Computer Aided Design and Manutacy,,. eater eee enor. Such an _inspectige impossible with the absolute s S| Mirror image programming for | Mirror image programming | symmetrical geometry of the parts is | symmetrical geometry of the pz not simple by changing the signs of the | simple by changing the signs | position commands. | position commands. 4.2.4, Elements of NC System A typical NC system consists of part program, machine control unit and machin: shown in Figure 4.5. (a) Part program or software: The part program or software refers magnetic tape, punched paper tape and other information processing items. It is the de step by step set of instructions which tell the machine tool what to do. The software is called to the set of instructions, languages, punched cari valet sole element to control the sequence of movement of NC machines. Hence, it is software-controlled machines. The programmer plans the entire operations @ sequence by referring the product drawing supplied to him. Then the instructions in the of the program are prepared, known as part program. The part program is prepare. program manuscript. Then these instructions are punched on the control tape. Acco the instructions punched in tapes, tape reader feeds the codes to Machine Con! (MCU). Finally, MCU converts the supplied instructions into the machine mover connected with the machine tool. ee a lo | | J capoael | pow — | [esses] |_| : Machine control unit (MCU) Figure 4.5 Basic components of an NC system:tal of GNC and Part Programing [4.13 pn - ochine Control Unit (MCU): w hine tool has a main unit known nem as Machine Control Unit (MCU). It has son sonic hardware elements to read the NC program, interprets it and equally translates it sy mneohanical actions of the machine tool. It is the brain of an NC machine. MCU is the automatic control unit which provides information for manual inter-ention sythe operator, It converts the information from the tape program into the desired comm als. The actuation systems come into the d /AMCU, MCU may be housed in ind sired action on receiving the command signal | a separate body or on the machine itself. It controls the ) ayhof the cutting tool, speeds and feeds, tool change and several other functions. \s | egabilties of MCU: i MCU should capable of doing the following functions. | 1, Starting and stopping the machine tool spindle. 1 2. Varying the spindle speed. Changing the direction of rotation of the spindle. Starting and stopping the coolant supply. Changing the desired tool. Changing the workpiece as required. . Locking and unlocking fixtures and workpieces, Guiding the cutting tool tip along the desired path. a Controlling the feed rate or movement of the tip. Atypical MCU consists of the following units. | input or reader unit: This input unit consists of electro-mechanical devices used to collect the input from | aa : : Se Ani : ‘tched tape, cards, magnetic tape and disk. Then the system is driven by a reading head at a | “Mteted the coded information and collected it again for reuse. ‘Memory: “ Set of information consists of words which are read from tape and stor ‘Sing ii ey Memory called buffer. One block may contain one complete “ds ing hen ed into set of instruction P on storing the next block of word's Particular sequence. The memory helps to machine is processed the previous block.a “J! 4nd My; lanuy, "Uta, (ii) Processor The unit which coordinates and controls the functions of ot her units signals to the machine at the appropriate point of time is °Y Seng, alled processor (iv) Output channels The channels which convert the stored data in the memory into ACtuatio, Supply the output channels as pulses. () Control panel The control panel consists of switches, indicators, Manual D: ata Input (MDI ana for supplying the information about the process to the operator (vi) Feedback channels A feedback channel is to check the process whether it is going right or not i, signals to the operator, (©) Machine tool: Machine tool is the main component of a numerical! control system operations. It consists of the worktable, cutting tools spindle and coolant and lubricating systems, operations such as milling, boring, (ATC) under the control of tool sel whic ind fixtures, motors tes do It is a single machine capable of pe-lime drilling, reaming, and tapping by Automatic Tu. Che lection instruction, In NC machines, mechanical, to control the position of pneumatic or hydraulic components is used which are know? ‘The output from the data handling equipment channels to a servo system which drives the machine a machine slide, a group « mechanism. is passed throuy' s# slides 4.2.5. Types of NC Systems based on the Type of Machine Control NC systems are classified on the basis of types of machine control as follow (a) Traditional numerical control (NC) (b) Computer Numerical Control (CNC) (c) Distributed Numerical Control (DNC). (a) Traditional Numerical Controt (NO): ¥ The original numerical control Machine is referred ax a NC machine | of the control is proficicns through the use of Pp! hardwired control whisot ONG and Patt Programing 445 tapes or cards. Tapes tend to wear and hecenne dirty. It leade te 1 jumitations also noticed with the use of traditional NC tapes. F ; manually be reloaded for each new part. It lacks the progran more time. Finally, it led end users to move to further