ISSN 1061-8309, Russian Journal of Nondestructive Testing, 2023, Vol. 59, No. 2, pp. 129–140. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd.

, 2023.
Russian Text © The Author(s), 2023, published in Defektoskopiya, 2023, No. 2, pp. 3–15.

ACOUSTIC
METHODS

Reconstruction of Reflector Images at the Boundary of the Base

and Deposited Metal Using Plane Wave Imaging Technique
E. G. Bazulina,*
a
ECHO+ Research and Production Center, Moscow, 123458 Russia
*e-mail: bazulin@echoplus.ru
Received November 28, 2022; revised December 16, 2022; accepted December 23, 2022

Abstract—It is proposed to use plane wave imaging (PWI) technique for ultrasonic inspection
of welded joints with narrow groove preparation to detect cracks at the fusion interface of the base and
deposited metal. In comparison with the digital image focusing (DFA) method, this method allows
one to reconstruct images of reflectors with a higher signal-to-noise ratio and a higher speed of both
echo recording and image reconstruction of discontinuities according to various acoustic schemes tak-
ing into account the wave type transformation upon reflection from test object boundaries. Numerical
and model experiments have confirmed the effectiveness of using PWI technology to increase the
speed of zonal testing. The use of a coherence factor increased the signal-to-noise ratio of the crack
model images for both FMC and PWI modes.

Keywords: antenna array, dual scanning, full matrix capture (FMC), plane wave imaging (PWI),
C-SAFT, total focusing method (TFM), digital antenna focusing (DFA), zonal focusing, coherence
factor (CF)
DOI: 10.1134/S1061830923700237

1. INTRODUCTION
With automated ultrasound testing (AUST), there is a contradiction between achieving an extremely
high testing speed and the maximum probability of detecting defects [1]. In an attempt to obtain an
extremely high speed of AUST, fewer emitters and receivers are used in testing methods, scanning steps
are increased, spatial and temporal apertures of echo recording are reduced, and simple information pro-
cessing methods are used. However, at the same time, the probability of missing a defect or inaccurately
determining the type and size of a reflector increases. Depending on the testing method (production or
operational) and on the degree of technogenic hazard level of the test object (the body of a nuclear reactor
or the water pipes of a residential building), one has to choose the golden mean.
Currently, two techniques are widely used to reconstruct the image of reflectors in the test object—
phased array antenna (РАА) technique [2], which is by far the most common, and digital focusing
antenna (DFA) technique [3]. In the paper [4], devoted to the comparison of the capabilities of PAA
and DFA flaw detectors, it is concluded that DFA technology is more promising from an algorithmic
point of view.
An effective way to detect a vertically oriented crack is to work with echo signals reflected from its sur-
face using two piezoelectric transducers with an odd number of pulse reflections from the boundaries
of the test object. Such pulses occur with straight-beam incidence of the probing pulse on a crack and
detection of the echo signal reflected once from the test object bottom (echo-mirror method “tandem”).
In the future, by an acoustic scheme, designated as as, we will mean a description of the beam trajectory
of the pulse propagation from the emitter to the reflector and to the receiver when reflected from uneven
test object boundaries taking into account wave type transformation. The acoustic scheme will be defined
by a sequence of letters L (longitudinal wave), T (vertically polarized transverse wave), and d (reflection
from discontinuity). The “tandem” testing can be carried out using various acoustic schemes, for exam-
ple, TTdT or LLdT [5]. The designation of the acoustic circuit shown in Fig. 1 will be the TLTdTT.
When making welded joints in main pipelines, in addition to meeting the requirements for the reliabil-
ity of determining vertically oriented cracks, it is necessary to ensure a high speed of ultrasonic inspection,
comparable to the speed of welding. Zonal testing systems that implement this approach using a variety of
traditional single-element transducers operating using the “tandem” method have been developed since

129
130 BAZULIN

Welded joint
center

z Image
reconstruction
xw area (IRA)

Fig. 1. Scheme for recording echo signals in FMC mode using a wedge.

