SAFETY IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

CHEMICAL AND PROCESS SAFETY MANAGEMENT

Subject Code: 23111

CHAPTER 1: PROCESS SAFETY MANAGEMENT (PSM)

Purpose of PSM: Employers must complete a compilation of written process

safety information before conducting any process hazard analysis required by the standard. The
compilation of written process safety information, completed under the same schedule required for
process hazard analyses, will help the employer and the employees involved in operating the process to
identify and understand the hazards posed by those processes involving highly hazardous chemicals.
Process safety information must include information on the hazards of the highly hazardous chemicals
used or produced by the process, information on the technology of the process, and information on the
equipment in the process. Information on the hazards of the highly hazardous chemicals in the process
shall consist of at least the following:

• Toxicity,
• Permissible exposure limits,
• Physical data,
• Reactivity data,
• Corrosively data, and
• Thermal and chemical stability data, and hazardous effects of inadvertent mixing of different
materials..

Information on the technology of the process must include at least the following:
• A block flow diagram or simplified process flow diagram,
• Process chemistry,
• Maximum intended inventory,
• Safe upper and lower limits for such items as temperatures, pressures, flows or compositions, and
• An evaluation of the consequences of deviations, including those affecting the safety and health of
employees.
Where the original technical information no longer exists, such information may be developed in
conjunction with the process hazard analysis in sufficient detail to support the analysis.

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Element of PSM:

 The process safety management program is divided into 14 elements.

 The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 1910.119 define all 14
elements of process safety management plan.

1. Employee Involvement
2. Process Safety Information
3. Process Hazard Analysis
4. Operation Procedure
5. Training
6. Contractors
7. Pre-Start-up Safety Review Technique
8. Mechanical Integrity
9. Hot Work Permit
10. Management of Change
11. Incident Investigation
12. Emergency Planning and Preparation
13. Compliance audit
14. Trade Secret

Process safety is a blend of engineering and management skills focused on preventing catastrophic
accidents and near misses, particularly structural collapse, explosions, fires and toxic releases
associated with loss of containment of energy or dangerous substances such as chemicals and
petroleum products.

 Process safety management is an analytical tool focused on preventing releases of any

substance defined as a "highly hazardous chemical" by OSHA. Process Safety Management
(PSM) refers to a set of interrelated approaches to managing hazards associated with the

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 process industries and is intended to reduce the frequency and severity of incidents resulting
from releases of chemicals and other energy sources (US OSHA 1993).

 These standards are composed of organizational and operational procedures, design guidance,
audit programs, and a host of other methods.

Process Safety Management Systems from around the world

 American Occupational Health and Safety Administration Process Safety Management

Rule enacted in 1994

 14 Elements - CSChE – The Canadian Society for Chemical Engineering [1]

 20 Elements - AIChE CCPS – The American Institute for Chemical Engineers Center for
Chemical Process Safety [4]

 12 Elements – OSHA – US Occupational Health and Safety Administration PSM Rule

1910.119 [3]

 20 Elements – EU Energy Institute [2]

 Some large corporations may also sell their custom systems or services for
implementing PSM

1. EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION
Perhaps one of the most important mandates, the employee participation clause requires that
employees—including production and maintenance staff—be involved in every aspect of the PSM
programs at their respective worksites. They must also be represented at the meetings where PSM-related
issues are discussed. OSHA requires employee participation to be followed as written, so employers
should create formal plans.

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2. PROCESS SAFETY INFORMATION
According to OSHA’s PSM mandates, “The employer shall complete a compilation of written process
safety information before conducting any process safety hazard analysis required by the standard.” In
other words, all workers should be able to access and understand the technical data regarding the HHC-
related risks they face on the job.

3. PROCESS HAZARD ANALYSIS

One of the most technical elements of PSM, Process Hazard Analysis requires that engineers and
maintenance leaders analyze the consequences of safety failures. These analyses must be conducted in
teams, and OSHA requires that each team must include one person who is “knowledgeable in the specific
process hazard methodology being used.”

4. OPERATING PROCEDURES
There are plenty of potential chemical hazards following turnarounds and emergency shutdowns. OSHA
inspectors want to see that companies have plans for keeping everyone safe as they start back up.

5. TRAINING
Workers who carry out processes involving highly hazardous chemicals need to be well-trained, and their
training should have been accomplished through a competent source, first-party or otherwise. OSHA
requires that their training be well-documented. Training management software makes it much easier to
track this.

