PETROLEUMEXPLORATIONANDDEVELOPMENT Available ect.

com

Volume50,Issue February2023
http://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/petroleum-exploration-and-development ScienceDirect
Cite this article as:PETROL.EXPLOR.DEVELOP., 2023. 50(1):183-190 RESEARCHPAPER

A 3D attention U-Net network and its application in

geological model parameterization
LI Xiaobol,2, *, LI Xin* 2, YAN Lin'2, ZHOU Tenghual 2, LI Shunming, WANG Jiqiang", LI Xinhaol, ?
1. AI Research Center, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina, Beijing 100083, China;
2. Artificial Intelligence Technology R & D Center for Exploration and Development, CNPC, Beijing 100083, China;
3. Department
partment of of Oilfield
Oilfield Development,
Development, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina, Beijing 10o083,
10oo83, Chin
China

Abstract: To solve the problems of convolutional neural network-principal component analysis (CNN-PCA) in fine description
and generalization of complex reservoir geological features, a 3D attention U-Net network was proposed not using a trained
C3D video motion analysis model to extract the style of a 3D model, and applied to complement the details of geologic model
lost in the dimension reduction of PCA method in this study. The 3D attention U-Net network was applied to a complex river
channel sandstone reservoir to test its effects. The results show that compared with CNN-PCA method, the 3D attention U-Net
network could better complement the details of geological model lost in the PCA dimension reduction, better reflect the fluid
flow features in the original geologic model, and improve history matching results.
Key words: reservoir history matching; geological model parameterization; deep learning; attention mechanism; 3D U-Net

Introduction and its variants, discrete wavelet transform (DWT), dis-

For reservoir history matching, the computational cost
will be increased significantly with the refinement of
geological model, the increase of uncertainty factors and
the complexing of research problems [1-21. One of the pro-
posed ways to solve the above problem is to use proxy
models [3] to improve the computational efficiency of res-
ervoir history matching. Another way is to use the geo-
logical parameterization technology to map the highly
correlated model parameters from the high-dimensional
spaces to the low-dimensional ones, so as to reduce the
computational cost of reservoir history matching signifi-
cantly. The technical challenge of geological parameteri-
zation is to retain detailed geological features while re-
ducing the parameter dimension of the original geologi-
cal model as much as possible.
Three types of geological parameterization techniques
have been developed for reservoir history matching. The
first type of the parameterization techniques is to reduce
the parameter dimension of the original geological model
based on traditional mathematical transformation
methods, including principal component analysis (PCA)
crete cosine transform (DCT), level set function (Level-
Set), etc. [4-9]. These methods have their different advan-
tages and disadvantages. The PCA method, as the most
common method, achieves linear dimensional reduction
by sorting the eigenvalues of the covariance matrix, and
its disadvantage is that the covariance cannot directly
deal with the geological model with multi-point statistical
characteristics. The second type of the parameterization
techniques convert the parameters of the original geo-
logical model into the internal low-dimensional latent
variables of network model by using the deep learning
network model, such as autoencoder (AE), variational
autoencoder (VAE), deep belief network (DBN), genera-
tive adversarial networks (GAN), etc. [10-13]. These tech-
nologies generally have shortcomings such as strong data
dependence and poor interpretability. The third type of
the parameterization techniques is to combine traditional
mathematical transformation methods, especially PCA
methods, with deep learning models, such as convolutional
neural network (CNN)-PCA, PCA-Cycle-GAN, etc. [9, 14-15].
These methods use the PCA method to reduce the di-
mension, and then use the trained deep learning model

