04 - Hierarchical Voltage Control Concepts R 1.0

© D.
Westermann, 2022
04 – Hierarchical Voltage Control Concepts

Lecture Series „Voltage Stability and Control“
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dirk Westermann
Index
n Voltage control
• Introduction
• Means of voltage control in power systems
• Primary, secondary and tertiary control
• Motivation Pilot node approach
n Pilot node control concept setup
• Control system design
• Selection of pilot nodes, control areas, control plants
• Example
• Data Aquisition and communication design
n Overview of different voltage control regimes world wide
• Italy
• France
• USA
• Germany
• Switzerland
Page 2 | Lecture Series “Voltage Stability & Control” | © Power System Group / TU Ilmenau / Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dirk Westermann, 01.2023
Voltage drops – Introduction
Main reasons for voltage drops

n high preload of the transmission system
n increasing reactive power sensitivity ∂U/∂Q
n the market-based phase-out of conventional power plants
n large-volume power shifts due to contingencies like the outage of
embedded high voltage direct current (HVDC) connections
n volatile power infeed from renewable energy sources (RES)
n fast changes in power flow
Voltage Control – Introduction
n disturbance à voltage instability à When too extensive, the system integrity is endangered
n may eventually lead to a blackout (voltage collapse)
n continuously keeping the voltages of the system at, or near, their optimal values à Losses are reduced
System Split European Grid

8.01.2021
High east-west power flow tripped a
busbar coupler due to the overload
protection.
Several warnings was ignored, so
the overload occoured.
Seperation phenomenon
characterized by a very fast voltage
collapse at all substations close to
the line of separation in serbian.
Source: [CIG07, ENT21]

Voltage Control – Introduction
Means for voltage control in power QU regulation

systems (à chapter 1 & 2):
n excitation control or voltage regulators at
generating stations
n tap changing transformers Excitation Under load Shunt Converter
Control tap changer compensation control
n induction regulators
n shunt compensation (series compensation) Magnitude Angle
Source: [ABD20, COR04.1,COR04.2, KIR23, SAN96]

Pilot Node Voltage – Concept
n water level = voltage

n volumen = reactive power
nominal
voltage
Storage
pilot node
The voltage of the pilot node reperesent the voltage of an area. Usually, the pilot node are these with the
highest short-circuit power in a given zone.
General hierarchical control system structure in power system
Stage Function Location
Primary control n fast control of setpoint deviation n close the device (actor)
n usually P-characteristic n decentralized
n e.g. excitation control
Secondary control n semi-fast control of setpoint deviation n station control level (actor)
n usually (P)I-characteristic n regionalized/decentralized (pilot node)
n e.g. coordinated tap changer control
Tertiary control n slow, usually acts once in one system n control center level
operation cycle (15min) n centralized
n usually optimization with “world view" n e.g. optimal power flow as
SCADA/EMS function
Hierarchical structure with pilot point voltage
Tertiary
Secondary
Primary
Source: [AND06]
Hierarchical structure – Example Italy
AVR – Automatic Voltage
Regulator
LMC – Losses Minimization
Control
Tertiary NVR – National Voltage
Regulator
RVR – Regional Voltage
Controller
Secondary
Primary
Source: [CIG07]
Voltage Control – Hierarchical structure (example Italy)
Primary Voltage Regulation (P-VR)
n AVR (Automatic Voltage Controller): existing voltage regulator in the power plant
Secondary Voltage Regulation (S-VR)
n RVR (Regional Voltage Regulator): Regulation of pilot node voltages, presetting of set points for power
plants, control of SVC, FACTS, etc.
n PQR/REPORT (Reactive Power Regulators): Specification of the setpoints of the AVR
Tertiary Voltage Regulation (T-VR)
n NVR (National Voltage Regulator): Measurement and precalculation of pilot node voltages, specification of
optimized pilot node voltages (LMC - Losses Minimization Control).
Primary Voltage Regulation Secondary Voltage Regulation Tertiary Voltage Regulation

(PVR) (SVR) (TVR)
AVR fast control RVR, REPORT NVR
0.5 seconds 5-50 seconds 5-15 minutes
Source: [CIG07]
Primary Voltage Control (P-VC)
n regulates the voltage of the generator bus

n by controlling the reactive power injection
or absorption through automatic voltage
regulators for the synchronous generators
n response in 1 s – 10 s

