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Characterization of Freestream Disturbances in ConventionalHypersonic Wind Tunnels
Characterization of Freestream Disturbances in ConventionalHypersonic Wind Tunnels
Lian Duan∗
Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri 65409
Meelan M. Choudhari† and Amanda Chou‡
NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 23681
Federico Munoz§ and Rolf Radespiel¶
Braunschweig University of Technology, Braunschweig 38108, Germany
Thomas Schilden** and Wolfgang Schröder††
RWTH Aachen University, 52062 Aachen, Germany
Eric C. Marineau‡‡
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xt = axial distance from throat, m involving other Mach numbers, higher freestream enthalpies, and
y = spanwise direction of the right-hand Cartesian larger models. To enable better use of transition data from conventional
coordinate, m facilities and more accurate extrapolation of wind-tunnel results to
z = wall-normal direction of the right-hand Cartesian flight, one needs an in-depth knowledge of the broadband disturbance
coordinate, m environment in those facilities as well as of the interaction between the
zn = normal distance from the wall, m freestream disturbances with laminar boundary layers.
α = frequency-specific wave number in the streamwise Freestream disturbances in conventional high-speed wind tunnels
m−1
direction in Eq. (1), ω cos θ∕u cos θ c, are usually composed of acoustic disturbances, vorticity disturbances,
β = frequency-specific wave number in the vertical direction and fluctuations of flow entropy. The acoustic disturbances are mainly
m−1
in Eq. (1), ω sin θ∕u cos θ c, generated within the high-speed, turbulent boundary layers along the
γ = specific heat ratio nozzle walls and radiated into the wind-tunnel test section [1]. The
δ = boundary-layer thickness, m intensity of the acoustic disturbances increases rapidly with flow Mach
δ = displacement thickness, m number, and hence these disturbances are likely to dominate the overall
ζ = coefficient in hot-wire modal analysis disturbance environment at Mach numbers of 2.5 or above [2–5] and
θ = coefficient in hot-wire modal analysis can strongly affect the transition processes. Theoretical models for
μ = dynamic viscosity, kg∕m ⋅ s acoustic radiation from a supersonic boundary layer were developed
ρ = density, kg∕m3 by Phillips [6] and Ffowcs-Williams and Maidanik [7], who attributed
ϕ = randomly-selected phase in Eq. (1) a major cause of the acoustic radiation to eddy Mach waves from
ω = angular frequency, rad∕s
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Fig. 1 Schematic of freestream disturbances in supersonic/hypersonic wind tunnels (adapted from Schneider [8]).
DUAN ET AL. 359
Fig. 3 Radiated noise from the tunnel-wall turbulent boundary layer in a Mach 3.5 wind tunnel. a) Schematic of test core [22]; b) experimental image of a
shadowgraph (courtesy of NASA Langley).
single-wall boundary layer (Fig. 4) across a range of Mach numbers (Fig. 6a), propagation speed (Fig. 6b), the inclination angle of the
[23–27]. The DNS of acoustic radiation from a single-wall boundary prominent acoustic structures (Fig. 7a), spatial and temporal
layer circumvented the difficulties associated with the reflection/ correlations (Fig. 7b), and acoustic sources (Fig. 8). The low and high
reverberation of acoustic waves from all sides of a wind-tunnel nozzle cutoff frequencies of the DNS-computed PSD are determined based
and thus helped clarify the physical process of acoustic noise on the temporal sampling size and grid resolution, respectively, and
generation. The physical realism and accuracy of the DNS flowfields these frequencies have been monitored by statistical and grid
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have been established by comparison with existing experimental convergence studies. The bulk propagation speed (Fig. 6b) is
results at similar flow conditions. In particular, the coordinated estimated as the ratio between the streamwise spatial distance
experimental and numerical work undertaken by the international between probe pairs and the time lags corresponding to the peak of
specialists group has led to the first successful comparison between the cross-correlation curve. The inclination angle of the prominent
numerical predictions and wind-tunnel measurements of surface acoustic structures within the freestream region (Fig. 7a) is visualized
pressure fluctuations underneath a hypersonic TBL, with the by the gray contours of the density gradient. The statistically
experimental data measured on the nozzle walls of the Purdue significant spatial acoustic structures in the freestream (Fig. 7b) are
BAM6QT, Sandia HWT-8, and AEDC Tunnel 9 (Fig. 5). The illustrated by a two-dimensional slice of line contours of the spatial
pressure transducer models and the axial locations for each surface- correlation coefficient. The acoustic source terms (Fig. 8) are defined