the mid-1950s and have been widely used in practice since the 1980s. In the 2000s, with the development
of multichannel electronics, a high-speed implementation of the same testing schemes became possible,
but with the use of antenna arrays (AAs). The paper [6] provides an overview of the standards for the use
of AUST of pipeline welds with the use of zonal testing. However, the PAA zonal testing has a number
of disadvantages, which include the complexity of setting up channels before monitoring. In addition,
the reliability of testing strongly depends on variations in both the thickness of the test object and the loca-
tion of the AA relative to the middle of the welded joint due to the requirement that the echo signal from
the crack fall within the limits of a given gate.
The paper [7] proposes to use DFA technology for zonal testing, since this approach allows obtaining
a high-quality image of reflectors according to many acoustic schemes, according to which the crack size
can be estimated with an accuracy of approximately half the wavelength [8–12]. Unlike the methods based
only on analyzing the echo signal amplitude, the DFA technology reduces the influence of the defect ori-
entation and shape on the measurement result when using an optimal set of acoustic schemes [13].
The accuracy of determining the dimensions of flat-bottomed holes at a frequency of 5 MHz is estimated
in the paper [7] at 0.2 mm, while the PAA-zonal testing allows one to achieve an accuracy of approxi-
mately 1 mm, which is equal to approximately 1.5 transverse wave lengths in steel. However, the speed of
DFA testing may not be high enough, with such a testing technology being more suitable for operational
testing; therefore, the task of increasing the speed of recording echo signals, reconstructing the image of
reflectors, and preparing the testing protocol is relevant.
The paper [14] provides a brief overview of methods for increasing the speed of recording echo signals
using AAs. A promising method is to record echoes in the plane wave imaging (PWI) mode [15–17],
which was developed for recording AA echoes with a large number of elements. A plane wave with a given
angle of incidence is emitted by all AA elements into the test object, just as in the PAA technique, and echo
signals are recorded by all AA elements, just as in the full matrix capture (FMC) mode [18]. The measured
echo signals, by analogy with the DFA technology, will also be called a shot. The partial image of the
reflectors is reconstructed based on echo signals in the shot. To improve the image quality, several, N pw ,
plane waves are sequentially emitted into the test object and all partial images are combined. The PWI
mode has a number of advantages. Since approximately 10 plane waves can be used for recording
( N pw = 10), the speed of recording echo signals, in comparison with the FMC mode, increases with the
number of elements in the AA. In the FMC mode with N e = 64 , the number of measured echoes is equal
to N e2 = 4096 , and for the PWI mode, N e N pw = 640, the speed of their recording increases by approxi-
mately 6.4 times. For an AA of 128 elements, the speed of recording echo signals increases by approxi-
mately 13 times. Since one of the plane waves is formed by all AA elements, the acoustic energy transmit-
ted to the medium is greater than in the FMC mode. Therefore, the PWI mode is more noise-proof when
testing objects with high absorption.
In the present paper, in order to solve the urgent problem of increasing the speed of AUST of welded
joints with narrow groove preparation and identify cracks at the fusion boundary between the base and

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 RECONSTRUCTION OF REFLECTOR IMAGES AT THE BOUNDARY 131

deposited metal, it is proposed to use PWI technology. In comparison with the DFA method, the pro-
posed method allows one to reconstruct reflector images with a higher signal-to-noise ratio and a higher
speed of both recording echo signals and reconstructing the image of discontinuities according to various
acoustic schemes taking into account wave type transformation upon reflection from test object bound-
aries.

2. COMPARISON OF FMC AND PWI TECHNIQUES

Reconstruction of reflector images using FMC and PWI techniques occurs in two stages. At the first
stage, probing pulses are emitted and echo signals are recorded, and at the second stage, the image of
reflectors is reconstructed from the measured echo signals. For simplicity, we will consider the problem
in the two-dimensional case.