dev C systems. Computer Numerical Control (CNC): CNC refers to a system which is locally linked with a o data. To enbai the performance of tapes, CNC was « ating other storage media such as magnetic tapes a executing cycles of machining commands Distributed Numerical Control (DNC): The further development of CNC systems over many ars with the use working has changed in the modern concept updating fields. Therefore, it led selopment of a modem numerical control system called Distributed Numerical C ‘Cj. DNC system is almost similar to CNC except an isolated computer used to co ober of machines. An off-site mainframe mass computer grasps the program: manufactured using DNC facility. First, the programs are dow 4 — {rani { } | t hit Lf aE eaat J Command signal from MCU Figure 4.6 Open-loop machine slide control The primary drawback of the open-loop system is that there is no feedback check whether the program position and velocity have becn achieved. If th» gy performance is affected by load, temperature, humidity or lubrication) then the actual gs could deviate from the desired output. Since there is no check on the slide position system accuracy is solely a function of the motor’s ability to step through the exact number steps provided at the input{ For these reasons, the open -loop system is geners!ly use point-to-point systems where the accuracy requirements are not critical) 4.2.6.2. Closed-Loop System [The closed-loop system has a feedback subsystem to monitor the actual ©. cormect-aniy-diserepaney-from-the programmed inpu These systems use position and vee? feedback. A position transducer acts as a feedback device. The feedback sy either analog or digital. The analog systems measure the variation of physical a" as position and velocity in terms of voltage levels, Di ital systems monitor out by means of electrical pulses. To control the dynamic behavior and the final pos! machine slides, a variety of position transducers are employ: d Figure 4.7 illustrates the concept of closed-loop digital control for one axis ©! S The closed-loop control measures the axis actual position and compares it with th ! reference position. The difference between actual and desired values is the ©" control is designed in such a way 10 eliminate os to reduce the error to a tl case, the system is a negative feedback one Closed-loop systems are ve accurate because they are . subsystems and automatically compensating typ any y pable of Monitoring Operating conditior aniations in real-turanontat of ONC and Part Programing os (4a7 Comparator DC Servomotor | (Error detector) = Amplifier (Drive component) 324° Work table —aee| nal somand Sigal — ‘om MCU a 100 mm) Lt Position Correction signal eeu comparison (100-99.9 mm) Feedback signal Position measuring device (Feedback device) Figure 4.7 Closed-loop positioning control 121. Classification NC Machines Based on Type of Motion Control | There are two main types of machine tools and the control systems required for use ‘em differ because of the basic differences are in the functions of the machines ‘tolled. There are three types of NC systems used which is based on the type of motion sstrol. They are: 1, Point-to-point NC system 2. Continuous path NC system (a) Straight-cut system (b) Contouring system. me Point-to-Point System Some machine tools for example drilling, boring and tapping machines ete, require the “and the workpiece to be placed at certain fixed relative positions at which they must “Sain while the cutter does its work. These machines are known as point-to-point machines 'n this point-to-point system, the objective of the machine tool control is to move the tai "B01 to a predefined location. It moves the tool only in straight lines, The speed or ne * Not important in this system, The point-to- point system is also called positioning iy." Which each axis of the machine is separately driven by a ball screw or lead screw, hi "NB on the type of operation. The operation such as drilling or Punching.) the "ing ing and cutting takes place sequentially using a point to point NC system.(The time 4in the operation is minimized tor good efficiencySeer meer rest tite oT Computer Aided Design ang Manutact, eM anitactun, ____, Workpiece Tool path Cutting tool Start point of the cutter Figure 4.8 Point-to-point NC systent The simplest example of a point-to-point system is a drilling machine. In this 3°. first, the start point is set for the drill. The workpiece is moved along the axes of motion: the center of the hole to be drilled is exactly under the drill. Then the drill is moved towa:: the workpiece, the hole is drilled and the drill moves out in a rapid traverse feed. T workpiece moves to a new position for next hole to be drilled. The drilling is carried sequence of 1-2-3-4 as shown in Figure 4.8, At each X-Y Position, the table movement to perform the drilling operation{ Point-to-point systems are used mainly in drilling, pune). and straight milling operations.) 