6. CONTRACTORS
Regular employees and contractors alike must be well-informed of the hazards they face. Under the PSM
National Emphasis Program, “The employer shall inform contract employers of the known potential fire,
explosion or toxic release hazards related to the contractor’s work and the process.”

7. PRE-STARTUP SAFETY REVIEW

Are you reviewing your safety procedures every time a worksite starts back up? You should be. OSHA
expects employers to perform pre-startup safety reviews for both new and modified facilities. This rule
applies even if the procedural changes only affect a single component or process.

8. MECHANICAL INTEGRITY
Periodic, documented inspections are required for several systems, including:

 Pressure vessels
 Storage tanks
 Piping systems
 Ventilation systems

The employers or contractors conducting these inspections must not only be officially trained, their
testing procedures must follow “recognized and generally accepted good engineering practices,”
according to OSHA. In other words, your company must be able to explain WHY your inspectors made
their decisions.

9. HOT WORK PERMIT

Every employer needs to issue permits to employees and contractors who weld or perform other high-
temperature work near covered processes. They also need to train their personnel to post and file these
permits when necessary.

10. MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE

Companies need standard procedures for managing changes to process chemicals, technology, equipment
and procedures. Each change also requires the following considerations:

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  The technical basis for the change.
 The impact of the change on worker safety and health.
 Necessary modifications to operating procedures.
 The necessary time period for the change.
 Authorization requirements for the proposed change.

11. INCIDENT INVESTIGATION

OSHA’s state standard calls for investigations for all incidents that result in—or could have resulted in—
a catastrophic highly hazardous chemical release. Because of that ambiguous wording, cautious
companies must keep every potential HHC-related scenario in mind.

12. EMERGENCY PLANNING AND RESPONSE

Even minor chemical releases can lead to major incidents. This element mandates employers to create
emergency plans for handling smaller HHC releases.

13. COMPLIANCE AUDITS

According to the PSM-NEP, “Employers shall certify that they have evaluated compliance with the
provisions of this section at least every three years to verify that the procedures and practices developed
under the standard are adequate and are being followed.” This element also requires employers to retain
at least their two most recent audit reports.

14. TRADE SECRETS

Until recently, some companies attempted to protect proprietary information by keeping process details
from their employees. To prevent this scenario and enhance worker safety, the “trade secrets” element
gives employees the right to know processes that may affect their health and safety.
Now that you're armed with the top elements in a PSM program, find out how to manage them! Schedule
a demo with BasicSafe today to get more insight into the tools that can make managing PSM easy.

MAJOR INDUSTRIAL DISASTER (CASE STUDIES)

Flixborough Disaster: (1974)

Accident summary

At about 16:53 hours on Saturday 1 June 1974 the Nypro (UK) site at Flixborough was severely
damaged by a large explosion. Twenty-eight workers were killed and a further 36 suffered injuries. It is
recognized that the number of casualties would have been more if the incident had occurred on a
weekday, as the main office block was not occupied. Offsite consequences resulted in fifty-three reported
injuries. Property in the surrounding area was damaged to a varying degree.

Prior to the explosion, on 27 March 1974, it was discovered that a vertical crack in reactor No.5 was
leaking cyclohexane. The plant was subsequently shutdown for an investigation. The investigation that
followed identified a serious problem with the reactor and the decision was taken to remove it and install
a bypass assembly to connect reactors No.4 and No.6 so that the plant could continue production.

During the late afternoon on 1 June 1974 a 20 inch bypass system ruptured, which may have been caused
by a fire on a nearby 8 inch pipe. This resulted in the escape of a large quantity of cyclohexane. The

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 cyclohexane formed a flammable mixture and subsequently found a source of ignition. At about 16:53
hours there was a massive vapor cloud explosion which caused extensive damage and started numerous
fires on the site.

Eighteen fatalities occurred in the control room as a result of the windows shattering and the collapse of
the roof. No one escaped from the control room. The fires burned for several days and after ten days
those that still raged were hampering the rescue work.