2.1. Recording Echo Signals

2.1.1. FMC mode. To describe the problem geometry, we introduce a coordinate system ( x, z ) in which
calculations will be performed (see Fig. 1). The center of the AA emitting element no. m is described by
the vector rt,m , and the center of the receiving element no. n is described by the vector rt,n . The wedge
can be shifted along the x-axis by a distance xw . The boundary between the base and deposited metal is
marked by the dotted black line, and two cracks along the boundary are shown by thickened lines of
black color. The image reconstruction area (IRA) is depicted by a rectangle with black border and trans-
lucent pink fill.1
Consider, for example, the LTLdTT acoustic scheme, in which in the FMC mode, the first AA ele-
ment at point rt,1 emits a probing signal. In Fig. 1, three polygons with green and red translucent fill show
the propagation areas of the probing pulse taking into account two reflections from the test object bound-
ary and wave type transformation. Segments of circles of green color schematically show the fronts of the
radiated longitudinal wave. In what follows, longitudinal wave rays will be marked in green in the figures,
and vertically polarized transverse wave rays will be marked in red. In the IRA, irradiation of two cracks
is generally equal, since a “cylindrical” wave distorted by a wide directional pattern of the AA element
is incident upon them. In Fig. 1, two red arrows schematically show the trajectory of the echo signal after
the mirror scattering of a longitudinal wave on the surface of the upper crack and with a single reflection
of the transverse wave from the test object bottom. The set of echo signals measured by all AA elements
will be called the first shot. The radiation and recording procedure is repeated for all AA elements.
The echoes of all shots will be called a volley. Longitudinal wave rays in the wedge are not shown.
Figure 1 schematically shows rays with the mirror scattering of a longitudinal wave on the lower crack
according to the LTLdLT acoustic scheme. Thus, in the FMC mode, it is possible to record echo signals
from two cracks using two acoustic schemes, ideally for all shots.
As mentioned earlier, the measured N e2 echo signals may have a sufficiently large volume, for example,
more than several tens of MB. Transferring them between the modules of a DFA flaw detector may require
considerable time, thus reducing the scanning and, consequently, testing speed.
2.1.2. PWI mode. The description of the measurement geometry in the PWI mode according to the
LTLdTT acoustic scheme coincides with the geometry described in Subsection 2.1.1. A plane wave with a
wave vector k t [16, 17] is simultaneously emitted into the test object, as in the PAA technology, by all AA
elements [16, 17] (Fig. 2). Since a plane wave is formed in a limited volume of space, this leads to pecu-
liarities of operation in the PWI mode. Figure 2 schematically shows propagation domains of a plane wave
taking into account two reflections from the test object boundary and wave type transformation. It can be
seen that a plane probing wave does not fall on the lower crack. Therefore, to improve the image quality, it is
necessary to sequentially emit several, N pw , plane waves, i.e., record N pw shots. It is clear that the larger
the size of the antenna array, the less significant this feature of the PWI mode is. For the PWI mode, it is
very important to choose the parameters of the IRA where reflectors may reside, and a set of plane wave
angles, which do not necessarily have to be equidistant.
Note that for any wedge, it is possible to calculate delays that form a set of plane longitudinal waves.
It is clear that a set of plane transverse waves with smaller input angles will also be generated. This mode
will be denoted by PWI-L. One can calculate delays for the formation of plane transverse waves (PWI-T)
that will form the set of longitudinal plane waves up to the first critical angle.
1 Color version of figures is available online.

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132 BAZULIN

z
xw

x
kt

Fig. 2. Scheme for recording echo signals in PWI mode using a wedge.

In conclusion of this section, we note that the recording of echo signals in the PWI mode combines the
best aspects of the PAA and DFA techniques. Radiation occurs by all AA elements, just as in the PAA
mode; this ensures that the same energy is injected into the test object for one plane wave per radiation
cycle, as for the full volley in the DFA mode, but for N e radiation cycles. To increase the speed of record-
ing echo signals and reduce image reconstruction time, approximately 10 plane waves can be used; this
further increases the signal-to-noise ratio.

