J Therm Anal Calorim (2016) 124:1091–1098
DOI 10.1007/s10973-015-5167-y
Catalytic effect of Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and TiO2 nanoparticles
on thermal decomposition of potassium nitrate
Mohsen Ravanbod1 • Hamid Reza Pouretedal1
Received: 11 July 2015 / Accepted: 12 November 2015 / Published online: 29 December 2015
 Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary 2015
Abstract The kinetic and activation energies of thermal
decomposition of KNO3 as an oxidizer in pyrotechnic
compositions were studied in the presence of Fe2O3,
Mn2O3, and TiO2 nanoparticles as catalysts, using ther-
mogravimetric analysis under argon atmosphere at differ-
ent heating rates (10, 15, and 20 K min-1). The prepared
nanoparticles were characterized by XRD patterns, SEM
images, and BET surface area analysis. For verification of
data, the activation energies for thermal decomposition of
KNO3 were calculated using non-isothermal isoconver-
sional methods of KAS, OFW, and Friedman for different
conversion fraction (a) values in the range 0.1–0.9. The
activation energies were 201.6–208.2, 170.0–177.9,
173.9–181.6, and 213.0–223.8 kJ mol-1, respectively, in
the absence and presence of 5 mol% of Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and
TiO2. The results indicated that while Fe2O3 and Mn2O3
nanoparticles have catalytic effects, TiO2 nanoparticles
show inhibitory effect on the thermal decomposition of
KNO3.
Keywords Potassium nitrate
Thermal decomposition

Metal oxide nanoparticles
Catalytic effect
& Hamid Reza Pouretedal
HR_POURETEDAL@mut-es.ac.ir
Mohsen Ravanbod
mravanbod@mut-es.ac.ir
1
Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Malek-Ashtar University of
Technology, Shahin-Shahr, Iran
Introduction
Potassium nitrate (KNO3) is an ionic salt and a source of
nitrate (NO3-) that has a wide variety of uses in fertilizer,
pharmaceutical, and food industry, and as oxidizer in
explosive [1].
Oxidizers are usually oxygen-rich ionic solids used in
pyrotechnic and propellant compositions to facilitate the
process of ignition by producing oxygen [2]. Potassium
nitrate (KNO3) with 39.6 % active oxygen content is the
oldest solid oxidizer used in high-energy mixtures. Due to
its excellent properties such as reasonable cost, low
hygroscopicity, low melting point (334 C), and suit-
able ignition behavior [3], KNO3 has been widely used in
various energetic material compositions [4–7]. Since
decomposition of KNO3 is strongly endothermic, high-
energy output fuels must be used with this oxidizer to
achieve rapid burning rates, and it is one of the most
limitations of KNO3 in pyrotechnic and propellant com-
positions. Also, its use in colored flame composition is
limited due to low reaction temperatures [3].
Decomposition of oxidizers can be accelerated in the
presence of metal oxides [8–11]. The catalytic activity
increases sharply in the case of nanosized compared to
micro-sized metal oxide particles [12, 13]. Nanoparticles
are small particles with an average diameter of less than
100 nm. Due to their small size and large surface area,
nanoparticles exhibit novel and interesting properties
which differ from those of bulk materials [14]. Among
the metal oxide catalysts, transition metal oxide
nanoparticles such as ferric oxide (Fe2O3), manganese
oxides (MnO2 or Mn2O3), and chromium (III) oxide
(Cr2O3) are highly effective in improving the decompo-
sition of oxidizers [15–17]. This behavior can be related
to the wide variety of oxidation states of the transition
123
1092
metals as well as specific electron configurations of their
cations [18, 19].
In this study, the effects of synthesized Fe2O3, Mn2O3,
and TiO2 nanoparticles on the thermal decomposition of
KNO3 were evaluated systematically using TG analysis
under argon atmosphere at different heating rates (10, 15,
and 20 K min-1), and the activation energies were com-
puted by non-isothermal isoconversional methods of Kis-
singer–Akahira–Sunose (KAS), Ozawa–Flynn–Wall
(OFW), and Friedman equations [20–24].
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no study has yet
been reported on the catalytic effect of nanoparticles on the
thermal decomposition process of potassium nitrate. Udupa
[25] reported on the catalytic effect of Cr2O3 on the ther-
mal decomposition of KNO3. He has shown that chromium
(III) is completely oxidized into its hexavalent state when
the mole ratio of KNO3 to Cr2O3 is greater than three. Also,
Azhagurajan et al. [26] reported that decreasing the particle
size of KNO3 or aluminum (as fuel) from micro to nano in
pyrotechnic compositions improves the efficiency of fire-
crackers, but the mechanical sensitivity increases and may
create the safety problem in handling of pyrotechnic
compositions.
Experimental
Materials
All the chemicals used in this study were of analytical
grade (purity[99.5 %), purchased from Merck and Sigma-
Aldrich, and used as received without further purification.
Deionized water (0.054 lS cm-1) was used for preparation
of aqueous solutions.
Synthesis of the materials
Preparation of Fe2O3 nanoparticles by precipitation
method
The Fe2O3 nanoparticles were synthesized from FeCl3