Secondary Voltage Control (S-VC)
n to improve voltage security and

operation
n regulates load buses voltage magnitude
n closed loop system, maintains the
voltages of pilot buses constant
n adjustment of the reactive powers of
local control generators and
compensators

Secondary Voltage Control (SecVC)
n response time: 50 s to 25 min

n avoid overlap with the PVC action
n slower dynamics : control of local shunt
reactors/capacitor banks and transformer
OLTC’s and SVC’s

Secondary Voltage Control (SecVC)
n partitioning the grid into regions and select the pilot bus of each region
n pilot bus: the most sensitive load bus to the reactive power changes
n control system is applied to the pilot bus of the region
by using a controller to track the optimal value of the pilot bus voltage

Basic S-VC
n predefined areas, with own control center
n No communication between control areas
Controlled S-VC
n predefined areas, with own control center
n communication between control areas
Adaptive S-VC
n no predefined areas and no decentralized control centers
n central control room with dynamic control zone detection
n the control combines the secondary voltage control with the tertiary one, which reduces the
communication effort
n based on the log-transformation of sensitivities matrix
n PQ-buses are sorted according to their electrical distance
Source: [CIG07]
Tertiary Voltage Control (T-VC)
n minimize network losses, minimize generating costs and

improve operation voltage security
n calculates the optimal value of the pilot bus voltage and
reference voltage
n generators in the region will be asked to inject/absorb
reactive power
n optimal power flow process
n automatically updates all the pilot node voltage set-points
every half an hour or longer
n dominant time constant of 5 min

Index
n Voltage control
• Introduction
• Example
• Italy
• France
• USA
• Germany
• Switzerland
Pilot node approach
Goal: coordinated and automated control system for voltage/reactive power control.
n Division of the network into areas with pilot nodes as representatives of the respective voltage
n Areas are almost decoupled in terms of voltage/reactive power
n Pilot nodes give voltage of surrounding load nodes in the area
n Regulation of pilot node voltage using regional regulation of power plants, FACTS, capacitor banks, load
shedding, etc.
Regulation of the voltage of the pilot nodes instead of all nodes in the network according to the
hierarchical principle (reduced complexity)
Source: [CIG07]
Desing criteria
Pilot node selection

n strong node, which specifies voltage of the surrounding load nodes
n restriction of electr. coupling between individual pilot nodes to avoid overlapping between SVRs.
n application of the voltage/reactive power sensitivity matrix
Selection of the control generators

n selection of generators according to influence on voltage of selected pilot nodes
n application of the voltage/reactive power sensitivity matrix
n sensitivity coefficient x nominal reactive power > threshold value
General criteria
n design of regions such that minor changes in network topology do not require a change in the controller
structure
Source: [CIG07, COR04.1; COR04.2]

Pilot node properties
n most sensitive load bus to the reactive power changes
n able to impose voltages on the other electrically close buses
n electrical coupling between pilot nodes need to be sufficiently low to avoid dynamic interaction
between secondary control loops
n excessive reactive power exchanges among adjacent control areas are prevented
n the load or generation bus, having the strongest short-circuit capacity, as the “pilot node 1”
Source: [COR04.1,COR04.2, ]
Newton-Raphson method – Multiple unknowns
General shape of the system of equations
f ( x, y ) = 0
g ( x, y ) = 0
Taylor series expansion around a point xk , yk