2.2. Methods of Reconstruction of Reflector Images

2.2.1. In the time domain. At the second stage, the image of reflectors is reconstructed based on the
measured echo signals by the combined SAFT (C-SAFT) [19]. The C-SAFT is called the total focusing
method (TFM) in the literature on ultrasonic testing [20].
Let the AA be located at point rw and let the recording of echo signals p ( rt,m, rr ,n, t ) be carried out in the
FMC mode. Before the image is reconstructed, the measured echoes are usually translated into a complex
form using the Hilbert transform. Let us denote by I m ( ri , rw ) the complex FMC image reconstructed at
the points ri of the IRA based on the shot no. m , i.e., based on the echo signals measured by all AA ele-
ments when emitted by the element no. m . Then the usual DFA image can be obtained by coherently add-
ing up all the images by shots,
Ne
I S (ri ; as, rw ) = I
m =1
m (ri ; as, rw ), (1)

where N e is the number of AA elements, and the partial image is calculated using the formula
Ne
I m(ri ; as, rw ) =  p(r
n =1
t,m, rr ,n, t − tdel (rt,m, rr ,n, ri ; as) + tmax ), (2)

tdel ( rr , rt , ri ; as ) is the pulse travel time from emitter rt to point ri and to receiver rr for a given acoustic
scheme as , and tmax is the pulse rise time. To calculate the pulse travel time along the radial trajectory,
the tracing method was used in [21]; it allows one to calculate delay times for an object consisting of sev-
eral regions with different acoustic properties.
However, it is possible to combine partial shot images I m ( ri ; as, rw ) in other ways. For example, it is possible
to calculate the coherence factor [22, 23] for each point ri of a set of shot-by-shot images
Ne
I CF (ri ; as, rw ) = CF (I m(ri ; as, rw )), (3)
m =1

and consider the following function as the reconstructed image:

I (ri ; as, rw ) = I S (ri ; as, rw )I CF (ri ; as, rw ). (4)

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 RECONSTRUCTION OF REFLECTOR IMAGES AT THE BOUNDARY 133

This representation of the testing results is possible due to an important property of the coherence fac-
tor that consists in the absence of noise, the amplitudes of I CF ( ri ; as, rw ) of the flares of reflectors of dif-
ferent strengths are close to one. Therefore, the amplitudes of the image flares obtained using formula (1)
or (4) will be approximately the same. This approach makes it possible to increase the signal-to-noise ratio
and resolution of reflector images.
In the triple scanning mode when the AA scans, the final image can be obtained using formulas (1) or
(4), but N p images I S ( ri ; as, rw ) or I CF ( ri ; as, rw ) reconstructed for each position of the AA will be used as
partial images,
Np
I (ri ; as) =  I (r ; as, r
p =1
i w, p ). (5)

It is clear that the above is also suitable for improving image quality when recording echo signals in the
PWI mode. To do this, in formula (1), summation is performed over the number N pw of plane waves used,
and the calculation of delays in formula (2) is carried out under the assumption that the plane wave is
emitted by all elements of the array with given delays. Note that the modulus of a complex image is usually
analyzed.
2.2.2. In the domain of spatial frequencies. To reconstruct the image of reflectors from echo signals
measured both in the FMC mode and in the PWI mode, calculations from the time domain can be trans-
ferred to the spatial frequency domain [17, 24]. Since in this case, the Fourier transform becomes the main
operation that can be performed using the fast Fourier transform technique, the image reconstruction
speed can be considerably increased, especially for large sizes of the IRA and a large number of AA ele-
ments. However, such an algorithm requires serious modification to take into account reflection of pulses
from uneven test object boundaries with allowance for the effect of wave type transformation. Typically,
images in the frequency domain are obtained with the LdL, LdT, TdL, and TdT acoustic schemes.