pressure measurement are listed as follows: Purdue BAM6QT (PCB: according to the acoustic analogy by Phillips [6]. DNS showed that
xt 2.679 m; Re 9.69 × 106 ∕m); Sandia HWT-8 (Kulite: xt tunnel noise consists of a field of broadband, stochastic acoustic
2.2024 m and PCB: xt 2.679 m; Re 9.69 × 106 ∕m); AEDC waves that have a finite spatiotemporal coherence and propagate at
Tunnel 9 Mach 14 (PCB: xt 11.83 m; Re 7.2 × 106 ∕m). Very oblique angles to the freestream, rather than as a deterministic train of
good agreement of wall-pressure PSD between the DNS and the time harmonic, planar waves as commonly assumed in receptivity
nozzle-wall measurements has been achieved at Mach 6 and 8. The studies. The acoustic sources that give rise to the pressure fluctuations
DNS-predicted PSD deviates from the measured PSD at low in the freestream are located mostly in the inner layer of the tunnel-
frequencies for the Mach 14 case. The large disparity in von Kármán wall turbulent boundary layer and are strongly influenced by wall
Reynolds numbers during the experiment and the DNS may have cooling, as seen from the differences in peak source location in Fig. 8
contributed to the discrepancy in wall pressure PSD; however, further (see Ref. [24] for an explanation of this behavior). The inclination
work is necessary to identify the precise reasons and to resolve the angle of the prominent structures associated with acoustic
differences at low frequencies. The cause of the spurious peak at fluctuations within the freestream region, visualized by instanta-
f ≈ 40 kHz in the wall-pressure PSD measured at Mach 14 is neous contours of the density gradient as shown in Fig. 7a, is similar
unknown and is currently under investigation. to the Mach angle for the relative Mach number Mr (between the
The DNS database has provided access to tunnel-noise quantities sources and freestream). The findings are consistent with the classic
that are difficult to obtain otherwise, including high-frequency PSD theory of “eddy Mach-wave radiation” and the early measurements
Fig. 4 Computational domain and simulation setup for DNS of a Mach 14 turbulent boundary layer with flow conditions representative of the nozzle exit
of AEDC Tunnel 9 (from Fig. 1 [23]).
DUAN ET AL. 361
Fig. 6 Representations of a) power spectral density, and b) bulk propagation speed of the freestream acoustic pressure fluctuations as a function of the
freestream Mach number.
Fig. 7 Freestream acoustic structures radiated from a Mach 5.86 turbulent boundary layer at Tw ∕Tr 0.76 [26]. a) Inclination angle visualized by
instantaneous density gradient; b) streamwise wall-normal correlation coefficient.
362 DUAN ET AL.
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Fig. 8 Acoustic source terms, ∂ui ∕∂xj ∂uj ∕∂xi , normalized by Fig. 10 Comparison of Mach number distribution along the HLB nozzle
δ2 ∕U2∞ , of hypersonic turbulent boundary layers that give rise to the axis among DNS, RANS, and theory.
acoustic pressure fluctuations in the freestream.
Fig. 11 Numerical schlieren images (i.e., density gradient contours) of radiated acoustic waves within the nozzle of HLB.
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0 ∕p induced by the turbulent boundary layer over the HLB nozzle wall. r 0 corresponds to the nozzle
Fig. 12 RMS pressure fluctuation profile prms ∞
axis.
Fig. 13 Power spectral density and bulk propagation speed (defined according to Ref. [26]) of pressure fluctuations over the HLB nozzle wall and a single
flat plate at similar freestream conditions.
pass through the bow shock and the stagnation region of a pitot probe including the so-called quasisteady analysis by Harvey et al. [32] and
before being measured by the transducer. Therefore, the relationship the unsteady analysis by Stainback and Wagner [33]. The quasisteady
between the freestream disturbance spectrum and the transducer- analysis was found to significantly underpredict the pitot-probe
measured spectrum, defined as the transfer function, was fluctuations. The unsteady analysis of Stainback and Wagner only
characterized to recover tunnel freestream spectrum from pitot- accounts for the sound-wave mode of freestream disturbances and
probe measurements. In addition, the pitot-probe transfer function yields a transfer function that is independent of frequency and probe
was combined with hot-wire measurements to decompose freestream geometry; thus, it cannot be used to relate the transducer-measured
disturbances into the three Kovasznay’s modes (i.e., acoustic, spectrum to the freestream spectrum.
entropy, and vorticity modes) [31]. To derive a transfer function for recovering the PSD of preshock
static pressure, the research team of the University of Minnesota
A. Recovery of Freestream Disturbance Spectrum from Hypersonic constructed a method to compute the transfer function by using DNS
Pitot-Probe Measurements of flow around pitot probes with imposed freestream disturbances.