4.2.7.2. Continuous Path NC System Other type of machine tools involves motion of workpiece with respect to the & while the cutting operation is taken place (Continuous Path systems generally refer to8)8*"" that are capable of continuous simultaneous Control of two or more axes. In covtiiou' machines, the tool performs the process while the worktab system to generate angular surfaces, two-dimensional o the workpiece. This control mode is required in mai continuous path machines can be classified into th movement of the tool during Cutting) ( le is moving. Thus, it m2!" Urves or three-dimensional con” ny milling and turning operatic ¢ following two types depending © traight-cut NC system: ¥ i ne © © tool parallel to only ON is "NS called straight-cut NC system 8° When continuous path control is utitized to move th major axes of the machine tool Worktable,of CNC and Part Programing f 4.19 , ris preferred for milling oper, ; ag. Iris Ps B OPerations. Here, itis not possible to combine more than a direction. Hence, angular cuts are Not possible x Workpiece =o) Path of th during ss i Cutting tool Start point of the cutter Figure 4.9 Straight-cut NC system Contouring system: x Cutting toot 4 Path of the during cutt Figure 4.10 Contouring NC systemOs { 4.20 | Computer Aldad Design ANd May, Mata When continuous path control i used for simultaneous control of two OF Mong : : ay nachining operations, in called contouring NC system, It is a complex and Nexibie ef fool control 1 in capable of performing both point to point and straight-cut PCCitiogy path of NC cutter is continuously controlled to generate the desired Beomey gf ‘ MF Surface dimensional curves or three-dimensional contours in the work part, The pos workpiece as shown in Figure 4.10, The system in able to generate angul ht Moning culting operations take place along controlled paths. The contouring system is Used on ly milling machines ®, grinders, welding machinery and machining centers 4.2.8. Applications of NC Machines Numerical control can be applied to a wide variety of processes. The Applications cay divided into two catepories: 1, Machine tool applications, such as drilling, milling, turning and other ne working, 2. Nom-machine tool applications, such as i embly, drafting, and inspection The common NC machine tool applications are listed in the following along y typical features: (@ NC lathe, either horizontal or vertical axis. Turning requires two-axis, continuous path control, cither to produce «stile cylindrical geometry (called straight turning) or to er cate a profile (contour turnin’) (b) NC boring mill, horizontal and vertical spindle: Boring is similar to turning, except that an ternal cylinder is cr external cylinder, The operation requires continuous Path, Wwo-axis control () NC drilling press These machines use point-to-point control of the og te cu é > contro, A 18 programmed under NC cool! hind work head (spindle contain! bit) and two axes (x-y) control of the worktable, Some NC drill presses containing ix or eight drill bity, ‘The turret Position allows the different drill bits to be applied to the same work-part during the nts without requiring the machine operator to Manually ¢ hange the tool (d) NC milling machine Milling machines require continuous path control to perform a st operations.of CNC and Part Programing _ fam ape other applications of NC machine tools are 26 follows press working machine tools Welding machines Inspection machines Automatics drafting s Assembly machines Tube bending >. Flame cutting §._ Industrial robots 9, Automated knitted machines 10, Automatics riveting. 423. Advantages and Disadvantages of NC Machines ujantages of NC machines: Reduced nonproductive time: Reduction in noncutting time is achieved through fewer setups, less setup Ime. TEES -Aepiece handling time, and automatic tool changes on some NC machines. TE cesittes into labor cost savings and lowers the elapsed times to produce pars. 2 Provides greater accuracy and repeatability Compared with manual production methods, NC machine reduces of elimina Tutions that are due to operator skill differences, fatigue and other factors z sieent human variabilities. Parts are made closer to nominal dimensions anc there = ‘Sccsional variation among parts in the batch. lower labour cost: More time is actually spent on cutting the metal. Machine manipulati i “© changing and often setting time are less with NC machines anc they > _ “0st per job considerably 4 Be "8h production rates: Mite machining conditions are optimized and the non-machir “Sum, production rates will be high .P ontal of CNG and Part Programing tal (by Computer Numerical Control (CNC) (¢) Dintributed Numerical Control (DNC). uf jussifi’ NC machines based on the Ope of control system. (a) Open-loop system (b) Closed-loop system, (¢ Compare a closed loop NC system with open loop system. \\ [Anna Univ. May'I2 & May ed LS Now | Open loop system : Closed loop system —__ } a | There is no feedback about the | Instantancous feedback is obtained | result produced duc to open loop. | about the result produced. | a) There is no reference for the | It has definite reference for the results, results. | (i) ‘There is no checking of the output | There is a checking of the output with | with the desired goal, the desired goal (iv) It is relatively cheap. It is costlier. (vy) This system is used where the | This system is used where the accuracy is least considered. accuracy is more importance. What are the classifications of NC machines based on motion control? [Anna Univ, Dec’08 & Dec’10) Mb I. Point to point NC system tem 2. Straight cut NC 8 3. Contouring NC system: [Anna Univ, Dec'06} What is point to point (PTP) system? ‘The objective of the machine tool control is to Move the cutting tool to a predefined location. The speed or path is not important in this system. It is also called Positioning System ' How do continuous path machines work? In continuous path machines, the tool performs the process while the worktable is Moving,Introduction 1.37 (vi) Movement: It leads to a better recognition of displayed objects. When an object rotated or translated, ambiguities that arise due to the superposition of points are eliminated and clear picture are revealed. 