Failings in technical measures

 A plant modification occurred without a full assessment of the potential consequences. Only limited
calculations were undertaken on the integrity of the bypass line. No calculations were undertaken for
the dog-legged shaped line or for the bellows. No drawing of the proposed modification was
produced.
 Plant Modification / Change Procedures: HAZOP
 Design Codes - Pipe work: use of flexible pipes
 No pressure testing was carried out on the installed pipe work modification.
 Maintenance Procedures: recommissioning
 Those concerned with the design, construction and layout of the plant did not consider the potential
for a major disaster happening instantaneously.
 Plant Layout: positioning of occupied buildings
 Control Room Design: structural design to withstand major hazards events
 The incident happened during start up when critical decisions were made under operational stress. In
particular the shortage of nitrogen for inerting would tend to inhibit the venting of off-gas as a method
of pressure control/reduction.
 Operating Procedures: number of critical decisions to be made
 Inerting: reliability/back-up/proof testing

SEVESO DIOXIN DISASTER (1976):

Accident summary

At approximately 12:37 on Saturday 10th July 1976 a bursting disc on a chemical reactor ruptured.
Maintenance staff heard a whistling sound and a cloud of vapour was seen to issue from a vent on the
roof. A dense white cloud, of considerable altitude drifted offsite.

Among the substances in the white cloud was a small deposit of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
(‘TCDD’ or ‘dioxin’), a highly toxic material.

The release lasted for some twenty minutes. Over the next few days following the release there was
much confusion due to the lack of communication between the company and the authorities in dealing
with this type of situation.

The nearby town of Saveso, located 15 miles from Milan, had some 17,000 inhabitants. No human
deaths were attributed to TCDD but many individuals fell ill. 26 pregnant women who had been exposed
to the release had abortions. Thousands of animals in the contaminated area died and many thousands
more were slaughtered to prevent TCDD entering the food chain.

Failings in technical measures

Operating Procedures: safe operating procedures

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 The production cycle was interrupted, without any agitation or cooling, prolonging holding of the
reaction mass. Also, the conduct of the final batch involved a series of failures to adhere to the
operating procedures. The original method of distillation patent specified that the charge was acidified
before distillation. However, in the plant procedures the order of these steps was reversed.
Relief Systems / Vent Systems: venting of excessive pressures, sizing of vents for exothermic reactions
 The bursting disc was set at 3.5 bar to guard against excessive pressure in the compressed air used to
transfer the materials to the reactor. Had a bursting disc with a lower set pressure been installed,
venting would have occurred at a lower and less hazardous temperature.
Control Systems: Sensors Alarms / Trips / Interlocks: loss of cooling, agitator failure
 The reactor control systems were inadequate, both in terms of the measuring equipment for a number
of fundamental parameters and in the absence of any automatic control system.
Reaction / Product Testing: calorimeter methods, thermal stability
 The company was aware of the hazardous characteristics of the principal exothermic. However,
studies showed that weaker exothermic existed that could lead to a runaway reaction.
Design Codes - Plant: nature of hazardous releases
 There was no device to collect or destroy the toxic materials as they vented.
Secondary Containment: catch pots
 The bursting disc manufacturer recommended using a second receiver to recover toxic materials. No
such vessel was fitted.
Emergency Response / Spill Control: safety management system, site emergency plan
 Information on the chemicals released and their associated hazards was not available from the
company. Communication was poor and failed both between the company and the local authorities
and within the regulatory authorities

Mexico LPG Tank Farm Fire and Explosion (1984)

Accident summary

At approximately 05:35 hours on 19 November 1984 a major fire and a series of catastrophic explosions
occurred at the government owned and operated PEMEX LPG Terminal at San Juan Ixhuatepec, Mexico
City. As a consequence of these events some 500 individuals were killed and the terminal destroyed.

Three refineries supplied the facility with LPG on a daily basis. The plant was being filled from a
refinery 400 km away, as on the previous day it had become almost empty. Two large spheres and 48
cylindrical vessels were filled to 90% and 4 smaller spheres to 50% full.

A drop in pressure was noticed in the control room and also at a pipeline pumping station. An 8-inch
pipe between a sphere and a series of cylinders had ruptured. Unfortunately the operators could not
identify the cause of the pressure drop. The release of LPG continued for about 5-10 minutes when the
gas cloud, estimated at 200 m x 150 m x 2 m high, drifted to a flare stack. It ignited, causing violent
ground shock. A number of ground fires occurred. Workers on the plant now tried to deal with the escape
taking various action. At a late stage somebody pressed the emergency shut down button.

About fifteen minutes after the initial release the first BLEVE occurred. For the next hour and a half
there followed a series of BLEVEs as the LPG vessels violently exploded. LPG was said to rain down
and surfaces covered in the liquid were set alight. The explosions were recorded on a seismograph at the
University of Mexico.