3. CALCULATION OF SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO

Accurate calculation of the signal-to-noise ratio of an image is a nontrivial task, since there is no way
to separate an ideal image from noise. Therefore, in this paper, the signal-to-noise ratio is defined as
I max − I cut
SNR = 20 log , (6)
I cut
where I max is the maximum modulus of the fragment of the reconstructed image, I cut is the average value
of the image modulus without taking into account samples around the flare with a maximum amplitude
exceeding the level of 0.1. This approach is approximate and therefore does not allow one to work with
highly noisy images and requires that there be only one reflector flare in the selected image fragment.

4. NUMERICAL EXPERIMENTS
To test the proposed method of zonal testing and its software implementation, echo signals calculated
according to the theory of ray tubes in a solid using the CIVA program were used [25]. It was assumed that
echo signals from a 3.5 mm high crack with a slope angle of 7° are recorded by an antenna array (5 MHz,
64 elements with dimensions of 0.55 × 10 mm, the gap between the edges of the elements is 0.05 mm)
mounted on a 35-degree Rexolite® wedge with an approach of 40°. The field calculation in the FMC and
PWI-L modes was carried out taking into account the effect of wave type transformation upon reflection
from the boundaries for 5 positions of the wedge, which moved in 5 mm increments along its front face
starting from the point –30 mm (triple scanning mode). In Fig. 1, the wedge is schematically shown at the
farthest point xw = −30 mm. It is advisable to use such an approach to reconstruct the image of reflectors
when, for maximum testing reliability, it is necessary to obtain a high-quality image, regardless of time
costs, for example, when conducting operational testing of responsible energy facilities.
In what follows, the image reconstructed by formulas (1) and (2) from the echo signals measured
in the FMC mode will be designated as an FMC image. The image reconstructed taking into account
the coherence factor according to formulas (4) and (5) will be designated as an FMC-CF image.
The letter X will be added to the name of an image reconstructed in the triple scanning mode, for
example, FMC-X-image. Images reconstructed from echo signals measured in the PWI mode will be
designated according using the same principle.

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134 BAZULIN

(a) (b)
7 45
5 6 5 40
35 Ghost flare
10 5 10 30
z, mm

z, mm
4 25
15 3 15 20
Ghost flare 2 15
20 20 10
1 5
25 0 25 0
10 5 0 5 10 5 0 5
x, mm x, mm

Fig. 3. FMC-CF-X-image (a) and PWI-L-CF-X-image (b) reconstructed according to the LTLdTT acoustic scheme for
all shots.

Figure 3a shows an FMC-CF-X image reconstructed with the LTLdTT acoustic scheme based on five
AA positions by the echo signals of the volley (the total number of shots is 320). The center of the figure
dispays an icon of the acoustic scheme. The reconstructed image is of fairly high quality, since the image
of the crack in the form of a flare of its surface is clearly visible and the amplitudes of the two ghost flares
have an amplitude of approximately –26 dB. The crack is highlighted in the figure by black line. Fig-
ure 3b shows a PWI-L-CF-X image reconstructed from five AA positions using 31 plane waves (the total
number of shots, i.e., plane waves, is 155) with the same acoustic scheme. The resulting image is somewhat
worse than the FMC-CF-X image, since it contains more ghost flares, and therefore, the PWI-L-CF-X image
has a signal-to-noise ratio of 8 dB less.
To decimate shots, one can use the method described in the paper [26], but in this paper, we used the
regular decimation of both shots in the FMC mode and plane waves in the PWI-L mode. Figure 4a shows
an FMC-CF-X image reconstructed from five AA positions with decimation every 8 shots for each posi-
tion (the total number of shots is 40). Compared to the image in Fig. 3a, the level of ghost flares and their
number increased, and the signal-to-noise ratio decreased by 17 dB. Figure 4b shows a PWI-L-CF-X
image reconstructed from 4 plane waves for each AA position (the total number of shots is 20). Compared
to the image in Fig. 3b, the quality of the PWI-L-CF-X image has not changed much, but when compar-
ing it with the FMC-CF-X image in Fig. 4a, the signal-to-noise ratio of the PWI-L-CF-X image is 5 dB
higher.
Thus, in the triple scanning mode, only 20 plane waves had to be emitted to form a PWI-L-CF-X
image at five AA positions. The reconstructed FMC-CF-X image of 40 shots for five positions has a sig-
nal-to-noise ratio of 5 dB less. To obtain an FMC-CF-X image with the same ratio as the PWI-L-CF-X
image in Fig. 3b, one needs to decimate the shots twice, i.e., use 160 shots.