6H2O and ammonia (1:1) solution according to a previ-
ously reported method [27] with a slight modification. To
the Fe3? solution (250 mL of 0.025 mol L-1) under vig-
orous stirring (rpm = 1000) at room temperature, the
ammonia solution was added drop-wise until all the Fe3?
ions transformed into precipitate (pH 4.5). After aging
overnight, the precipitate was filtered and washed thor-
oughly with deionized water until free from chloride ions.
The resulting precipitate was dried for 3 h at about 100 C
in air, and the dry powder was ground in a zirconium
carbide mortar for 15 min to produce a fine powder.
123
M. Ravanbod, H. R. Pouretedal
Finally, the fine powder was calcined for 4 h at 400 C in
air to prepare the nanoparticles.
Synthesis of Mn2O3 nanoparticles by co-precipitation
method
Preparation of Mn2O3 nanoparticles was based on a pre-
viously reported method [28]. We used manganese (II)
sulfate and oxalic acid as the starting materials. The
manganese (II) sulfate and oxalic acid solutions (both
0.05 mol L-1) were mixed thoroughly by stirring at a
constant temperature of 60 C, followed by drop-wise
addition of ammonia solution under continuous stirring
until the solution pH reached 9.3. The stirring was con-
tinued for 1 h at the same temperature. The resulting brown
precipitate was filtered and washed thoroughly with water.
The precipitate was dried overnight at 95 C. The dry
powder was ground in a zirconium carbide mortar for
15 min to produce a fine powder. Finally, the fine powder
was calcined in a furnace at 500 C for 4 h.
Preparation of nanosized TiO2 by high-energy ball-milling
method
The nanosized TiO2 was synthesized according to the
report of Carneiro et al. [29] with major modification. The
TiO2 powder was used as starting material for synthesis of
nanosized TiO2. The particle size distribution test was
performed using a laser particle size analyzer (FRITSCH,
model Analysette 22, Micro Tec Plus). The particle size
distribution of initial TiO2 powder with the median (D50) of
1.0 lm is shown in Fig. 1.
The milling of TiO2 was performed in air using a Fritsch
ball mill model Mini Mill II, using vial and balls made of
zirconium carbide (ZrC). The ball milling was carried out
using the following conditions: mill rotation speed,
500 rpm; powder-to-ball mass ratio, 1:40; and milling
time, 1.5 h.
6
5
Distribution/%
4
3
2
1
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size/µm
Fig. 1 Particle size distribution of initial TiO2 powder
(D50 = 1.0 lm)
Catalytic effect of Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and TiO2 nanoparticles on thermal decomposition of potassium…
Preparation of micro-sized KNO3 by antisolvent
precipitation method
Ethanol (96 %) was used as the water miscible solvent. An
aqueous solution of KNO3 with concentration of
0.75 mol L-1 was prepared. To 100 mL of ethanol at a
temperature of about 2 C, 10 mL of the KNO3 solution
was injected under stirring (500 rpm) at a rate of
500 lL s-1, which resulted in precipitation of solid salt
particles. The precipitated KNO3 particles were filtered and
dried at room temperature overnight followed by drying at
80 C for 2 h.
Preparation of the samples
Potassium nitrate was selected as the target material for
investigating the catalytic activity of Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and
TiO2 nanomaterials. Each of the oxides was added to
KNO3 in a mole fraction of 0.05, and the mixture was
thoroughly mixed in a mortar for about 15 min.
Characterization of the nanoparticles
The X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of the nanoparticles