1.11, TWO DIMENSIONAL (2D) TRANSFORMATION Dating modeling of an object, it becomes necessary to transform the geometry many times. The transformation actually converts the geometry from one coordinate system to other coordinate system. The main types of 2D transformation which are often come across are as follows. > Translation Scaling Reflection Rotation WWwYv Vv Shearing. 1.11.4. Translation (tt is one of the most important and easily understood transformations in CAD. Translation is the movement of an object from one position to another position} It is accomplished by adding the distance through which the drawing is to be moved to the co- ordinates of each corner point. Figure 1.22 shows a square object. Let us now consider a point on the object, represented by P which is translated along x and y axes by added 7, and T, to a new position P’ x Figure 1.22 Square before and after translationComputer Aided Design and Manufacturing The new co-ordinate after transformation is given by the following equation. Pre (Xiyd XX T, Y’n¥+T, Pra(X+T V+ TJ (X Y+(G 1) In matrix form, we can write the above equation as 1 0 0 [P]=[x' v'J=[x yuo 1 0 Et P=P.T where T= Translation matrix. It is normally the operation used in the CAD system as MOVE command. 4.41.2. Sealing Scaling is the transformation applied to change the scale of an entity. It is done by increasing the distance between points of the drawing. It means that it can be done by multiplying the coordinates of the drawing by an enlargement or reduction factor called scaling factor. The size of the entity altered by the application of scaling factor is shown in Figure 1.23. Figure 1.23 Geometry before and after scalingIntroduction The new co-ordinates after scaling are given by the following equations: P=[X, Y]=[5.«X, 5x] This equation can also represented in a matrix form as S, 0 LX fe sib 0 S,ILY (P}=(S][P] 5, 0 ; where [s]= oS, = Scaling matrix For example, Figure 1.24(a) shows a triangle to be scaled before scaling. Figure 1.24(b) shows the same triangle after scaling. Here, all coordinates of the entity are multiplied by scaling matrix. Therefore, it is enlarged two times the original one. 104 10 B(6,10) 94 9 84 8 74 7 6- 83,5) 6 5- 5 44 4 34 34 Al24) 24 2 14Ni2) (4,0) 1 C(8.0) : + ao ; 123456789 10 123456789 10 Figure 1.24 Triangle before and after scaling 1.11.3. Reflection Refer Chapter 1.10.1 (iv) in this book Page 1.32. 1.11.4, Rotation Rotation is another important geometric transformation in CAD. Here, the drawing is rotated about a fixed point. The final position and orientation of geometry 1s decided by the angle of rotation (@) and the base point about which the rotation is to be done. Figure 1.25 shows a rotation transformation of an object about origin O. To develop the transformation1.40 Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing matrix, consider a point P as the object in XY plane, being rotated in anticlockwise direction position P’by an angle 0. The new position P’is given by P’=[(X,¥] From Figure 1.25, the original position is specified by to the new X=rcos Y=rsing The new position P’ is specified by X' =rcos(p + 0)= 1 cos 0 cos $—r sin O sin > =xcos@—ysind Y' =rsin(§+0)=r-sin @ cos 6 +r cos 8 sin} =x sin @ + y cos 8 It can be written in a matrix form as X') [eos@ -sin®]| X [rite Slr] cos®@ || ¥ (P1=[R}{P] cos@ —sin® — (al-[o5 cos@ | = Rotation matrix. Figure 1.25 Geometry before and after Rotational transformation 1.11.5. Shearing A shearing transformation produces the distortion of an object or an entire image. There are two types of shear mentioned below. ae aeintroduction f 141 | (a) X-shear (b) Y-Shear A X-shear transforms the point (XY, ¥) to (¥', ¥) by a shear factor 5,., where X'=X-SY y'=y 10 D e| & 8 7 & 6 |e 5 ‘ G 4iB \o ; 3 yas ' i 2) 4 ' SSAC AK E € Tha Sooo 7 0 0 12345 67 8 9 10 123456789 10 Figure 1.26 X-shear transformation Figure 1.27 Y-shear transformation Figure 1.26 shows X-shear applied to a base drawing represented by A-B-C-D-E. The entity Aj-B,-C)-D)-E, represents the X-sheared drawing. ‘A Y-shear transforms the point (X, Y) to (X', Y’) by a shear factor S,,, where X' =X Y'=S,,X+Y¥ Figure 1.26 shows Y-shear applied to a drawing, Figure 1.27 shows Y-shear applied to a base drawing represented by A-B-C-D-E. The entity Aj-B)-C,-D)-E, represents the Y-sheared drawing 4.42. CONCATENATION OR COMBINED TRANSFORMATION Many times, it becomes necessary to combine the aforementioned transformations 1a order to achieve the required results. In such cases, the combined transformation matrix can be obtained by multiplying the respective transformation matrices. The sequence of transformations can be combined into a single transformation using the concatenahon process. For example, a line AB shown in Figure 1.28(a) is to be rotated through 45° inproduto (1.127 | 4.18. LINE DRAWING Straight line forms the basis for the display of all types of shapes in computer graphics. The following are the requirements for drawing lines. (a) Lines should appear straight (b) Lines should terminate accurately (c) Lines should have constant density / brightness (d) Line density should be independent of length and angle (e) Line should be drawn rapidly Suppose, a straight line is to be drawn from point P; (x), y:) to point P; (x, yy). For drawing continuous line, the computer must be able to pick up a number of other pixels that should be illuminated in addition to two end pixels, The process of turning on the pixels for a line segment is called vector generation. There are several schemes for selecting the pixels between the end pixels if the end points of the line segment are known. 1. Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) Algorithm 'A popular method uses an algorithm known as “Digital Differential Analyzer” (DDA) The DDA generates lines from their differential equations. In DDA, the equation of a line is expressed as a pair of parametric equations. For a line segment joining two points Piand Ps, a parametric representation is given by P(u) =P, + (P2—Pi)u Osrsl Since P(u) is a position vector, each of the components of P(u) has a parametric representation x(u) and yu) between P, and P>. Therefore, 2(u) = x) + (2m) Wu)=yi + W2-yiu where the parameter u varies from 0 to 1. If w is incremented by, say 0.2, then the DDA will generate 4 points in between the two ends of the line. A pixel, however, can have only integer co-ordinates. Therefore, hardware is usually provided which converts each fractional coordinate into the nearest integer. Thus, 9.7 is rounded up to 10 and 9.2 is rounded down to 9. Once the address of all the pixels is determined, they are stored in a frame buffer. The display driver reads the array of addresses and it illuminates the corresponding pixels. In order to look a line continuous manner, it is necessary to increment the parameter w accordingComputer Aided Design and Manufacturing OO (rae) 2 of the display device. If too large increment is selected, the line may appeg. 2} de discontinuous. ? (x v2) x Figure 1.72 Parametric representing of a straight line Admansages of DDA Algorithm: est algorithm and it does not need special skills for implementation te is a faster method to calculate pixel positions than the direct use of straight line mx+C. It eliminates the multiplication of necessay equation which is given by increments applied in x or y directions to find the pixel positions along the line path Disadvantages of DDA Algorithm: Floating point arithmetic in DDA algorithm is still time-con; 2. The algorithm is orientation dependent. Therefore, the end point accuracy ts poor ming. 4.48.2. Solved Problems on DDA Algorithm Problem 1.30 Determine the parametric representation of the line segment between two points 25 and (5, 4). Also determine the slope of the line segment. G Solution: In the problem, two given points are (2, 3) and (5, 4). Therefore,(144) Computor Aided Design and Mersey, A number of efficient clipping algorithms have been developed in the past, , Fi an algorithm is developed by Dan Cohen and Ivan Sutherland which will be discusseq here re ‘ohen-Sutherland clipping algorithm It is one of the oldest and most popular line-clipping algorithms. The Cohen-Suthe, line-clipping algorithm quickly detects and dispenses with (wo common and simple ¢,.. this method, all lines are classified to see if they are in, out or partially inside the «),. window by doing an edge test. For example, if both endpoints of a line lie inside the the entire line lies inside the window. It is simply accepted and needs no clipping, Th... Points of the line in a picture are assigned a four-digit binary code called a region en, code identifies the location of the point relative to the boundaries of the clipping wins, The code is given as TBRL. 1001 1000 1010 0000 0001 0010 Window 0101 0100 0110 Figure 1.78 TBRL code for nine regions The code is identified as follows. If the point is above top of the window T'= 1, otherwise T= 0 If the point is above the bottom of the window B= 1, otherwise B = 0 If the point is above the right of the window R = 1, otherwise R = 0 If the point is above the left of the window L = » otherwise L = 0 where, = Top, B= Bottom, R= Right and L=Lep.introduction 1.445 For example, consider the object shown in Figure 1.77 (a) within the window. The full 4-digit codes of the line end points with reference to the window are shown in Figure 1.78. After assigned 4-digit region codes for all line endpoints, the system first examines whether the line is fully inside or outside of the window by the following conditions. »/|The line is inside the window if both end points are equal to “0000”. > /‘The line is outside the window if both the end points are not equal to “0000” and a | in the same bit position for both ends. >» For those lines which are partly inside the window, they are split at the window edge and discard the line segment outside the window. There may be a possibility when the line may be crossing two regions as shown a line P>Ps in Figure 1.77 (a). In this case, the intersection point is found and the line segment outside the window is discarded. 