection angles for horizontal curves and the cuts or fills for
vertical curves and straight sections of the highway.

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Problems of Route Location in Urban Areas

In rural areas, the location of a route is dictated mainly by the desired end-
points of travel, topography, geology, and environmental impact.
In urban areas the location process is more involved, reflecting the complexities
of urban conditions. Among conditions that control urban locations are:
– Connection to Local Streets/ Traffic Service: When a major arterial is being planned it
is important to consider which local streets should connect directly to it and how.
The main issue is the existing travel patterns in the area. The location engineer can determine how
well alternative locations will fit with existing network and identify desirable locations that conform to
travel desire lines.

– Right-of-Way Acquisition: The cost of acquiring the ROW is a significant element of the
cost of investment and is therefore important in the choice of location. The cost will depend on the
predominant land use on the proposed location of the highway.
Costs tend to be much higher in commercial areas, where land owners are usually reluctant to give-up
their land.
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Elevating structures sometimes proposed but these do not solve the problem of cost and can be a
 CENG 407: Transportation Engineering II (Route Surveying)
Problems of Route Location in Urban Areas (Cont’d)
– Land-use: The link between land-use and traffic generation is well known. Constraints in this respect
may be, e.g. for health and safety reasons, do not locate heavily trafficked routes through residential
areas.

– Off-street Parking: Parking is a crucial need in urban areas. Ideally, the location of new routes
should be close to existing and potential parking facilities for the vehicles attracted onto the new facility.

– Inter-modality: Location of a new facility should not disrupt existing transportation service, since
the aim is to increase the overall level of service of transportation in the urban area. Coordination with
other modes of transport is essential to ensure a balanced development

– Topography and Geology: Similar to rural road location

– Relocation of utilities: Comprehensive planning and coordination with utility agencies very
crucial.

– Social effects: New road should not lead to community severance, nor should they take up open public
land
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Problems of Route Location in Urban Areas (Cont’d)
Definition:
Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road in the terrain is designed to
meet the needs of the road users.
In other words, it is concerned with relating the physical elements of the highway to the
requirements of the driver and the vehicle. Geometric design does not include structural
design of pavements.
▪ Features which need to be considered in geometric design are:
▪ Horizontal and vertical alignment,
▪ Cross-section elements (including noise barriers),
▪ Highway grades, and
▪ Layout of intersections
▪ Parking (surface)

The design
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influenced
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characteristics and trends, and traffic speeds and volumes.
 CENG 407: Transportation Engineering II (Route Surveying)

Highway Survey Methods (Cont’d)

Highway surveys usually involve measuring and computing horizontal and vertical
angles, vertical heights (elevations), and horizontal distances. The surveys are then
used to prepare base maps with contour lines (that is, lines on a map connecting
points that have the same elevation) and longitudinal cross-sections.

There are several methods used to in highway surveying. Few of the methods are:
• Ground surveys
• Remote sensing
• Computer graphics

Assignment 1: Discuss the difference between Ground surveys, remote sensing,

and computer graphics.
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Highway Survey Methods (Cont’d)

Remote Sensing
The most commonly used remote sensing method is aerial photography
(photogrammetry).
Photogrammetry based on aerial photographs is an indispensable working tool with
application, not only in highway location but also in planning, location of materials,
earthwork measurement etc.
Remote sensing or Photogrammetry is defined as the science of
obtaining measurements by means of photography.
It encompasses procedures for photointerpretation and converting single
photographs into composite ones and into maps.
Distances between objects and other information in this case are obtained
indirectly,
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by taking measurements from aerial photographs of objects.
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This process (technique) is fast and relatively cheap for large projects but can be
very expensive for small projects.
The break-even size for which photogrammetry can be used varies between 30-
100 acres (12-40 hectares), depending on the circumstances of the specific
project.
Difficulties arise when this technique is used for terrain with the following
characteristics:
– Areas of thick forest, such as tropical rain forests, that cover the ground
surface
– Areas that contain deep canyons or tall buildings, which may conceal the
ground surface on the photographs
– Areas that photograph as uniform shades, e.g. plains and some deserts
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Factors Influencing Highway Design

Highway design is based on specified design standards and controls
which depend on the following roadway system factors:
• Functional classification
• Design hourly traffic volume and vehicle mix
• Design speed
• Design vehicle
• Cross section of the highway, such as lanes, shoulders, and medians
• Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades

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• Topography of the area that the highway traverses

• Level of service
• Available funds
• Safety
• Social and environmental factors

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Functional Classification
Highways are classified according to their functions in terms of the service they
provide. The classification system facilitates a systematic development of
highways and the logical assignment of highway responsibilities among different
jurisdictions.

Highways and streets are categorized as rural or urban roads, depending on the
area in which they are located.

E.g., For rural roads TRL Road Note6 describes as follows:

• Access Roads

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These are at the lowest level of the network hierarchy.

Vehicular flows will be light and will aggregate in collector road
network.
Geometric standards are generally low and need only be sufficient
to provide appropriate access to rural agricultural, commercial
and population centers served.
Substantial proportion of total movements are likely to be non-
motorized traffic.

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Within the classification of urban and rural, AASHTO categorized

highways into the following groups:
• Major arterials
• Minor arterials
• Major collectors
• Minor collectors
• Local roads and streets

Note: The above classification of highways are based on AASHTO

recommendation, however, other countries have adopted and tailored their
highways in accordance with the road network. For instance, in Liberia, our
road networks are classified as Primary, Secondary, and Feeder.
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Major Arterial - This system of highways serves the major activity centers of the
urban area and consists mainly of the highest-traffic-volume corridors. Including
most trips with an origin or destination within the urban area. The system also
serves trips that bypass the central business districts (CBDs) of urbanized areas.
It carries a high proportion of the total vehicle-miles of travel within the urban
area.

Minor Arterial - Streets and highways that interconnect with and augment the
urban primary arterials are classified as urban minor arterials. This system serves
trips of moderate length and places more emphasis on land access than the primary
arterial system.

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Collector Street - The main purpose of streets within this system is

to collect traffic from local streets in residential areas or in CBDs and
convey it to the arterial system.
Thus, collector streets usually go through residential areas and
facilitate traffic circulation within residential, commercial, and
industrial areas

Local Street - This system consists of all other streets within the
urban area that are not included in the three systems described
earlier. The primary purposes of these streets are to provide access
to abutting land and to the collector streets. Through traffic is
discouraged on these streets.
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These are in accordance with the average ground slope measured as

the number of 5m (16.4ft) contour lines crossed per km on a
straight line linking the two ends of the road section. Thus:
• Level terrain: 0-10 ground contours per km
• Rolling terrain: 11-25 ground contours per km
• Mountainous: >25 ground contours per km

Design speeds specified will be in the sub-categories by terrain

type.

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Design hourly traffic volume

This design hourly traffic volume are obtain based traffic studies.

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▪ Design speed
Design speeds are used determine the most effective and safer geometric system
of the highways.

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Cross Section
The principal elements of a highway cross section consist of the travel lanes,
shoulders, and medians (for some multilane highways).

Marginal elements include median and roadside barriers, curbs, gutters, guard
rails, sidewalks, and side slopes.

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Design Vehicle
A design vehicle is selected to represent all vehicles on the highway.
Its weight, dimensions, and operating characteristics are used to establish the
design standards of the highway

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Design Vehicle
A design vehicle is selected to represent all vehicles on the highway.
Its weight, dimensions, and operating characteristics are used to establish the
design standards of the highway

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