was recorded on a Bruker D8 Advance powder diffrac-
tometer using Ni-filtered Cu Ka radiation (k = 1.54056 Å).
The surface morphology of the products was characterized
using a COXEM scanning electron microscope (SEM) with
an accelerating voltage of 25 kV. Prior to the test, the
powder samples were gold-coated for 30 s in an ion sput-
tering unit (COXEM) to reduce the effect of charging. The
Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area of the syn-
thesized nanoparticles was determined by N2 adsorption
using a COSTECH sorptometer instrument model KEL-
VIN 1042 (Italy).
Thermal analysis conditions
The TG measurements were carried out using a Perk-
inElmer simultaneous thermal analyzer model STA 6000
(USA). Alumina sample vessels were used (70 lL volume)
with alumina powder as the reference material. Argon
atmosphere was applied during the analysis (flow rate of
20 mL min-1). For kinetic study of the thermal decom-
position, thermal analysis experiments were performed at
the heating rate of 10, 15, and 20 K min-1. In each
experiment, approximately 18 mg sample was taken and
heated from ambient temperature (25 C) to 900 C.
1093
Results and discussion
Characterization of the synthesized products
Figure 2a–c shows the XRD pattern of the nanosized
Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and TiO2 synthesized by different methods.
From the XRD diffractograms, it is clear that the synthe-
sized metal oxide nanoparticles are purely crystalline in
nature. The diffraction peaks at 2h of 27.5, 36.1, 41.2,
and 54.3 in Fig. 2c confirm the rutile phase for TiO2
particles [30]. The cubic structure for Mn2O3 is proved by
diffraction peaks at 2h of 23.0, 32.9, 38.3, 45.1, 49.5,
55.3, and 65.7, Fig. 2b [31]. Also, the major peaks at 2h
of 24.2, 33.2, 35.6, 54.1, and 64.0 in Fig. 2a corre-
spond to rhombohedral structure of Fe2O3 (hematite)
[32, 33].
The crystallite size was calculated by Scherrer’s equa-
tion [34] given by the following equation:
D ¼ kk=ðb cos hÞ ð1Þ
where D is the crystal size, k is the wavelength of the X-ray
radiation (k = 1.54056 Å for Cu Ka), k is a constant usu-
ally taken as 0.89, and b is the full width at half maximum
(FWHM) of the diffraction peak in radian. The selected
diffraction lines and the corresponding b values for the
nanosized metal oxides are given in Table 1. The average
crystallite sizes estimated by this method were 27.8, 27.7,
and 17.0 nm for Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and TiO2, respectively.
The surface morphology of the synthesized metal oxides
and KNO3, obtained with SEM, is presented in Figs. 3 and 4.
The images show that the metal oxides consist of agglom-
erated particles with the average particle size of less than
100 nm (Fig. 3). Also, the SEM image of KNO3 shows that
KNO3 particle sizes are in the range of 4–10 lm (Fig. 4).
The BET measurements showed that the specific surface
areas of the Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and TiO2 nanoparticles were
32.1, 35.6, and 24.4 m2 g-1, respectively.
Thermal behavior
The catalytic activity of the nanometal oxides on thermal
decomposition of KNO3 was studied by thermogravimetric
analysis at different heating rates of 10, 15, and
20 K min-1 under argon atmosphere from ambient tem-
perature (298 K) to 1175 K, and the curves are presented in
Fig. 5. The TG curves show a total mass reduction of 53–
56 % until about 1150 K, which is according to the fol-
lowing mechanism [35]:
4 KNO3 ðsÞ ! 2 K2 O ðsÞ þ 2 N2 ðgÞ þ 5 O2 ðgÞ ð2Þ
123
1094 M. Ravanbod, H. R. Pouretedal