df ( x k , y k ) df ( x k , y k )
f ( x, y ) = f ( x , y k k
)+ (x - x )+
k
(y- y )= f
k
0
dx dy
dg ( x k , y k ) dg ( x k , y k )
g ( x, y ) = g ( x k , y k ) + (x - x )+
k
(y- y )= g
k
0
dx dy
Zeros problem:
df ( x k , y k ) df ( x k , y k )
f ( xk , y k ) - f0 = - (x - x )-k
(y- y ) k
dx dy
dg ( x k , y k ) dg ( x k , y k )
g (x , y
k k
)- g 0 =- (x - x )-k
(y- y ) k
dx dy
Source: [HAN92]
Newton-Raphson method - Multiple unknowns
In matrix notation:
é df ( x k , y k ) df ( x k , y k ) ù
é f ( xk , y k ) - f0 ù ê úé
ú ê( x - x )ú
dx dy
k
ù
ê ú = -ê
ê g ( xk , y k ) - g0 ú ê ú
ë û ê dg ( x k
, y k
) dg ( x k , y k ) ú êë( y - y k ) úû
êë dx dy úû
Jacobian matrix Jk
Convert to calculate the arguments:
é ( x - xk ) ù é f ( xk , y k ) - f0 ù
ê ú = - J -1 ê ú
ê( y - y ) ú
k
ê g ( x , y ) - g0 ú
k k
ë û ë û
Convergence criterion
Iteration rule (x xk+1 )
éx ù éx ù
k +1 k é f ( x k
, y k
) - f0 ù æ é x k +1 - x k ù ö
norm ç ê k +1
ç y - y k ú ÷÷
<e
ê k +1 ú = ê k ú - J ê ú
-1
ëy û ëy û ê g ( xk , y k ) - g0 ú èë ûø
ë û
Source: [HAN92]
NRLF in polar coordinates - load flow problem
First step: Setting up the equations in polar coordinates
V1 =1 Slack has No. 1
V i = Vi e jdi
n
Pi = Vi å V j ym ,ij cos (d i - d j - qij )
j =1
Net node services
n
Qi = Vi å V j ym ,ij sin (d i - d j - qij )
j =1
jqij
y m ,ij = ym ,ij e Node admittance matrix in polar
representation
Second step: Setting up the system of equations (analogous to procedure in

Cartesian coordinates)
Source: [HAN92]
Jacobimatrix - As a basis for iteration
é df ( x , y ) df ( x , y ) ù k k k k
é f (x , y )- f ù ê úé
ê ú=- ê dx
k k
dy 0 ú ê
( x - x )ù
ú
k
General Newton-Raphson
êg ( x , y ) - g ú ê ú
ê dg ( x , y ) dg ( x , y ) ú ë( y - y ) û
approach
k k
ê ú k k k k k
ë û 0
êë dx dy úû
é ¶P ¶P ù
é ΔP ù ê ¶δ ¶V ú é Δδ ù
êΔQ ú = ê ¶Q ú
¶Q ú êëΔV úû
ë û ê
êë ¶δ ¶V úû
é DP ù é H N ù é Dδ ù This system of equations can

ê DQ ú = ê M L úû êë DV úû
now be easily extended to
ë û ë include further operating
resources
Source: [HAN92]
NRLF - Network equations
Jacobimatrix: é ¶Pi ¶Pi ù
ê ¶d j ¶V j ú
ê ú é J1 J2 ù
J = êê i
¶Q ¶Qi ú = êJ ú
JJ43 ú
¶d j ¶V j ú ê 3
ê 2 ú êë J 5 J 6 úû
ê¶Vi ¶Vi 2
ú
êë ¶d j ¶V j úû
Node size vector: é P2k - P2,0 ù