5. MODEL EXPERIMENTS
Model experiments were carried out using the AVGUR ART DFA flaw detector, developed and man-
ufactured at ECHO+ Research and Production Center [27]. Five flat-bottomed holes (FBHs) with
a diameter of 2 mm were located along the entire thickness of a St20 steel sample in different positions
along the y -axis, directed along the “welded joint.” The sample thickness was 20 mm. The slope of the
bottom of the FBH was equal to 7°, a value that is a characteristic value of the groove preparation angle
for automatic welding technologies used when assembling pipelines. The AA was located on a wedge at
a distance of xw = −20 mm from the “welded joint” center.

5.1. Antenna Array of 64 Elements with Step 0.6 mm

Echo signals were recorded by an AA (5 MHz, 64 elements, piezoelectric element dimensions
0.55 × 10 mm, the gap between the elements 0.05 mm) mounted on a 35-degree Rexolite® wedge with an
approach of 40 mm. Measurements in the FMC mode were carried out with a gain of 40 dB, and in the
PWI-T mode, with a gain of 20 dB. The amplitude of the probing pulse was equal to 100 V.

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 RECONSTRUCTION OF REFLECTOR IMAGES AT THE BOUNDARY 135

(a) (b)
0.9 6
0.8
5 5 5
0.7
10 0.6 10 4
z, mm

z, mm
0.5
3
15 0.4 15
0.3 2
20 0.2 20
1
0.1
25 0 25 0
10 5 0 5 10 5 0 5
x, mm x, mm

Fig. 4. FMC-CF-X-image (a) and PWI-L-CF-X-image (b) reconstructed according to the LTLdTT acoustic scheme
for 40 shots and 20 plane waves.

(a) (b)
3.5 8000
5 3.0 5 7000
Ghost flare 6000
2.5
10 10
z, mm

z, mm
5000
2.0
4000
15 1.5 15
3000
1.0
20 20 2000
0.5 1000
25 0 25 0
10 5 0 5 10 5 0 5
x, mm x, mm

Fig. 5. FMC-image reconstructed from 64 shots (a) and PWI-T-image reconstructed from 11 angles (b) (acoustic scheme
TLLdTT).

Figure 5a shows an FMC image of FBH no. 1 at a depth of 5 mm reconstructed from the echo signals
of a full volley, and Fig. 5b shows a PWI-T image reconstructed from 11 plane waves (acoustic scheme
TLLdTT, pictogram of which is shown in the center of the figure). The images are quite close to each other
and have a signal-to-noise ratio of approximately 31 dB, despite the fact that the PWI-T image is recon-
structed using 11 plane waves, which is almost six times less than the 64 shots used to obtain the FMC
image.
The proximity of the FMC and PWI-T images suggests that the positioning accuracy of the antenna
array relative to the center of the welded joint is not as critical as with PAA-zonal testing [7].
The FBH images nos. from 2 to 5 are not given, as they are similar to those shown in Fig. 5. Thus, to
reconstruct a PWI-T image comparable in quality to an FMC image, it takes six times less time to record
echo signals and, consequently, to reconstruct the image of reflectors.
Figure 6 shows the graphs of the amplitude of flares of five 2-mm–diameter FBHs for four acoustic
schemes reconstructed in the FMC (a) and PWI-T (b) modes. For the FMC mode, the TLLdTT scheme
(yellow line) is optimal, since it has the largest amplitudes of FBH flares and their difference does not
exceed 1 dB. This means that the gain of the receiving path of the flaw detector before the inspection can
be adjusted according to a tuning sample with one FBH. A good result is obtained for the acoustic circuit
TTTdTL (gray line)—flare amplitudes decreased by approximately 30%, and the difference in flare
amplitudes is less than 2 dB. For the PWI-T mode, the TTTdTL scheme (gray line) turned out to be opti-

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136 BAZULIN

(a) (b)
FMC PWI-T
70000 40000
60000 35000
50000 30000
40000 25000
30000 20000
20000 TTdT
15000 TTdT
TTdL TTdL
10000 TTTdTL 10000 TTTdTL
TLLdTT TLLdTT
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
FBH no. FBH no.