(a) Fe O
2 3 (104)
(110)

(116)
(012) (021)
(300)
(113) (214)

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(b)
Mn2O3 (222)
Intensity/a.u.

(440)

(211) (400) (622)

(431)
(332)

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

(c) TiO2
(110)

(211)
(101)
(111)

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

2 Theta Scale/°

Fig. 2 XRD patterns of the nanoparticles a Fe2O3, b Mn2O3, and

c TiO2 (rutile) and their stick patterns

Fig. 3 SEM images of the nanoparticles a Fe2O3, b Mn2O3, and

Also, the onset temperature for the decomposition of
pure KNO3 and KNO3 in the presence of Fe2O3, Mn2O3,
and TiO2 nanopowders is 849, 832, 839, and 861 K,
respectively, at heating rate of 10 K min-1 (Fig. 6). From
the TG profiles and onset temperatures of decomposition, it
seems that Fe2O3 nanoparticles are the most active catalyst
for thermal decomposition of KNO3 among the metal
oxides studied.
Estimation of activation energies
The main objective of this part of the study was to show the
catalytic activity of Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and TiO2 nanopowders
on the thermal decomposition process of potassium nitrate.
Activation energy (Ea) can be calculated by processing of
c TiO2
the thermal analysis data. Based on the ICTAC kinetic
committee recommendations [36], the methods that use
multiple heating rate programs (at least 3–5 programs) are
recommended for computation of reliable kinetic parame-
ters, while the estimation of kinetic parameters from a
single heating rate program may lead to erroneous results
and should be avoided. Accordingly, in this study, the
activation energies were calculated by the KAS, OFW, and
Friedman methods based on TG data at multiple heating
rates (10, 15, and 20 K min-1). The KAS, OFW, and
Friedman equations can be expressed, respectively, by the
following equations:

123
Catalytic effect of Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and TiO2 nanoparticles on thermal decomposition of potassium… 1095

100
Table 1 Crystallite size data of the synthesized nanometal oxides
90
Metal oxide name Plane 2h/degree B/radian D/nm
80

Mass/%
Fe2O3 104 33.2 0.00514 27.8 KNO3–TiO2
70 KNO3 pure
Mn2O3 222 32.9 0.00516 27.7 KNO3–Mn2O3
TiO2 110 27.5 0.00828 17.0 60 KNO3–Fe2O3

50

40
750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150
Temperature/K

Fig. 6 Curves of KNO3 decomposition at heating rate of 10 K min-1

in the presence and absence of metal oxides

"   #  
da Ea
ln bi ¼ ln ½f ðaÞAa Š ð5Þ
dT a;i RTa;i

where Ea is the activation energy in the conversion fraction

of a, Ta is temperature in the conversion fraction of a, R is
the universal gas constant, and bi is the heating rate. The
activation energy (Ea) values can be obtained from the
Fig. 4 SEM image of micro-sized KNO3
slope of plots of ln(bi/T2a,i) versus 1/Ta (Eq. 3), ln(bi) versus
1/Ta (Eq. 4), and ln[bi (da/dT)a,i] versus 1/Ta,i (Eq. 5) by
!   linear regression using least-squares method.
b Ea
ln 2i ¼ Const ð3Þ The activation energies for decomposition process of
Ta;i RTa
KNO3 in the presence and absence of metal oxides were