ê ú
ê  ú
ê Pn - Pn ,0 ú
k Notes
ê ú n Knot No. 1: Slack knot (omitted)
ê 2 Q k
- Q2,0 ú n Sort: p, q, u2
ê  ú
ê k ú n Node indexing starting at the slack, then PU
Q
ê n-nG - Q n-nG ,0
ú nodes, then PQ nodes.
ê ú
ê (V2 ) - V2,0 ú
2 k 2
ê ú
ê  ú
ê 2 k ú
êë(VnG ) - VnG ,0 úû
2
Source: [HAN92]
Sensitivity matrix
n The change of active and reactive power in each node of a network can be represented in first approximation
as follows
é DP ù é H N ù é Dδ ù ¶Pi ¶Pi ¶Qi ¶Qi
ê DQ ú = ê M Hij = Nij = Mij = Lij =
ë û ë L úû êë DV úû ¶d j ¶V j ¶d j ¶V j
n ∆P=0 leads to the so-called voltage/reactive power sensitivity matrix, which describes the sensitivity of the
node voltages to all ∆Q in the network
( )
-1
DV = L - MH -1 N DQ
A node k will be selected as the pilot
n if voltage variations are small and the SecVC arises fast, then: node of an area A if it meets following
criterion:
é ¶Vi ù
ê ¶Q ú
DVi = a ij DV a ij = ë i û Dij = D ji = - log (a ij × a ji )
é ¶V j ù
ê ¶Q ú
ë iû
Source: [COR04.1, COR04.2, IEE17]
Pilot node control system – Selection of control area
n Selection of control areas based on the calculation of the electrical distance between
nodes.
n system can divided by following steps:
• 1. make the new virtual bus by two nodes where the distance is nearest
• 2. calculate the electrical distance between new virtual node and remaining buses
• 3. repeat previous steps until the electrical distance exceeds a predetermined threshold value
• 4. repeat previous steps until a predefined number of areas has been created
n accepting a stronger electrical coupling requirement increases the number of pilot nodes but requires
more complex control laws to deal with closed-loop interaction and dynamic instability risks
n on the contrary, excessively loose electrical coupling reduces the number of pilot nodes and
significantly de-couples their control loops, but it worsens voltage quality
Source: [IEE17]
Example 10 bus-system
matrix D – electrical distance
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 0 0.081 0.068 0.142 0.211 0.433 0.484 0.341 0.331 0.52
2 0.081 0 0.05 0.12 0.193 0.436 0.497 0.369 0.345 0.416
3 0.068 0.05 0 0.083 0.156 0.402 0.464 0.34 0.311 0.448
4 0.142 0.12 0.083 0 0.084 0.381 0.464 0.362 0.32 0.464
5 0.211 0.193 0.156 0.084 0 0.345 0.449 0.369 0.314 0.462
6 0.433 0.436 0.402 0.381 0.345 0 0.265 0.334 0.244 0.226
7 0.484 0.497 0.464 0.464 0.449 0.265 0 0.289 0.228 0.234
8 0.341 0.369 0.34 0.362 0.369 0.334 0.289 0 0.134 0.362
9 0.331 0.345 0.311 0.32 0.314 0.244 0.228 0.134 0 0.402
10 0.52 0.416 0.448 0.464 0.462 0.226 0.234 0.362 0.402 0
n The electrical distance represents the degree of

influence caused by the voltage variation in other
buses.
n symmetrical matrix in result of the logarithmus
Source: [IEE17]
new virtual bus for calculation
physical bus
Source: [IEE17]
new virtual bus for calculation
physical bus
Source: [IEE17]
Node 1 0.502
Node 2 0.444
Pilot Node 3 0.357
Node 4 0.429
Node 5 0.644
Node 6 1.069
Node 7 1.016
Node 8 1.119
Pilot Node 9 1.008
Node 10 1.224
Source: [IEE17]
Pilot Node Control System – selection of control plants
Control plant must operate in the control area, have the largest reactive power capability and the
highest electrical coupling with the selected pilot node.
n analytic procedure: successive reorganization of the sensitivity matrix, expressing the dependence of
the pilot node voltages on the reactive power injections by generators
n all potential plants with the highest product of sensitivity coefficient by rated reactive power capability
in area I are assumed as “control plant i.”
Source: [COR04.1, COR04.2]

Pilot node control system - Data aquisition and communication design
n fast and high-resolution measurements

n dominant time constant of the voltage
loop of 50 s
n telecommunication delay must be
lower than 2 s
(proportional correction of the control
law to contribute with rapid dynamics)
n TVC can accept longer delays, as its
AVR – Automatic Voltage
dominant time constant is 5 min.
Regulator n As for LMC, the only time requirement
LMC – Losses Minimization
Control is related to its on-line version
NVR – National Voltage
Regulator providing an updated optimal voltage
RVR – Regional Voltage
Controller
reactive power plan with respect to the
forecasted one, computed the day
before through the off-line version
Source: [COR04.1, COR04.2 ]

Index
n Voltage control
• Introduction
• Example
• Italy
• France
• USA
• Germany
• Switzerland
Voltage control Italy
n Subdivision of the total transmission

network into 18 areas with 18 assigned
pilot nodes
n power system: 55 000 MW peak
n Consideration of all 51 power plants in
the 400 and 220kV grid (total reactive
power capacity of Q=20,000 MVAR).
Source: Cigré C4.602
Source: [CIG07]
Voltage control France
n pilot node process
n 2 principles
n eastern France divides power grid into
independent zones
• these Controlling units are controlled by an
automatic and coordinated action
n In the west, an extended regulation was

implemented due to a susceptibility to voltage
problems.
• the coordinated control process takes better
account of the dynamics between generators
• the control signal of one zone is calculated
including all other zones.
Source: [RTE21]
Voltage control USA
n 4 Interconnetion
areas linked by
HVDC
n 66 balancing
authorities
n classic secondary
voltage control (svc),
coordinated svc and
adaptive svc are
implemented
Source: [USA21]
Voltage control Germany
n installed capacity:
n 4 control zones
n spread out network
n history: complex voltage control was not necessary
n recent:
n conventional approach of “manual” dispatching of voltages
and reactive power
n typically operated by phone calls or according to written
orders
n based on suitable network studies and optimal forecasting
plan
n future: voltage control necessary in the result of renewbles
Source: [COR04.1, COR04.2, REG23, VDN07 ]