Researchers have previously attempted to account for the difference Pitot-probe geometries corresponding to recent characterizations
between a pitot-probe-measured spectrum and a freestream spectrum, of hypersonic facilities were considered at a variety of freestream
364 DUAN ET AL.
X
N
q 0 t qk0 cosαk x βk z − ωk t ϕk (1)
k1
DNSs of flow around pitot probes were first conducted by the χ a PSDa
Minnesota team to characterize transfer functions for flow-parallel Sa;b f ≡ (4)
χ b PSDb
acoustic and entropy disturbances [34]. Flow-parallel acoustic
disturbances are those whose wave-number vector is either aligned The quantity S is defined as the ratio between probes as shown and
with (θ 0 deg) or opposite to (θ 180 deg) the bulk flow, is a frequency-dependent function. Figure 16 shows the ratio of each
commonly referred to as fast or slow acoustic waves. The transfer sleeved geometry to the no-sleeve geometry for both simulation and
functions for flow-parallel acoustic disturbances were found to experiment. For example, Rlarge ≡ Slarge-sleeve; no-sleeve . The DNS for
exhibit a geometry-dependent resonance. For the current work, the θ 0 deg corresponds to that reported in Chaudhry and Candler
Minnesota team conducted subsequent DNS for freestream acoustic [34]. At this angle, the ratio of transfer functions shows a peaky
disturbances inclined at θ 120 deg, with probe geometries and behavior caused by resonance due to an acoustic disturbance
flow conditions corresponding to those in the Purdue BAM6QT reflecting between the shock and the pitot-probe face, and this
facility. The incident angle of 120 deg is similar to the angle of resonance is further amplified by the focusing effect of shock
acoustic radiation from the nozzle-wall turbulent boundary curvature. Such a peaky behavior in transfer functions at θ 0 deg
layer (Fig. 7). was discussed and justified in the previous publication [34]. For all
Figure 14 shows the DNS predictions for the transfer functions of the Reynolds numbers and probe geometries in Fig. 16, the angled
angled freestream acoustic disturbances (θ 120 deg) with and acoustic disturbances (θ 120 deg) produce a much better match to
without area averaging and their comparison with flow-parallel slow experimental data than flow-parallel fast acoustic disturbances
acoustic disturbances (θ 180 deg) computed previously [34]. The (θ 0 deg) [34]. The results suggest that, with judiciously imposed
transfer function exhibits a geometry-dependent resonance; the freestream disturbances, the method of computing the transfer
acoustic disturbance angle has a large effect on the transfer function, function using DNS of flow around pitot probes holds the potential to
resulting in a smaller resonant frequency and a lower amplification ultimately be used to replace the unsteady approach of Stainback and
factor for angled freestream acoustic disturbances than for flow- Wagner [33] for recovering freestream disturbance spectrum from
parallel freestream disturbances. Because of phase interference on stagnation pressure spectrum for hypersonic pitot probes. Experi-
the face of the pitot probe at high frequencies, the transfer function ments and DNS also suggest an unexpected dependence of transfer
for angled acoustic disturbances shows a dependence on the area of functions on sleeve geometries and Reynolds numbers. The cause for
the active sensing element, as indicated by the difference in face- such dependence is unknown and is currently under investigation.