Ea
 calculated at different heating rates of 10, 15, and
lnðbi Þ ¼ Const 1:0516 ð4Þ 20 K min-1 for different a values in the range 0.1–0.9. The
RTa

pure KNO3 KNO3–TiO2

100 100
90 90
80 –1 80 10 K min–1
Mass/%

10 K min
Mass/%

70 15 K min–1
15 K min–1 70
20 K min–1
60 20 K min–1 60
50 50
40 40
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Temperature/K Temperature/K

KNO3–Mn2O3 KNO3–Fe2O3
100 100
90 90
80 –1 80 10 K min–1
Mass/%

Mass/%

10 K min
70 15 K min –1 70 15 K min–1
60 20 K min–1 60 20 K min–1
50 50
40 40
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Temperature/K Temperature/K

Fig. 5 Curves of KNO3 decomposition at heating rates of 10, 15, and 20 K min-1 in the presence and absence of metal oxides

123
1096 M. Ravanbod, H. R. Pouretedal

Pure KNO3 KNO3–TiO2

240 260
220 240
200 220

Ea/kJ mol–1
Ea/kJ mol–1
200
180
180
160 KAS KAS
160
140 OFW 140 OFW
120 Friedman 120 Friedman

100 100
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
α α

KNO3–Mn2O3 200 KNO3–Fe2O3

200
180
180
Ea/kJ mol–1

Ea/kJ mol–1
160 160

140 KAS 140

KAS
OFW OFW
120 120
Friedman Friedman
100 100
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
α α

Fig. 7 Dependence of activation energies on the conversion fraction for thermal decomposition of KNO3 in the presence and absence of metal
oxides at various conversions (a = 0.1–0.9, with 0.1 increment)

Table 2 Average of activation energies (Ea/kJ mol-1) and their
uncertainties calculated by the KAS, OFW, and Friedman methods for
thermal decomposition of KNO3 in the presence and absence of
nanometal oxides at a value of 0.1–0.9
Activation energy KAS OFW
KNO3 pure 201.6 ± 7.7 208.2 ± 7.9
KNO3 ? TiO2 213.0 ± 13.9 219.2 ± 13.9
KNO3 ? Mn2O3 173.9 ± 6.9 181.6 ± 7.4
KNO3 ? Fe2O3 170.0 ± 10.5 177.9 ± 10.9
obtained results by the KAS, OFW, and Friedman methods
are presented in Fig. 7. Also, the average and standard
deviation of the activation energies are listed in Table 2. As
seen, the average values of Ea for thermal decomposition of
pure KNO3 in the present work calculated by KAS, OFW,
and Friedman methods were 201.6, 208.2, and
202.2 kJ mol-1, respectively, that are very close to each
other and are in agreement with the result of the previous
report (160–209 kJ mol-1) [37]. The activation energies for
thermal decomposition of KNO3 in the presence of 5 mol%
of Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and TiO2 nanopowders were 170.0–177.9,
173.9–181.6, and 213.0–223.8 kJ mol-1, respectively. The
results reveal that Fe2O3 and Mn2O3 nanoparticles are very
active catalysts for the thermal decomposition of KNO3 with
almost similar catalytic activity and decrease the activation
energy of the process by about 30 kJ mol-1, but TiO2
nanoparticles have inhibitory effect on the thermal
decomposition process and increase the activation energy by
more than 12 kJ mol-1.
The da/dT–T curves for thermal decomposition of KNO3
in the presence and absence of nanometal oxide at heating
Friedman rate of 10 K min-1 are presented in Fig. 8. The da/dT–
202.2 ± 13.6 T curves show that the thermal decomposition pattern of pure
223.8 ± 13.3
KNO3 is approximately similar to that in the presence of
178.7 ± 5.7
TiO2 but completely different from those in the presence of
Fe2O3 and Mn2O3. In other words, Fe2O3 and Mn2O3
176.8 ± 8.4
nanocatalysts have a positive role on thermal decomposition
of oxidant.
The mechanism of catalytic action can be discussed
based on the relative activity of their metal cations to form
surface complex with nitrate anion. The catalytic activity
of the metal oxides is related to their electron configuration
[19]. Metal cations such as Fe2O3 and Mn2O3 with partially
filled d-orbitals have unfilled valence orbitals. These
cations have relatively small sizes because of less electrical
shielding. Therefore, they have a high tendency to attract
extra electrons or negative charges and behave as Lewis
acid sites. The oxygen atoms in the nitrate anion (NO- 3)
have unshared electron pairs and behave as Lewis base.
Therefore, the oxygen can donate one of the unshared
electron pairs to the empty valence orbitals of the metal
cations of the oxide catalysts and form a surface complex.
Formation of the M–O coordination bond weakens the O–
N bond in the NO- 3 group and thereby facilitates the
decomposition process of KNO3.