Voltage control Germany
Increasing utilization of transmission networks, higher meshing and increasing distances between generators
and consumers complicate regulation of voltage/reactive power in extended networks.
Current situation:
n manual schedule for voltage maintenance by generation plants, capacitor banks, etc. based on predictions of the
grid situation.
n automatic regulation of the grid-side power plant voltages (AVR -Automatic Voltage Regulation)
n often deviation between forecast and actual situation
n uncoordinated interaction of the individual voltage regulators can lead to grid destabilization
Solution approach:
n coordination and optimized coordination of all components involved
n establishment of a hierarchical structure (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Voltage Regulation)
n consideration of the current network condition (online measurement data)
Source: [COR04.1, COR04.2, REG23, VDN07]

Voltage control Switzerland
Source: [SWI23]
Structure of voltage control in Switzerland
n voltage schedules on a rolling 24-hour quarter-hour basis using an OPF algorithm
n active roles need to follow the plan and provide reactive power to achieve the node voltage
specified by the voltage schedule
n half-active roles take part in voltage control according to their possibilities, whereas partners
in extra-mandatory roles have to prioritize the voltage schedule instead of generally providing
reactive power
n voltage schedule send as xml-file
column content format

1 UCTE-Nodename 7-digit string (A-Z) & (0-9)
2 Nodename String (A-Z, a-z, 0-9, „ „)
3-98 Voltage target values for 3-digit number, one decimal place
each quarter hour
• SLEIBS1;Leibstadt 380 kV;408.0;408.0;408.0;408.0;406.0;...;407.0;
• 0:00-0:59 408 kV. from 1am 406 kV
Source: [SWI23.2]
Active node
All power plants directly connected to the transmission
system in operation (production, pumping or
synchronous/phase-shifting operation) within the limits of
their currently available reactive power exchangeable with
the transmission system, which can be exchanged without
limiting the active power
Source: [SWI23, SWI23.2]

Halfactive node
Participants in semi-active voltage maintenance do not assume any obligations for active voltage
maintenance in the transmission system. However, semi-active participants receive financial incentives
for a system-serving (compliant) reactive energy exchange.
n All distribution networks directly connected to the transmission network