Fig. 6. Graph of the flare amplitude of five FBHs with diameter 2 mm for four acoustic schemes reconstructed in FMC
(a) and PWI-T (b) mode.

mal, since it generally has large amplitudes of flares and their difference does not exceed 2 dB. A good
result is obtained for the acoustic scheme TLLdTT (yellow line)—the flare amplitude decreased by
approximately 40%, and the difference in flare amplitudes is less than 3 dB.

5.2. Antenna Array of 64 Elements with Step 1 mm

In the following experiment, to reduce the effect of a limited area of formation by a plane wave on the
image (see Fig. 2), echo signals were recorded by an AA (5 MHz, 64 elements, the size of the piezoelectric
element 0.9 × 10 mm, the gap between the elements 0.1 mm) mounted on a 35-degree Rexolite® wedge
with a 52 mm approach, located at a distance of xw = −20 mm.
5.2.1. Probing signal with 100 V amplitude. Measurements in the FMC mode were carried out with
a gain of 40 dB, and in the PWI-T mode, with a gain of 20 dB. The amplitude of the probing pulse was
equal to 100 V. Figure 7a shows an FMC image of FBH no. 1 reconstructed by a full volley, and Fig. 7b
shows a PWI-T image reconstructed by 11 plane waves (acoustic scheme TLLdTT). The images are quite
close to each other and have a signal-to-noise ratio of approximately 32 dB, despite the fact that the
PWI-T image is reconstructed using 11 plane waves, a figure that is almost six times fewer than the 64 shots
used to produce the FMC image. The use of a larger aperture array increases the resolution of images and
reduces the amplitude of ghost flares; this can be seen when comparing the images in Figs. 5 and 7.
Figure 8 shows images similar to those shown in Fig. 7 but with the coherence factor taken into account
during image reconstruction. The images in Fig. 8 are close to each other, but compared to Fig. 7, the sig-
nal-to-noise ratio increased by more than 20 dB. The amplitude of the ghost flare at the sample surface
in Fig. 8b decreased.
As mentioned in the paper [7], the image of FBH bottom can be obtained using several acoustic
schemes. Figure 9 shows the FMC-CF image for the TTTdTT acoustic scheme, which, due to the fact
that only a transverse wave propagates on each segment of the beam, has a resolution twice as high as for
the TLLdTT acoustic scheme (see Fig. 8a). However, near the surface, there is a ghost flare of an ampli-
tude of approximately –8 dB from the FBH flare, and echo signals for all other acoustic schemes form
noise of the order of –16 dB from the FBH flare.
5.2.2. Probing signal with 10 V amplitude. The following model experiment was carried out in order to
show greater resistance of the PWI mode to white noise. Measurements in the FMC mode were carried
out with a gain of 60 dB, and in the PWI-T mode, with a gain of 54 dB. The amplitude of the probing pulse
was equal to 10 V. Figure 10a shows a partial FMC image reconstructed with the TLLdTT acoustic scheme
based on echo signals of shot 59; the flare of FBH no. 1 cannot be detected on this image. Figure 10b
shows a partial PWI-T image reconstructed from echo signals when emitting a single plane wave with an
angle of incidence of 31°; the flare of FBH No. 1 can be confidently detected on this image, since it has a
signal-to-noise ratio of approximately 28 dB.
Figure 11a shows an FMC image of FBH no. 1, reconstructed based on echo signals of a full volley
(acoustic scheme TLLdTT). In contrast to Fig. 10a, due to the effect of averaging over-shot I m ( ri ; as, rw )
images, the signal-to-noise ratio increased in this figure to 25 dB; this made it possible to detect the flare
of FBH no. 1. Figure 11b shows a PWI-T image reconstructed from 11 plane waves. This image is quite
close to the image obtained from the radiation of a single plane wave (see Fig. 10a). This result suggests