Receiveddate:28May2022;Reviseddate:28Dec.2022.
* Corresponding author.E-mail:lxb1980@petrochina.com.cn
Foundation item: Supported by the China National Oil and Gas Major Project (2016ZX05010-003); PetroChina Science and Technology Major Project
(2019B1210,2021DJ1201).
ntups:/aoi.org/1 J4(22J0U379-3
Copyright 2023, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development Co Ld. CNPC(RIPED).PublishingServicesprovidedbyElsevierB.V.on
behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.o/).
 LI Xiaoboetal. PetroieumExpiorationand
to complement the geological feature information lost
during the PCA dimensional reduction, so as to cover the
shortage of the PCA method that it cannot directly deal
with the geological model with multi-point statistical
characteristics.
Liu et al. [9, 14] proposed a technical framework of
CNN-PCA for parameterization of 3D complex geological
models. Based on PCA dimensional reduction, this tech-
nology introduces the residual network (ResNet) model
to complement the model details lost during the PCA
dimensional reduction. In a specific implementation, Liu
et al. [9,141 also used a loss function combining geological
image content, style, and well point hard data to quanti-
tatively evaluate the training effect of network model,
where the geological image style is extracted layer by
layer through a pre-trained C3D network model. In this
paper, further research on the 3D complex channel sand-
stone reservoir model shows that there is still a large loss
of channel course and channel sand body edges after the
details of PCA dimensional reduction model are com-
plemented by using the ResNet model. In addition, in the
network model training, the pre-trained C3D network
model is used to extract image style features layer by
layer, which has the problems of poor interpretability and
the risk of later migration and application of geological
models in complex sedimentary environments.
In view of the above problems, this paper does not use
the pre-trained C3D network model to extract the style
features of the 3D model, but adopts a new loss function
and introduces a 3D U-Net network model with an atten-
tion mechanism to better complement model details lost
during PCA dimensional reduction. Taking a complex
channel sandstone reservoir model as an example, the
application effects of CNN-PCA and the technology pro-
posed in this paper are compared and analyzed.
1. 3D attention U-Net network model and its
corresponding loss function
The 3D U-Net network model is one of the more suc-
cessful 3D image segmentation network models in the
field of biomedical image intelligence l6-17. The network
contains a convolutional part and an upsampling part.
The convolutional part consists of 3 coding blocks, and
the network layers of the convolutional part and the up-
sampling part have a one-to-one correlation. Therefore,
the correlated feature layers can be connected for com-
putation by concat, so that the semantic features of the
input model lost during downsampling can be passed to
the upsampling layer, fusing the multi-scale features, so
as to calculate the features of each layer effectively and
improve the image segmentation capability significantly.
Essentially, the 3D U-Net network model is still a neural
network model based on the encoder-decoder model frame-
work, which also suffers from the inherent problems of
184-
velopment,2023,50(1):183-190
this framework, i.e., all the inputs have the same impact
on the intermediate semantic vectors without distinguish-
ing the focus, and the inputs in the earlier stage of con-
tinuous input tend to lose a lot of detailed information. In
view of this, the introduction of an attention mechanism
to improve the performance of 3D U-Net network model
has become a focus of attention for many scholars [18-20].
After a comparative study, this paper adopts the “gating
signal” attention mechanism proposed by Oktay et al. [19]
to improve the prediction accuracy of the 3D U-Net net-
work model. Specifically, the number of channels at each
level is 64, 128, 256, 512, and 1024. Before feature concat
is performed on the encoder of each layer and the corre-
sponding decoder, a “gating signal" attention module is
used to adjust the output of the encoder, so as to improve
the prediction accuracy of the network. Experiments
show that this “gating signal" attention mechanism has
less workload to modify the structure of the 3D U-Net
network model, significantly improves the network's at-
tention to important features, and inhibits the learning of
irrelevant features, thereby improves sensitivity and ac-
curacy of the 3D U-Net network model.
The “gating signal" attention mechanism is shown in
Fig. 1, where g is the gating signal, xi is the input signal,
and Wg, W, y are the convolution kernels. g superimposes
the information with coarse information scale to xi to
eliminate the features with weaker correlation in the skip
connection and highlight the important features, so as to
obtain the attention coefficient α by learning, and then
multiply it with Xi to get the feature vector x, for concat.
When training the ResNet model, Liu et al. [9 14] used
the pre-trained C3D network model to extract the style
features of the 3D geological model images layer by layer,
and also generated some disturbance models to partici-
pate in the training in order to improve the training ef-
fect. Through the experiment, it is found that the training
efficiency and performance of this method need to be
further improved. In addition, there are some problems
such as poor interpretability of C3D network and risk of
later migration and application. Therefore, this paper
replaces the pre-trained C3D network with a loss function
that combines both Tversky loss and hard data loss to
perform the 3D U-Net network model training, and the
loss function is formulated as:
L=yL[mm, f (mea.)] + nL[mm,f(mpea,)] (1)
In this study, the geological concept of the model was
further considered, and the Tversky loss [201 was calculated
vertically according to the geological layer and then
9W,; 1×1×1
ReLU Sigmoid Resampler
Function :1×1×1 Function Function
W:1×1×1
Fig. 1. “Gating signal" attention mechanism.
 LI Xiaobo et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2023, 50(1): 183-190