123
Catalytic effect of Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and TiO2 nanoparticles on thermal decomposition of potassium…
0.010
0.008
KNO3 pure
KNO3–Mn2O3
dα/dT
0.006
KNO3–Fe2O3
KNO3–TiO2
0.004
0.002
0.000
800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150
Temperature/K
Fig. 8 Variation of (da/dT) versus T for KNO3 decomposition at
heating rate of 10 K min-1 in the presence and absence of metal
oxides
On the other hand, TiO2 containing the transition metal
cation Ti4? with noble gas d0 configuration is spherical,
and the positive electric fields are effectively shielded by
electrons [38]. It is known that metal oxides containing d0
transition metal cations are less active than the oxides
containing cations with partially filled d-orbitals [39]. In
addition, in order to form the coordination bond, an elec-
tron pair from nitrate should be transferred into higher-
energy orbitals, which is not favored for formation of the
complex. Both of these factors make it difficult for TiO2 to
form coordination bonds. Therefore, TiO2 does not have
catalytic activity on thermal decomposition of KNO3. The
retarding effect observed for TiO2, i.e., increasing the
activation energy for the thermal decomposition of the
TiO2–KNO3 mixture, may be due to refractory nature of
the added metal oxide. The similarity of thermal decom-
position patterns of KNO3 and KNO3–TiO2 showed no
change in the mechanism of the chemical decomposition of
potassium nitrate (Fig. 8). However, the physical property
of KNO3 was changed in the presence of TiO2 as a
refractory metal oxide, so that the melting point of KNO3
(334.4 C) increased to 340.1 C for TiO2–KNO3 mixture.
Conclusions
In this study, we synthesized nanosized Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and
TiO2 powders by different methods including precipitation,
co-precipitation, and high-energy ball milling, respectively.
These materials were characterized by XRD, SEM, and
BET techniques, and their catalytic activity on thermal
decomposition of micro-sized KNO3 was studied. The
kinetic results for a in the range of 0.1–0.9 indicate that
Fe2O3 and Mn2O3 nanoparticles have approximately sim-
ilar catalytic activity and shift the mean activation energy
for thermal decomposition of KNO3 downward by about
1097
30 kJ mol-1, but TiO2 nanoparticles have retarding effect
and increase the activation energy of the process by more
than 12 kJ mol-1. These results were verified by KAS,
OFW, and Friedman methods.
The catalytic activity of the studied metal oxides was
described based on their electronic configuration. The
Fe2O3 and Mn2O3 with partially filled d-orbitals provided
high catalytic effect, while TiO2 with d0 configuration did
not show catalytic activity on the thermal decomposition of
KNO3. The retarding effect observed for TiO2 may be due
to refractory nature of the added metal oxide.
Acknowledgements We would like to thank the research commit-
tee of Malek-Ashtar University of Technology (MUT) and Professor
M. K. Amini for supporting this work.
References
1. Joshi CS, Shukla MR, Patel K, Joshi JS, Sahu O. Environmentally
and economically feasibility manufacturing process of potassium
nitrate for small scale industries: a review. Int Lett Chem Phys