n All customer facilities directly connected to the transmission system
n All neighboring system operators directly connected to the transmission grid
Source: [SWI23.2]
Literature
[ABD20] Abdalla, Omar H.; Fayek, Hady H.; Abdel Ghany, A. M. (2020): Secondary Voltage Control Application in a Smart Grid with 100% Renewables. In: Inventions 5 (3), S. 37. DOI:
10.3390/inventions5030037
[AND06] Androulidakis, E.; Alexandridis, Antonio (2006): Primary Level and Secondary Level Coordinated Control of Power Systems.
[CIG07] Martins; N., S. Corsi; T. F. Chairmen (2007): Coordinated voltage control in transmission networks. In: CIGRÉ Technical Brochure 23 (TF 23)
[COR04.1] Corsi, S.; Pozzi, M.; Sforna, M.; Dell'Olio, G. (2004): The Coordinated Automatic Voltage Control of the Italian Transmission Grid—Part II: Control Apparatuses and Field Performance of the
Consolidated Hierarchical System. In: IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 19 (4), S. 1733–1741. DOI: 10.1109/TPWRS.2004.836262.
[COR04.2] Corsi, S.; Pozzi, M.; Sabelli, C.; Serrani, A. (2004): The Coordinated Automatic Voltage Control of the Italian Transmission Grid—Part I: Reasons of the Choice and Overview of the
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[ENT21] © ENTSO-E 2021: ENTSO-E Continental Europe Synchronous Area Separation on 08 January 2021. Online verfügbar unter https://eepublicdownloads.azureedge.net/clean-
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[HUA21] Y. Huaidong; S. Jun; B. Jingjing (2021): A Method for Calculating Electrical Distance Between Nodes Based on Voltage-reactive Power Sensitivity. In: 2021 IEEE Sustainable Power and
Energy Conference (iSPEC). 2021 IEEE Sustainable Power and Energy Conference (iSPEC), S. 314–318.
[IEE17] G. Grigoras; B. -C. Neagu; F. Scarlatache; R. C. Ciobanu (2017): Identification of pilot nodes for secondary voltage control using K-means clustering algorithm. In: 2017 IEEE 26th
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[KIR23] Kiran Daware (2023): Methods of voltage control in power system | electricaleasy.com. Online verfügbar unter https://www.electricaleasy.com/2018/04/voltage-control-in-power-
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[LAG89] Lagonotte, P.; Sabonnadiere, J. C.; Leost, J.-Y.; Paul, J.-P. (1989): Structural analysis of the electrical system: application to secondary voltage control in France. In: IEEE Trans. Power
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[MAR06] Margotin, T.; Juston, P.; Houry, M. P. (2006): Les services système : l’expérience de RTE. In: J3eA 5, S. 6. DOI: 10.1051/j3ea:2006024.
[PAU20] Paul, J. P.; Leost, J. Y. (1987): Improvements of the Secondary Voltage Control in France (20). Online verfügbar unter
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C36D580AF14&originRegion=eu-west-1&originCreation=20230119091606.
Literature
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[RTE06] Margotin, T.; Juston, P.; Houry, M. P. (2006): Les services système : l’expérience de RTE. In: J3eA 5, S. 6. DOI: 10.1051/j3ea:2006024.
[RTE19] Schéma décennal de développement de réseau 2019 - Synthèse. Online verfügbar unter https://assets.rte-france.com/prod/public/2020-
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04 - Hierarchical Voltage Control Concepts R 1.0

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04 – Hierarchical Voltage Control Concepts

Main reasons for voltage drops

System Split European Grid

Source: [CIG07, ENT21]

Means for voltage control in power QU regulation

Source: [ABD20, COR04.1,COR04.2, KIR23, SAN96]

n water level = voltage

Primary Voltage Regulation Secondary Voltage Regulation Tertiary Voltage Regulation

n regulates the voltage of the generator bus

Source: [ABD20, COR04.1,COR04.2, KIR23, SAN96]

n to improve voltage security and

Source: [ABD20, COR04.1,COR04.2, KIR23, SAN96]

n response time: 50 s to 25 min

Source: [ABD20, COR04.1,COR04.2, KIR23, SAN96]

Source: [ABD20, COR04.1,COR04.2, KIR23, SAN96]

n minimize network losses, minimize generating costs and

Source: [ABD20, COR04.1,COR04.2, KIR23, SAN96]

Pilot node selection

Selection of the control generators

Source: [CIG07, COR04.1; COR04.2]

Taylor series expansion around a point xk , yk

Convert to calculate the arguments:

First step: Setting up the equations in polar coordinates

V1 =1 Slack has No. 1

Second step: Setting up the system of equations (analogous to procedure in

é DP ù é H N ù é Dδ ù This system of equations can

Node size vector: é P2k - P2,0 ù

n The electrical distance represents the degree of

new virtual bus for calculation

new virtual bus for calculation

Source: [COR04.1, COR04.2]

n fast and high-resolution measurements

Source: [COR04.1, COR04.2 ]

n Subdivision of the total transmission

Source: Cigré C4.602

n In the west, an extended regulation was

n future: voltage control necessary in the result of renewbles

Source: [COR04.1, COR04.2, REG23, VDN07 ]

Source: [COR04.1, COR04.2, REG23, VDN07]

column content format

Source: [SWI23, SWI23.2]

n All distribution networks directly connected to the transmission network

[SWI23] Swissgrid: grid-voltage-support: Swissgrid. Online verfügbar unter https://swissgrid.imgix.net/content/dam/swissgrid/customers/topics/ancillary-services/voltage-support/grid-voltage-

[USA21] Areas USA (2021). Online verfügbar unter https://drive.tiny.cloud/1/8cadf6pkwkhsiz9mruuj1hgybj2xd7ww2v1as8ktymfewkug/451b5c93-2c82-411c-a67f-10c464cf8388, zuletzt

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