summed while both precision and recall rate were con-
sidered as well. And it showed good performance in the
experiment. Specifically, we have:
T (2)
where T, = mm.u.f.(mpea.),
Fr., = mm.1 - f. (mpeal.)
Fr., = (1 - mm,j,) (mpea,i.)
After several experiments, a set of network hyper-
parameter combinations with better effect were selected.
Specifically, the number of channels in each layer is set to
64, 128, 512, and 1024, the number of intermediate chan-
nels in the attention gate is half of the corresponding
channel, the weight of the loss function is set to =500,
Mh=80, and the coefficient in the Tversky loss is set to
αt=0.5. The values of the above hyperparameters make
the Tversky loss and the hard data loss close in value at
the beginning of training and have a sufficient order of
magnitude to reduce the risk of falling into a local opti-
mum. In this paper, 1o rounds of model training were run
on this case, and the training process took 4 h in total.
The change of the loss function is shown in Fig. 2, which
meets the convergence requirements in the later stage of
training.
200
160
120
80
40
0 2 4 6
Numberofiteration
Fig.2.The change of the loss function values with the
numberofiterationnumbers.
Layer 1 Layer2
0 0
2. Case analysis
In this paper, a case of composite channel sandstone
reservoir was used for comparative study. This case in-
cluded lithofacies and hard data such as porosity, per-
meability and saturation of 6 production wells (P1, P4, P5,
P11, P12, P15), and combined with geological information
such as provenance direction and channel distribution
characteristics, a total of 3ooo sandstone-mudstone
two-phase composite channel sandstone reservoir models
were obtained by stochastic simulation with commercial
modeling software. Each model contains 42 560
(76x112x5) grids, and vertically layers 1-3 and layers 4-5
are two different geological intervals. The reservoir fluid
contains three phases of oil, gas, and water. One of the
specific reservoir models is shown in Fig. 3. The color
scale in the figure represents lithofacies, O represents
mudstone facies, 1 represents sandstone facies, and a
value between 0 and 1 means its information is lost in the
process of dimensional reduction, which needs to be re-
stored with a neural network. In addition, the position
that was 1 originally and became o after dimensional
reduction also represents information loss.
After PCA is used to reduce the dimensionality of the
original composite channel sandstone reservoir model,
the images shown in Fig. 4 are obtained, and the distri-
bution information of the channel sand bodies becomes
blurred. Obviously, PCA dimensional reduction will lead
to the loss of detailed information of the original geo-
logical model, and it is necessary to further use the CNN
model to complement the lost information.
The ResNet network proposed by Liu et al. [9, 4l is used
to complement the information of the composite channel
sandstone reservoir model after PCA dimensional reduc-
tion, and the results are shown in Fig. 5. Compared with
8 10 the original reservoir model, key information such as
channel width (edge) and channel course still suffers a
large loss, with a mean square error of 696.30.
Fig. 6 shows the results of complementing the PCA
Layer3 Layer 4 Layer5
0 0

20 20 20 20 20

40 P5 40 P5 40 P5 40 P5 40 P5
P12 P12 P12 P12 P12
60 60 60 60 60
P4 P4 P4 P4 P4
80 P15 80 P15 80 P15 80 P15 80 P15
P1 P1 P1 P10 P1
100 P11 100 P11 100 P11 100 P11 100 P11
1200 1

120 120 120 120

20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No.
Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies:
1.00.80.60.40.20 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.20 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.20 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.20 1.00.80.60.40.20

Fig. 3. A specific geological model of composite channel sandstone reservoir.