1.19.3, Polygon Clipping A polygon is the collection of lines. Therefore, the line clipping algorithm can be used directly for polygon clipping. Object Clipping window Figure 1.79 Figure 1.79 shows an ambiguity of the above described algorithm, The clipping of two different gcometries produces same results. This ambiguity can be removed by using Polygon-clipping algorithm developed by Sutherland and Hodgeman A polygon can be clipped by processing its boundary as a whole against each window edge. It is accomplished by processing all polygon vertices against each clip rectangleIntroduction 1.169 1.27.2. Types of Production Systems According to volume and standardisation of the production of the products, the production systems are classified as: 1 Job shop production, 2.Batch production, 3.Mass production, and 4.Process or continuous production. 1. Job shop production: Meaning: Job or unit production involves the manufacturing of a single complete unit as per the customer’s order. This is a ‘special order’ type of production. Each job or product is different from others and no repetition is involved. The work is started only when the organisation has orders on hand. According to the regularity of manufacture( there are three types of job production: 1. Asmall number of pieces produced once. 2. A small number of pieces produced intermittently when the need arises. 3. A.small number of pieces produced periodically at known time intervals Characteristics: 4) High variety and low volume. (ii) General purpose machines and equipment to perform wider range of operations. (iii) Flow of materials is not continuous i.e,, it is intermittent. (iv) Highly skilled operators and supervisors are required. (v) Variable path material handling equipment are used. Merits: &) It involves comparatively small investment in machinery and equipment. (ii)It is flexible and can be adapted easily to changes in product design. Demerits: (i) Very large work-in-process inventory. (ii) Difficult in planning, scheduling and coordinating the productions of numerous components of wide variety. Gli) Highly skilled workforce is required. (iv) Manufacturing cycle time is moreComputer Aided Design and Manufacti, e to Job shop production is applicable where custom-made products ar be producey small scale. 2. Batch Production: Meaning: In this type, the products are made in small batches and in large variety 5 ’ batch contains identical items but every batch is different from the others. Three types of batch production are; 1. A batch produced only once. 2. A batch produced repeatedly at irregular intervals, when the need arises. 3. A batch produced periodically at known intervals, to satisfy continuous demand Characteristics: (i) A large variety of products are manufactured in lots or batches. (ii) Both general purpose machines (for producing parts) and special purpos machines (for assembling the parts) are used. (iii) Flow of material is intermittent. (iv) Plant layout is process type. (v) Flexible material handling system. Merits: (i/\Short production runs. (ii) Plant and machineries are flexible. (iii) Medium variety and medium volume. Demerits: co) Large work-in-process inventory. ii] More number of set-ups. (iii) Workloads on various machines / sections are unbalanced. (iv) Process and product planning is to be done for each batch. Suitability: Drugs, clothes, paints, parts manufactured on turret lathes, fo metal presses are a few examples of batch production, ging machines ane *Introduction 3, Mass Production: Meaning: In this type of production, only one type of product or maximum 2 or 3 types are manufactured in large quantities. Standardisation of products, process, materials, machines and uninterrupted flow of materials are the basic features of this system. Mass production system offers economies of scale as the volume of output is large Characteristics: (iY’ Low variety and high volume. (ii) Flow of material is continuous. (iii) Special purpose machines are used. (iv) Mechanised material handling systems such as conveyors are used. (v) The machine capacities are balanced. (vi) Degree of mechanisation or automation is high. Merits: it offers lowest cost of production. (ii). Shorter cycle time. (iii) Work-in-process is comparatively low. (iv) Easier production planning and control. (v) Relatively lower skilled persons can manage work. Demerits: (i) Higher inventory of raw materials. (ii) Less flexibility of equipment and machines. Suitability: Electronics, electricals, automobiles, bicycles and container industries are a few examples of mass production industries. 4. Process Production: Meaning: This type of production is used for manufacture of those items whose demand is continuous and high. Here single raw material can be transformed into different kind of Products at different stages of the production processes. ¢.g., in processing of crude oil in Tefinery one gets kerosene, gasolene, etc., at different stage of production The characteristics, merits and demerits of continuous production system are the same as that of the mass production system.Fixed position layout / High L | 2 2 s Batch 3 production 8 | a Low Low 100 10,000 Computer Aided Dasign and Manufacturing Process layout Continuous production Production Quantity Figure 1.94 Types of production and layouts used for different levels of 1,000,000 Product layout High production quantity and product variety Suitability: The industries like paper, textiles, cement, chemicals, automobiles, efc., are