Astron. 2015;41:88–99.
2. Pouretedal HR, Ravanbod M. Kinetic study of ignition of Mg/
NaNO3 pyrotechnic using non-isothermal TG/DSC technique.
J Therm Anal Calorim. 2015;119:2281–8.
3. Conkling JA. Chemistry of pyrotechnics: basic principles and
theory. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.; 1985.
4. Redkar AS, Mujumdar VA, Singh SN. Study on magnesium-
based pyrotechnic composition as a priming charge. Def Sci J.
1996;46:41–7.
5. Shamsipur M, Pourmortazavi SM, Fathollahi M. Kinetic param-
eters of binary iron/oxidant pyrolants. J Energy Mater.
2012;30:97–106.
6. Rajendran AG, Ammal RA, Kartha CB, Babu VV. Thermal
studies on boron-based initiator formulation. Def Sci J.
1996;46:405–10.
7. Hosseini SG, Eslami A. Thermoanalytical investigation of rela-
tive reactivity of some nitrate oxidants in tin-fueled pyrotechnic
systems. J Therm Anal Calorim. 2014;101:1111–9.
8. Rudloff WK, Freeman ES. Catalytic effect of metal oxides on
thermal decomposition reactions. II. Catalytic effect of metal
oxides on the thermal decomposition of potassium chlorate and
potassium perchlorate as detected by thermal analysis methods.
J Phys Chem. 1970;74:3317–24.
9. Chen X, Zhang X, Feng M, Pan G, Lv H. The influences of
catalysts in the thermal decomposition of barium nitrate as
pyrotechnic oxidants. Appl Mech Mater. 2012;217–219:766–9.
10. Hoshino Y, Utsunomiya T, Abe O. The thermal decomposition of
sodium nitrate and effects of several oxides on the decomposi-
tion. Bull Chem Soc Jpn. 1981;54:1385–91.
11. Li Z, Xiang X, Bai L, Li F. A nanocomposite precursor strategy
to mixed-metal oxides with excellent catalytic activity for ther-
mal decomposition of ammonium perchlorate. Appl Clay Sci.
2014;65–66:14–20.
12. Zhu YL, Huang H, Ren H, Jiao QJ. Effects of aluminum
nanoparticles on thermal decomposition of ammonium perchlo-
rate. J Korean Chem Soc. 2013;57:109–14.
13. Vargeese AA, Muralidharan K. Kinetics and mechanism of
hydrothermally prepared copper oxide nanorod catalyzed
decomposition of ammonium nitrate. Appl Catal A.
2012;447–448:171–7.
123
1098
14. Nassar NN, Hassan A, Pereira-Almao P. Thermogravimetric
studies on catalytic effect of metal oxide nanoparticles on
asphaltene pyrolysis under inert conditions. J Therm Anal
Calorim. 2012;110:1327–32.
15. Martins S, Fernandes JB, Mojumdar SC. Catalysed thermal
decomposition of KClO3 and carbon gasification. J Therm Anal
Calorim. 2015;119:831–5.
16. Kapoor IPS, Srivastava P, Singh G. Nanocrystalline transition
metal oxides as catalysts in the thermal decomposition of
ammonium perchlorate. Propellants Explos Pyrotech. 2009;34:
351–6.
17. Mahinroosta M. Catalytic effect of commercial nano-CuO and
nano-Fe2O3 on thermal decomposition of ammonium perchlorate.
J Nanostruct Chem. 2013;3:1–6.
18. Chaturvedi S, Dave PN. A review on the use of nanometals as
catalysts for the thermal decomposition of ammonium perchlo-
rate. J Saudi Chem Soc. 2013;17:135–49.
19. Zhang Y, Kshirsagar G, Ellison JE. Catalytic effects of metal
oxides on the thermal decomposition of sodium chlorate. Ther-
mochim Acta. 1993;228:147–54.
20. Kissinger HE. Reaction kinetics in differential thermal analysis.
Anal Chem. 1957;29:1702–6.