185-
 LIXiaoboetal./PetroleumExplorationand evelopment,2023,50(1):183-190

Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3 Layer 4 Layer 5

0 0 0 0 0

20 20 20 20 20
40 P5
40 40 40 40

60 60 60 60 60
P4 P4 P4 P4 P

80 80 80 80 80
P

100 100 100 100 100

120 1

120 1200 20 1

120 80 120
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 40 60 80 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 80
X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. x-direction grid No.
Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies:
1.91.51.00.500.51.0 1.91.51.00.500.51.0 1.91.51.00.50-0.51.0 1.91.51.00.50-0.5-1.0 1.91.51.00.500.51.0

Fig. 4. Composite channel sandstone reservoir model after PCA dimensional reduction.
Layer1 Layer2 Layer3 Layer 4 Layer5
0 0 0 0

20 20 20 20 20

40 P5
40 P5
40 P5 40 P5
40 P5
P12 P12 P12 P12 P12
60 60 60 60 P4. 60
P4 P4 P4. P4
80 P15 80 80 P15 80 80
P1 P1 P15 P1 P1 P15 P1 P15
100 P110 100 P11 100 P11 100 P11 100 P11

120 120 120 20 40 60 80

120 120
O 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 0 020 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No.
Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies:
1.00.80.60.40.2 0 1.00.80.60.40.2 0 1.00.80.60.40.20 1.0 0.80.60.4 0.20 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.20
0 0 0 0 0

20 20 20 20 20

40 40 40 40 40

60 60 60 60 60
P4 P49 P P4
80 80 80 80 80
P
100 100 100 100 100

1200 120 120 1200 1

120
20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
x-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No.
Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies:
1.00.5 0-0.5-1.0 1.00.500.51.0 1.00.500.5 -1.0 1.00.500.51.0 1.00.500.51.0

Fig.5.T
The reconstructed reservoir model using the ResNet and its deviation from the original reservoir model.

dimensional reduced composite channel sandstone res-
ervoir model using the 3D U-Net network without atten-
tion mechanism. It can be found that the channel sand
bodies in the reconstructed reservoir model are discon-
tinuous, and the mean square error is 428.94.
Fig. 7 shows the results of the reconstruction of the
complex channel sandstone reservoir model after PCA
dimensional reduction using the 3D U-Net network with
attention mechanism. It can be found that, compared
with the first two, the 3D U-Net with attention mecha-
nism can achieve better results in maintaining the con-
186-
tinuity of the channel and restoring the edge of the
channel. And the mean square error is 395.58, which is
reduced by more than 40% compared with the geological
model reconstructed by the ResNet.
The geological model reconstructed by the 3D U-Net
model with attention mechanism still has a certain de-
viation from the original model. Considering that the
model is further adjusted in the process of history
matching based on the production performance, the
more critical indicator for evaluating the effect of the
parameterization technology of the reservoir model is
 LI Xiaobo et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Develop
pment,2023,50(1):183-190

Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer3 Layer 4 Layer5

0 0

20 20 20 20 20

40 P5 40 P5 40 P5 40 P5 40 P5

P12 P12 P12 P12 P12

60 60 60 60 60
P40 P4 P40 P4 P4
80 P15 80 P15 80 P15 80 P15 80 P15
P10 P1. P10 P1. P1.
100 P110 100 100 100 P11 100
P11 P11 P11
120 1200 120% 1200
20 40 60 80 1200
1 1 1

20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80
X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-directiongrid No. X-direction grid No.
Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies:
1.00.80.60.40.20 1.00.80.60.40.20 1.00.80.60.40.20 1.00.80.60.40.20 1.00.80.60.40.20
0 0 0 0