a few examples of continuous production industries. Note: The job shop production and batch production are also known as intermittent production systems. The mass production and process production are termed as continuous production system. Figure 1.94 illustrates the types of production systems and their respective layouts used 1.27.3. Comparison between Types of Production Table 1.10 compares the differences between various production system. Table 1.10 Comparison between types of production No. Function of Job Batch Mass Continuous comparison production | production | production production Specd of . Very low Slow Fast Very fast processing Production set uy P | Very high | High Less less timeComputer Aided Design and Manuts,, Ge tore SS sed on Ful 3.4.3. Classification of Graphics Standards Ba: Graphic standards OQ —m een Standards to store and exchange the screen (based on image regen, Standards to plovdrawn images on scr E.g. CORE, GKS, PHIGS from | Graphics primitives (device Image bamap a d : p — suey independent representation gryp. jpeg. GI Tre la + of image) Seat E.g. mata file, COM Figure 3.6 Classification of graphics standards ( “3.5, GRAPHICS KERNEL SYSTEM (GKS) x{ GKS is basically a set of procedures which can be called by user programs to cary an certain generalized functions such as arc, circle, ellipse etc. GKS is defined in temse number of levels describing the level of support in terms of facilities. GKS is 2 Sms computer language which consists of set of commands for graphical operations. raphics Kernel System (GKS) was developed in Europe and standardized in 1985 ks strongly influenced by CORE two dimensional graphics. It is a standardized syst sol d ned graphical functions for processing graphical data to create and process 2D image defined functions are independent of programming languages applications an devices used. It covers the three dimensional graphics through GSK -3D. S GSK implementations have been made by many hardware manufacturers languages. Jt is not acceptable for dynamic graphics as a tool for programming large loc! application. GKS for the graphics programming is in terms of the layer model show? Ai 3.0, fa this system, workstation is used as an environment for the user which co! VDU, printer or plotter. Workstations may be identical to programmers. The cho are inbuilt into GKS to perform simultaneously more than one workstation.7 | Application pr fos et el 1 u | Application oriented layer { _layer_ Graphic (, kernal T l \ ri 1 “Language independent | 1 l L a J ta Operating system Other resources | | Graphical resources} Figure 3.7 Layer model of graphics kernel system ‘31. Features of GKS At is an independent device) So, it can work with all types of input and output devices. (ii) All text and annotation can be prepared and stored in natural languages. (liy/Graphie functions are defined for both 2D and 3D. (Wf It includes all types of display elements. (\GKS supports picture data into two routines. (Vi) GKS defines an International coordinate system called normalized de coordinates. 82 Cora “ordinates in GKS Th ‘ .,, "8 coordinate systems are used in GKS such as World Coordinates (WC), “4 Device Coordinates (NDC) and Device Coordinates (DC) ~~} Application area's \ Application layer ; information i 4 C ce u information to be 4 exchanged ! i Ui Physical layer "| Data structure format : Figure 3.21 Three layered architecture for product data exchange It consists of a three layered architecture such as application, logical and physical |a) shown in Figure 3.21. The application layer has full description and information aby various application areas such as mechanical, electrical etc. Then the logical layer is » provide computer independent deccription of data structures and formats and information be shared. The third layer of physical layer contains the data structures and formats for i: file exchange itself. 3.7.4. Classification of Data Exchange Standards or Neutral File Formats In addition to IGES, some other formats are also identified to exchange data. So, the“: exchange standards are mainly classified as below. 1. IGES 2. STEP 3. DXF 4. STL 7.4.1, IGES — Initial Graphics Exchange Specification f It is mainly for CAD data exchange. IGES was developed by U.S National bures?* : standards in 1979 and developed a version of IGES is controlled by IGES organizatio™ " | gypsmios as) ganyes primarily shape (both geomettic and topological) and non-shape data which is [ imi as CAD-t0-CAD exchange, the basis for IGES is to store a file detail of entities to be transferred between systems. ES also allows the compressed ASCII format and binary files. Every software supporting 18S will have the processor software to translate from their software to IGES neutral file. It iqpires@ file of 80 columns, First 72 columns are data columns. 