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(a) (b)
8 18000
5 5 16000
7
6 14000
10 10 12000
5
z, mm

z, mm
10000
4
15 15 8000
3
6000
20 2 20 4000
1 2000
25 0 25 0
10 5 0 5 10 5 0 5
x, mm x, mm

Fig. 7. FMC-image reconstructed from 64 shots (a) and PWI-T-image reconstructed from 11 angles (b) (acoustic
scheme TLLdTT).

(a) (b)
3.5 6
5 5
3.0 5
Ghost flare
2.5
10 10 4
z, mm

z, mm

2.0
3
15 1.5 15
2
1.0
20 20
0.5 1

25 0 25 0
10 5 0 5 10 5 0 5
x, mm x, mm

Fig. 8. FMC-CF-image reconstructed from 64 shots (a) and PWI-T-CF-image reconstructed from 11 angles (b) (acoustic
scheme TLLdTT).

Ghost flare 5 5
Noise of all
4
previous 10
z, mm

acoustic schemes
3
15
2
20
1

25 0
10 5 0 5
x, mm

Fig. 9. FMC-CF image for acoustic scheme 9 (TTTdTT).

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138 BAZULIN

(a) (b)
500 6000

5 450 5 5000
400
350 4000
10 10
300
z, mm

z, mm
250 3000
15 15 Ghost flare
200
2000
150
20 100 20
1000
50
25 0 25 0
10 5 0 5 10 5 0 5
x, mm x, mm

Fig. 10. Partial FMC image for shot 59 (a) and partial PWI-T images for plane wave with angle 31° (b) (acoustic
scheme TLLdTT).

(a) (b)
8000 16000
5 5 14000
7000

6000 12000
10 10
z, mm

z, mm

5000 10000

4000 8000
15 15
3000 6000

20 2000 20 4000

1000 2000

25 0 25 0
10 5 0 5 10 5 0 5
x, mm x, mm

Fig. 11. FMC-image reconstructed from 64 shots (a) and PWI-T-image reconstructed from 11 angles (b) (acoustic
scheme TLLdTT).

that the selection of a set of plane wave angles is an important procedure—to obtain approximately the
same noise level, only one plane wave can be used (see Fig. 10b), but to reduce the amplitude of the ghost
flare, approximately 10 plane waves are needed (see Fig. 11b). The obtained result demonstrates higher
immunity of the PWI mode to white noise.

CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can thus be drawn based on the results of research set forth in this article:
1. In a numerical experiment in the triple scanning mode, it took only 20 plane waves to generate
a PWI-L-CFX image for five AA positions. It took 160 shots to obtain an FMC-CF image with the same
signal-to-noise ratio.
2. The conducted model experiments show that approximately 10 angles of plane wave radiation with
a step of 1° can be used in the PWI-T mode for a 64-element antenna array with a step of 1 mm. A similar
image in the FMC mode can be obtained using 64 shots. This means that the speed of recording echoes
in the PWI mode can be increased by 6.4 times compared to the FMC mode. For a 128-element antenna
array, the advantages of the PWI mode over the FMC mode will be even more noticeable.

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 RECONSTRUCTION OF REFLECTOR IMAGES AT THE BOUNDARY 139

3. The accuracy of positioning the antenna array relative to the center of the welded joint for PWI test-
ing is not as critical as for PAA-zonal testing.
4. The set of acoustic schemes is determined and the variant of decimating a shot for the FMC mode
or a set of plane waves for the PWI mode to reduce the volume of measured echo signals is chosen when
developing a method for monitoring a specific test object.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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