20 20 20 20 20
40 40 40 40 40

60 60 60 60 60
P40 P40 P4 P49
80 80 P15 80 80 80
P1 P10 P

100 P11 100 P11 100 P 100 P 100

120
0 20 40 60 80
120 J

20 40 60 80
120
20 40 60 80
120 1

20 40 60 80
120 1

0 0 0 0 20 40 60 80
X-direction grid No. X-directiongrid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. x-direction grid No.
Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies:
1.00.50-0.5 -1.0 1.00.50-0.5 -1.0 1.00.50-0.5 1.0 1.00.50-0.5 -1.0 1.00.500.5-1.0

Fig. 6. The reconstructed reservoir model using the 3D U-Net network without attention mechanism and its deviation from
theoriginal model.
Layer1 Layer 2 Layer3 Layer 4 Layer5
0 0 0 0 0

20 20 20 20 20

40 P5 40 P5 40 P5 40 P5
40 P5
P12 P12 P12 P12 P12
60 60 60 60 60
P40 P4
P4 P4 P4
80 P15 80 P15 80 P15 80 P15 80 P15
P1· P1· P1· P1 P1
100 P11 100 P11 100 P11 100 P11 100 P11
1200 20 40 60 80
1200 1

20 40 60 80
1200 1

20 40 60 80 1200
1

20 40 60 80
1200
20 40 60 80
X-direction grid No. x-direction grid No. X-directiongrid No. X-direction grid No. x-direction grid No.
Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies:
1.00.80.60.40.20 1.00.80.60.40.20 1.00.80.60.40.20 1.00.80.60.40.20 1.00.80.60.40.20
0 0 0 0 0

20 20 20 20 20
5
40 40 40 40 40

60 60 60 60 60
P49 P4
P4
80 15 80 15 80 80 P15 80 P15
P P P P1 P1

100 P11 100 P1

100 P17
100 100 P11
心

120 120 120 120 120

0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
X-directiongrid No. x-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No. X-direction grid No.
Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies: Lithofacies:
1.00.5 0-0.5 1.0 1.00.500.5 -1.0 1.00.50-0.5 -1.0 1.00.500.5 -1.0 1.00.500.5 -1.0

Fig. 7. The reconstructed reservoir model using the 3D U-Net network with attention mechanism and its deviation from the
original model.
187
 LI Xiaobo et al./PetroleumExploration andDevelopment, 2023,50(1):183-190

whether the models after dimensional reduction can fully
reflect the flow characteristics of the original reservoir
model. Specifically, for the 30o0 original reservoir models
in this case, after the ResNet and the 3D U-Net network
with attention mechanism are used for complement after
feature extraction and dimensional reduction by using
PCA, only 300 models can reflect the flow characteristics
of the original 3000 stochastic reservoir models (Fig. 8),
thus greatly reducing the calculation cost of reservoir
history matching greatly. The history matching of the 300
reservoir models in this paper takes about 12 h. Com-
paring two different deep learning network models, it can
be seen from the fitting degree of PRo, Pso and Poo curves in
Fig. 9 that the geological model reconstructed by the 3D
U-Net model with attention mechanism shows better
performance in reflecting flow characteristics of the
original geological model.
Based on the previous research, the ensemble smoother
with multiple data assimilation (ES-MDA) algorithm [21]
was used to perform history matching on the production
performance of the reservoir for 18 years. With the same
fitting control parameters, the 3D U-Net network with
attention mechanism achieved a better fitting perform-
ance, and the mean square error of the single-well fitting
results was reduced by 80% (Fig. 9).
3.Conclusions
The 3D U-Net network with attention mechanism can
better complement the lost information of reservoir
models after PCA dimensional reduction, and the mean
square error of the complementary result of this case is
reduced by 40%. It can also improve the performance of
reservoir history matching. In this case, 300 models are
used instead of 3000 models to do the fitting, and the mean
square error of single-well fitting results is reduced by 80%.
When the new loss function is used to replace the
pre-trained C3D network model to extract the style fea-
tures of 3D model, it can evaluate the complementary
effect of deep learning network model on the features of
3D geological model, and has better potential application
value when CNN-PCA model is introduced into the geo-
logical model under different sedimentary environments.
In the following step it is recommended to explore the
specific application effect of geological model under dif-
ferent environments based on the proposed geological
parameterization technology.