73" to 80 columns are for sje sequence number (utilized as pointer) with identification for data. VAIGES is the most comprehensive standard and it is designed to transmit the entire anduct definition including manufacturing and any other associated information. IGES sandard is essentially a specification for the structure and syntax of neutral file in ASCII, compress ASCII or binary format. It is generally stable and reliable for the exchange of simple geometric entities such as points, lines, arc and little less so for complex entities such splines. Sometimes, poor for annotation, dimensions and group entities are handled. «IGES works at the level of application database structure. It is based on the concept of «atts such as points, lines, circles and surfaces etc. These entities in IGES are classified into three types. (9) Geometric entities: 'tcontains lines, circles, surfaces etc. ©) Annotations entities: They contain additional information such as dimensions, blocks, additional notes etc Structure entities: They have information required for the descriptions of objects to define how object is “aie using basic entities, AnIGES file consists of the following file sections. They are as follows. 1 Fla: igs ia 1 ptional one and used to denote the form in which the data is specified. The initial ‘ey Was containing ASCII format with a detailed structure) It is shown in Figure 3.2 Version 3.0, it was standardized as follows. ( *)ASCIT mode which is a default option » Binary form and ( “) Compressed ASCII form.Computor Aided | - | GD Start se | It contains a man readable prologue file, It assists the user at the destinatiog a | features of originating of system. Any number of lines can be contained in this Sectign R | used for initializing the IGES file "| | (iil) Global section: | CA contains details about the product, organization, software, date ete, 1. | necessary to translate the file from any graphic software to other graphic softwares inlay drafting standard used and some information required for its post-processing on the computer. It provides 24 fields, the pa + (1 & 2), senders identifier (3), file name (4), ameter necessary 10 translate the files, including g.,, | 8 fe no in bracket) delimiter chars IGE! version (23) and draftiny -{cao database + Neutral data format| Pre-processor Data transfer from B to & |_ [Neutral data format! Post-processor r | -| CAD database |+-) CAD ayene [Neutral data formal] Pre-processor Data transfer from A toB [Neutral data format Post-processor | 8 Figure 3.22 Interchange method between tvo different CAD systems using neutral Sormat such as IGES or STEP | (iv) Directory section: | | It contains attribute information such as color, line type, etc. It references the and necessary data required for entities which are given in the next section. It is gene preprocessor which contains entry for each entity eit epresett in the file compressing code FP{3.41 J The first line is for a group code and the second one is for group value ines # ‘ iff lt the type of group specified by the group code. lino if we of IGES and DXF: J ) Both file systems were developed to exchange the product definition data instead of product data. (i (ii), The product data encompasses entire life cycle of a product, ¢.g. design, manufacturing, quality assurance, testing and support. (iii) Although specifications of both IGES and DXF have been updated to include some product data, the data carried by those files are inherently insufficient 18,STEP- Standard for Exchange of Product Model Data New CAD data standard is developed through worldwide effort known as STEP in year 17. The ability to share data across applications, across vendor, platforms and between saractors, suppliers and customers is the main objective of STEP standard. STEP seeks to address a number of limitations of IGES. In IGES does not clearly ‘even the logical specification of the standard (the meaning of the data from CAD system wnt of view), the applications requirements (how the data will be used in a particular plication) and the physical specification for the storage of data in exchange files. Yaa toss: Similar to any language translation, there is always information loss during the product fy 7 7 'nformation translation. Comptes: ‘) A design tolerance is captured as a text string placed on a drawing and its numerical values are lost. ) Circular cylinders (a hole) is represented by NURBS ‘ti) The offset information is lost in offset surfaces. ‘ey fed Scope of STEP is as follows. ') . The Standard method of representing, the information necessary to completely define a : oe . Product throughout its entire life, i.c., from the product conception to the end of Useful Lif fe.— i (342_] Computer Aided Design and Manip, 7 i . SaaS Manta 9 Gi) Standard methods for exchanging the data electronically between Wo ain iffy, hey systems. STEP uses the formal model for the data exchange which is describeg ting | information modeling language called EXPRESS. It is both human readable ang com a Processable. STEP has three layers architecture which enables the multipie APPIlication vip, and implements to be defined. The STEP documentation has cight major areas whi i hich, TU described below 1. Introductory: It contains the details about general introduction and overview of the standard, [; fies the part 1 of the ISO standard 10303. It comprises of part 1 which has overview and Benen principles Layer 3 - Application protocols YE Layer 2 - Resource information models EE Layer 1 - Implementation methods (Express) Conformance testing and test suites ct A Physical files Figure 3.23 Three layer architecture of STEP 2. Description method: When compared to other standards, the application protocols are plan s vendors. So, 4 new descriptive formal information modelling language called EX? developed and defined. It is given in part 11 to 13,