averaged and stagnation-point transfer functions. Moreover,
destructive interference can occur when the disturbance wavelength B. Kovasznay Modal Decomposition
is similar to or smaller than the size of the transducer, causing an
essentially zero transfer function at high frequencies (f ≳ 200 kHz To better characterize the nature and origin of freestream
for a transducer radius of 0.83 mm as shown in Fig. 14) when the face disturbances in a high-speed wind tunnel, a new modal
average is applied across the entire face of the transducer. decomposition method was proposed to decompose wind-tunnel
The DNS predictions for transfer functions were compared to freestream disturbances into three modes of covarying physical
experimental measurements in the Purdue BAM6QT facility. The properties: an acoustic or sound-wave mode (isentropic variation of
pitot-probe geometries used in the experiments include four
geometries; each uses the same sensing element with different flush- Table 1 Pitot-probe geometries used to characterize
mounted shrouds to investigate the effect of probe geometry freestream disturbance levels in the Purdue BAM6QT
(Table 1). Figure 15 gives a picture of the probes used in the facility
experiments. The experimental data were collected during two
Probe name Transducer radius, mm Total radius, mm
different weeks, referred to as entry 1 and entry 2. Given that the
freestream disturbance spectra PSD∞ cannot be directly measured in No sleeve 0.83 0.83
Small sleeve 0.83 1.50
an experiment, comparisons between DNS and experiments were Medium sleeve 0.83 3.00
done in terms of the ratio of transfer functions S with two different Large sleeve 0.83 3.60
probe geometries:
DUAN ET AL. 365
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Fig. 16 Ratio of transfer functions with two pitot-probe geometries, comparing experiment to simulation. High Re: Re ≈ 11.5 × 106 ∕m; med Re:
Re ≈ 8.64 × 106 ∕m; low Re: Re ≈ 3.01 × 106 ∕m.
366 DUAN ET AL.
pressure, density, and temperature as well as that of the coupled The coefficients α and β are a function of the Mach number M and
irrotational velocity field); an entropy mode (isobaric variation of the heat capacity ratio γ.
entropy, density, and temperature, also mentioned as entropy or A pitot probe measures total pressure p0 , which contains acoustic
temperature spottiness); and a vorticity mode (variation of the pressure dp and entropy fluctuations ds:
solenoidal component of the velocity field, which is known as simple
“turbulence” at low speeds). The concept and analytics of modal dp0 rac dp ds
ren (8)
analysis go back to Kovasznay [31] and Morkovin [1]. p0 γ p Cp
Early experimental investigations by Kovasznay [31], Morkovin
[1], and Laufer [2], using hot-wire measurements, made use of the The transfer functions rac and ren in Eq. (8) are formulated with
analytics to characterize supersonic wind-tunnel flows. Later, respect to the preshock density fluctuations:
Stainback and Wagner [33] conducted hot-wire and pitot-probe
measurements and compared resulting pressure fluctuations. dp0 ρ∞
Because hot-wire measurements yield fluctuations of static pressure ri (9)
p0 dρi
and pitot probes measure total pressure, Stainback and Wagner [33]
introduced an ansatz for the transfer function relating preshock static
The ratio of preshock average density and postshock total pressure
and postshock total pressure fluctuations. Logan [35] proposed a new
normalizes the transfer functions. Introducing NRMS values and
hot-wire modal analysis by considering separate static pressure
neglecting any correlation between acoustic and entropy waves,
fluctuation measurements using nonintrusive laser-induced fluores-
Eq. (8) becomes
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Fig. 17 Experimental bandpass filtered hot-wire hHp;s i and SPP hPi data from the Hypersonic Ludwieg Tube of the Technical University Braunschweig.
3. Stagnation Point Probe and Combined Hot-Wire probe transfer function by Schilden and Schröder [40], the new
Freestream Disturbances combined modal decomposition method can yield rms values of modal
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Experimental data of Fw (i.e., SPP data hPi and combined hot-wire amplitudes within a selected frequency band. In all, the joint effort
data hH p;u i and hH p;s i) were measured at three radial positions in of the specialists group has resulted in a significantly improved
HLB at varying unit Reynolds numbers from 5 × 106 to 18 × 106 ∕m. knowledge base pertaining to the nature and spectral contents of wind-
The measurement locations are on the centerline and 50 and 100 mm tunnel freestream disturbances, with the purpose of quantifying the
off the centerline. In Fig. 17, the left-hand sides of Eqs. (14) and (15) stochastic input to the receptivity process in a broadband disturbance
are shown, where the dashed line represents the hot-wire data, the environment of conventional, cold-flow hypersonic wind tunnels.
solid line is the SPP data, and the symbols indicate the distance to the Because of the need to employ conventional tunnels for a majority of
centerline of the wind tunnel. According to the final system of ground testing involving large-scale models, such knowledge base is
equations of the modal decomposition, only the acoustic and entropy essential for the reliable extrapolation of wind-tunnel data to in-flight
mode contribute to hH p;s i and hPi. Bandpass-filtered data at unit transition.