0.20 110
Original model, P1o Original model, Pro
Reconstructed model, P1o Reconstructed model, Pr
0.16 Original model, Pso, 90
Original model, Pso,
Reconstructed model, Pso -Reconstructed model, Pso
0.12 Original model, Po Original model, Po,
- Reconstructed model, Poo 70
Reconstructed model, Peo
0.08
50
0.04

0 30
1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992
Year Year
(a) Water production rate of Well P15 calculated by the (b) Gas-oil ratio of WellP15 calculated by the
model reconstructed with ResNet model reconstructedwithResNet

0.20 110
Original model, P1o Original model, P1o
0.16 Reconstructed model, Pro Reconstructed model, Pro
Original model, Pso, 90 Original model, Pso
Reconstructed model, Pso Reconstructed model, Pso
(-p.w)/oe
0.12 Original model, Po Original model, Po
- Reconstructed model, Po 70 -Reconstructed model, Po
0.08
50
0.04

0 30
1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992
Year Year
(c) Water production rate of Well P15 calculated using the model (d) Gas-oil ratio of Well P15 calculated using the model
reconstructed by 3D U-Net model with attention mechanism reconstructed by 3D U-Net model with attention mechanism
Fig. 8. Flow characteristics statistics of reservoir model reconstructed by ResNet and 3D U-Net network with attention
mechanism.

188
 LI Xiaobo et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2023, 50(1): 183-190

100 70
Prior PfoPo Prior P1oPoo
80 Posterior P1o Posterior P1o
Posterior Pso 60 Posterior Pso
--Posterior Po --Posterior Poo
60 Truevalue Truevalue
50
40