21. Akahira T, Sunose T. Method of determining activation deteri-
oration constant of electrical insulating materials. Res Rep Chiba
Inst Technol (Sci Technol). 1971;16:22–31.
22. Ozawa T. A new method of analyzing thermogravimetric data.
Bull Chem Soc Jpn. 1965;38:1881–6.
23. Flynn JH, Wall LA. General treatment of the thermogravimetry
of polymers. J Res Nat Bur Stand Part A. 1966;70:487–523.
24. Friedman HL. Kinetics of thermal degradation of char-forming
plastics from thermogravimetry. Application to a phenolic plas-
tic. J Polym Sci Part C Polym Symp. 1964;6:183–95.
25. Udupa MR. Thermal decomposition of potassium nitrate in the
presence of chromium (III) oxide. Thermochim Acta. 1976;16:
231–5.
26. Azhagurajan A, Selvakumar N, Thanulingam TL. Thermal and
sensitivity analysis of nano aluminium powder for firework
application. J Therm Anal Calorim. 2011;105:259–67.
27. Pouretedal HR, Tavakkoli M. Photodegradation of para-nitro-
phenol catalyzed by Fe2O3/FeS nanocomposite. Desalination
Water Treat. 2013;51:4744–9.
28. Kumar H, Sangwan M, Sangwan P. Synthesis and characteriza-
tion of MnO2 Nanoparticles using co-precipitation technique. Int
J Chem Chem Eng. 2013;3:155–60.
123
M. Ravanbod, H. R. Pouretedal
29. Carneiro JO, Azevedo S, Fernandes F, Freitas E, Pereira M,
Tavares CJ, Lanceros-Méndez S, Teixeira V. Synthesis of iron-
doped TiO2 nanoparticles by ball-milling process: the influence
of process parameters on the structural, optical, magnetic, and
photocatalytic properties. J Mater Sci. 2014;49:7476–88.
30. Thamaphat K, Limsuwan P, Ngotawornchai B. Phase character-
ization of TiO2 powder by XRD and TEM. Kasetsart J (Nat Sci).
2008;42:357–61.
31. Wang ZH, Geng DY, Hu WJ, Ren WJ, Zhang ZD. Magnetic
properties and exchange bias in Mn2O3/Mn3O4 nanoclusters.
J Appl Phys. 2009;105:07A315/1–3.
32. Maslen EN, Streltsov VA, Streltsova NR, Ishizawa N. Syn-
chrotron X-ray study of the electron density in a-Fe2O3. Acta
Crystallogr B. 1994;50:435–41.
33. Arcon I, Mozetic M, Kodre A. XAS study of oxygen plasma-
treated micronized iron oxide pigments. Vacuum. 2005;80:
178–83.
34. Scherrer P. Bestimmung der grosse und der inneren struktur von
kolloidteilchen mittel rontgenstrahlen, nachrichten von der
gesellschaft der wissenschaften, Gottingen. Math Phys Kl.
1918;2:98–100.
35. Krishnan KRR, Ammal RA, Hariharanath B, Rajendran AG,
Kartha CB. Addition of RDX/HMX on the ignition behavior of
boron-potassium nitrate pyrotechnic charge. Def Sci J. 2006;56:
329–38.
36. Vyazovkin S, Burnham AK, Criado JM, Pérez-Maqueda LA,
Popescu C, Sbirrazzuoli N. ICTAC kinetics committee recom-
mendations for performing kinetic computations on thermal
analysis data. Thermochim Acta. 2011;520:1–19.
37. Pouretedal HR, Ebadpour R. Application of non-isothermal
thermogravimetric method to interpret the decomposition kinetics
of NaNO3, KNO3, and KClO4. Int J Thermophys. 2014;35:
942–51.
38. Nayak H, Ashish K. Catalyst effect of transition metal nano
oxides on the decomposition of lanthanum oxalate hydrate: a
thermogravimetric study. Int J Sci Res. 2014;3:381–8.
39. Zhang Y, Kshirsagar G, Ellison JE, Cannon JC. Catalytic effects
of metal oxides on the decomposition of potassium perchlorate.
Thermochim Acta. 1996;278:119–27.