Reynolds number Re 5 × 106 ∕m are shown in Fig. 17a to illustrate It should also be emphasized that the objective of the current
the frequency effect. The acoustic and entropy noise in the wind research was to investigate the building block components to facilitate
tunnel leads to different trends in hHp;s i and hPi. Whereas the total further progress, and much work remains to be done to achieve the
pressure decays exponentially with increasing frequency, the ultimate goal of developing a disturbance field algorithm as input for
combined hot-wire variable shows a spectral decay of type f−m using transition computations. Follow-on studies should include boundary-
a log-log scale (not shown here). The centerline data always contain layer receptivity to a tunnel-like disturbance field (i.e., the response of a
the most intense disturbances. The dependence on unit Reynolds laminar boundary layer to acoustic disturbances radiated from nozzle
number in Fig. 17b is very small at a frequency of f 102 kHz. To wall) that relates the freestream disturbance field to the initial
apply the previously derived modal decomposition method to the amplitude of instability waves in the laminar boundary layer. Such
measured freestream disturbance variables Fw , we want to determine receptivity computations can then be used to calibrate a tunnel noise
all transfer functions in the sensitivity matrix S, thus accounting for model that reflects the observed dependence of transition onset on the
frequency dependence and the inclination of incident acoustic waves. facility disturbance environment. In addition to studying boundary-
layer receptivity, further pitot-probe simulations with more generalized
inflow freestream disturbances are necessary to generate a simplified
V. Conclusions model of the transfer function that could ultimately be used to replace
This paper outlines some of the coordinated experimental and the unsteady approach of Stainback and Wagner [33] for recovering
numerical work by the NATO STO AVT-240 specialists group that input disturbance spectrum for transition computations from pitot-
yielded freestream disturbance data that are physically relevant for probe measurement.
transition processes in hypersonic flows. New freestream disturbance
measurements with fast-response pressure transducers mounted on a
variety of probes were performed and provided spectral data up to the Acknowledgments
high frequencies of relevance to second-mode instabilities. Direct This work was sponsored by the U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific
numerical simulation (DNS) of high-speed turbulent boundary layers Research (under grants FA9550-14-1-0170, FA9550-17-1-0250, and
and their acoustic radiation were conducted to allow direct FA9550-12-1-0167). Partial support was also provided by the Office
computation of the stochastic disturbance field within the free stream. of Naval Research (under grant N00014-17-1-2347) and National
The DNS studies of acoustic radiation have overcome difficulties in Science Foundation (under grant CBET-1706894). Computational
experimental measurements and provided access to both flow and resources were provided by the U.S. Department of Defense High
acoustic quantities that are difficult to obtain otherwise, including the Performance Computing Modernization Program, the NASA
acoustic disturbance angle, the propagation speed, and the acoustic Advanced Supercomputing Division, and the National Science
sources. DNSs of flow around a pitot probe were performed to cover Foundation Petascale Computing Resource Allocations Program
the transfer of disturbances to the detailed location of the flow sensor (under grant ACI-1640865). Eric Marineau would like to
as mounted in the probe, resulting in the recovery of freestream acknowledge the Test Resource Management Center T&E/S&T
disturbance spectrum from the transducer-measured spectrum. In HSST program for their funding as part of the Center of Testing
particular, the DNS study showed that the acoustic angle has a large Excellence. The views and conclusions contained herein are those of
effect on the pitot-probe transfer function, and the results for angled the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing
disturbances, with an incident acoustic angle similar to that of acoustic the official policies or endorsements, either expressed or implied, of
radiation from the nozzle wall, agreed much more closely with the the funding agencies or the U.S. Government. Sandia National
experimental measurements. A new modal decomposition method was Laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by
proposed to decompose hot-wire and pitot-probe measurements of National Technology and Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC., a
freestream disturbances into the three Kovasznay modes (i.e., acoustic, wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International, Inc., for the
entropy, and vorticity modes). By replacing the pitot-probe transfer U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administra-
function by Stainback and Wagner [33] with the DNS-predicted pitot- tion under contract DE-NA0003525. This paper describes objective
368 DUAN ET AL.
technical results and analysis. Any subjective views or opinions that AIAA Journal, Vol. 55, No. 2, 2017, pp. 484–499.
might be expressed in the paper do not necessarily represent the views doi:10.2514/1.J055061
of the U.S. Department of Energy or the U.S. Government. [22] Beckwith, I. E., and Miller, C. G., “Aerothermodynamics and Transition
in High-Speed Wind Tunnels at NASA Langley,” Annual Review of
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