40
20 History History
matchingresult
matching result:
0 30
1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992
Year Year
(a) Water cut of Well P12 calculated using the (b) Gas-oil ratio of Well P12 calculated using the
model reconstructedbyResNet model reconstructedbyResNet
100 70
Prior ProPo Prior P1oPo
80 Posterior P1o Posterior P1o
Posterior Pso 60 Posterior Pso
-- Posterior Poo
--Posterior Po
60 True value
Truevalue
50
40
40
20 History History
;matchingresult matchingresult:
0 30
1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992
Year Year
(c) Water cut of Well P12 calculated using the model reconstructed (d) Gas-oil ratio of Well P12 calculated using the model reconstructed
by 3D U-Net model with attention mechanism by 3D U-Net model with attention mechanism
Fig. 9. History matching results of reservoir models reconstructed by ResNet and 3D U-Net network with attention mechanism.
Nomenclature matching of reservoirs using the streamline-based EnKF
method. Acta Petrolei Sinica, 2011, 32(3): 495-499.
fwa function to complete the missing geological feature in- [2] YU Jinbiao. History matching analysis method on reser-
formation in the dimensional reduced reservoir models; voir numerical simulation. Petroleum Geology and Re-
g-gating signal; covery Efficiency, 2017, 24(3): 66-70.
i-number of reservoir models; [3] SHAHKARAMI A, MOHAGHEGH S. Applications of
j-number of geological intervals; smart proxies for subsurface modeling. Petroleum Explo-
I-side length of the input images, m; ration and Development, 2020, 47(2): 372-382.
I-the dimension of the variable after dimensional reduction; [4] OLIVER D S. Multiple realizations of the permeability
L-loss function; field from well test data. SPE Journal, 1996, 1(2): 145-154.
L, Ln-Tversky loss and hard data loss; [5] LU P B, HORNE R N. A multiresolution approach to res-
mgm-original reservoir models; ervoir parameter estimation using wavelet analysis.SPE
mpca-the models after PCA dimensional reduction; 62985-MS,2000.
Ro, Pso, Poo-parameter values with cumulative probability of [6] JAFARPOUR B, GOYAL V K, MCLAUGHLIN D B, et al.
10%, 50% and 90% in the probability distribution curve; Compressed history matching: Exploiting transform-do-
Wg, Wx, -convolutional kernels in the attention mecha- main sparsity for regularization of nonlinear dynamic
nism; data integration problems. Mathematical Geosciences,
x-the input signal of attention mechanism; 2010, 42(1): 1-27.
x, -the feature vector for concat; [7] PING J, ZHANG D X. History matching of fracture dis-
α-attention coefficient; tributions by ensemble Kalman filter combined with
αt-loss coefficient based on the actual situation, O<α<l; vector based level set parameterization. Journal of Petro-
n, Mh-weight coefficients of loss function corresponding to leum Science and Engineering, 2013, 108: 288-303.
Tversky loss and hard data loss. [8] INSUASTY E, van den HOF P M, WEILAND S, et al.
Low-dimensional tensor representations for the estima-
References tion ofpetrophysical reservoir parameters. SPE
182707-MS, 2017.
[1] YAN Xia, LI Yang, YAO Jun, et al. Automatic history [9] LIU Y M, SUN W Y, DURLOFSKY L J. A deep-learning-
189
 LI Xiaobo et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2023, 50(1):183-190
based geological parameterization for history matching
complex models. Mathematical Geosciences, 2019, 51(6):
725-766.
[10] CANCHUMUNI S A, EMERICK A A, PACHECO M A. In-
tegration of ensemble data assimilation and deep learning
for history matching facies models. OTC 28015-MS, 2017.
[11] CANCHUMUNI S W A, EMERICK A A, PACHECO M A C.
Towards a robust parameterization for conditioning facies
models using deep variational autoencoders and ensem-
ble smoother. Computers & Geosciences, 2019, 128:
87-102.
[12] CANCHUMUNI S W A, EMERICK A A, PACHECO M A C.
History matching channelized facies models using en-
semble smoother with a deep learning parameterization.
Barcelona: 16th European Conference on the Mathemat-
ics ofOilRecovery,2018.
[13]A
AZEVEDO L, PANEIRO G, SANTOS A, et al. Generative
adversarial network as a stochastic subsurface model re-
construction. Computational Geosciences, 2020, 24(4):
1673-1692.
[14] LIU Y M, DURLOFSKY L J. 3D CNN-PCA: A deep-learning-
based parameterization for complex geomodels. Com-
puters & Geosciences, 2021, 148: 104676.
[15] CANCHUMUNI S W A, CASTRO J D B, POTRATZ J, et al.
Recent developments combining ensemble smoother and
190-
deep generative networks for facies history matching.
Computational Geosciences, 2021, 25(1): 433-466.
[16] GUAN S, KHAN A A, SIKDAR S, et al. Fully dense UNet
for 2-D sparse photoacoustic tomography artifact removal.
IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics,
2020, 24(2): 568-576.
[17] CICEK O, ABDULKADIR A, LIENKAMP S S, et al. 3D
U-Net: Learning dense volumetric segmentation from sparse
annotation: OURSELIN S, JOSKOWICZ L, SABUNCU M
R, et al. Medical image computing and computer-assisted
intervention 2016. Cham: Springer, 2016: 424-432.
[18] HU J, SHEN L, SUN G. Squeeze-and-excitation networks.
Salt Lake City: 2018 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer
Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2018.
[19] OKTAY O, SCHLEMPER J, LE FOLGOC L, et al. Attention
U-Net: Learning where to look for the pancreas. (2018-
05-20)[2022-05-16].https://arxiv.0rg/abs/1804.03999.
[20] SALEHI S S M, ERDOGMUS D, GHOLIPOUR A. Tversky
loss function for image segmentation using 3D fully con-
volutional deep networks: WANG Q, SHI Y H, SUK H I, et
al. Machine learning in medical imaging. Cham: Springer,
2017:379-387.
[21] EMERICK A A, REYNOLDS A C. Ensemble smoother with
multiple data assimilation. Computers & Geosciences,
2013, 55: 3-15.