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 Failings in technical measures

 The total destruction of the terminal occurred because there was a failure of the overall basis of safety
which included the layout of the plant and emergency isolation features
 Plant Layout: positioning of the vessels
 Isolation: emergency isolation means
 The terminal’s fire water system was disabled in the initial blast. Also the water spray systems were
inadequate.
 Active / Passive Fire Protection: survivability of critical systems, insulation thickness, water deluge
 The installation of a more effective gas detection and emergency isolation system could have averted
the incident. The plant had no gas detection system and therefore when the emergency isolation was
initiated it was probably too late.
 Leak / Gas Detection: gas detection
 Hindering the arrival of the emergency services was the traffic chaos, which built up as local residents
sought to escape the area.
 Emergency Response / Spill Control: site emergency plan, access of emergency vehicles

Bhopal Disaster (1984)

Bhopal is known for its historical records, artificial lakes and greenery but most of all, the city is
remembered across the globe for the worst industrial mishap of the world.
Post-midnight on December 3, 1984, poisonous gas that leaked from the factory of Union Carbide in
Madhya Pradesh capital Bhopal killed thousands of people directly. The incident is now known as the
Bhopal disaster or Bhopal gas tragedy.
As per official records, the Bhopal gas tragedy killed 3,787 people. The figures were updated by the
Madhya Pradesh government later as the immediate official estimate had put the death toll due to gas
leak from Union Carbide factory at 2,259.
However, activists fighting for justice for Bhopal gas tragedy victims put the figures of death between
8,000 and 10,000. In an affidavit, submitted in 2006, the government said that the Bhopal gas leak
caused 5,58,125 injuries that included approximately 3,900 severely and permanently disabling injuries.

HOW DID IT HAPPEN?

The gas leak in the Union Carbide (now known as Dow Chemicals) was reported after midnight on the
intervening night of December 2 and 3. The incident had taken place at the Plant Number C of the Union
Carbide factory in Bhopal.
As the cool morning breeze picked up pace, it carried the poisonous gas leaking from the Union Carbide
factory to rest of the city and killing people - both awake and asleep. As per government's affidavit,
about 3,000 people died of poisonous gas within a few hours of the incident.
It is estimated that about 40 tonnes of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas and other chemicals leaked from the
Union Carbide factory. Methyl isocyanate is extremely toxic and if its concentration in air touches
21ppm (parts per million), it can cause death within minutes of inhaling the gas. In Bhopal, the level was
multiple times higher.

WHAT CAUSED MIC LEAKAGE?

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The leakage of gas was reported from Plant Number C. As per official record, methyl isocyanate got
mixed with water used for cooling the plant. The mixture led to generation of volumes of gases, which
put tremendous pressure on Tank Number 610.
The tank cover gave way to building gaseous pressure releasing tonnes of the poisonous gas, which
diffused over large area. Approximately 5 lakh people were exposed to the leakage of methyl isocyanate
gas.

POST-LEAKAGE SCENE
Bhopal had a population of about 8.5 lakh back in 1984 and more than half of its population was
coughing, complaining of itching in eyes, skin and facing breathing problems. The gas caused internal
hemorrhage, pneumonia and death. The villages and slums in the neighbouring areas of the factory were
the worst affected.
The alarm system of the Union Carbide did not work for hours. No alarm was raised by the factory
managers. Suddenly thousands of people started running to hospitals on the morning of December 3 with
their complaints.
Unlike today, Bhopal of 1984 did not have too many hospitals. Two government hospitals could not have
accommodated half of the population of the city. People were suffering, finding it difficult to breathe and
confused. So were doctors, who did not immediately know the reasons for the sudden illness that
afflicted every new rushing patient.
Patients complained of dizziness, breathlessness, skin irritation and rashes, some others reported sudden
blindness. Doctors of Bhopal had never faced a situation like this. They had no experience in dealing
with industrial disaster.
Symptoms of methyl isocyanate exposure were not immediately known to them. And, the two hospitals
reportedly treated around 50,000 patients in first two days of the Bhopal gas leak. Officially, the
government declared that the gas leakage was contained in eight hours, but the city has is still finding it
difficult to come out of its grip even 33 years later.

Sandoz Basel Disaster (1986):

The Sandoz chemical spill was a major environmental disaster caused by a fire and its subsequent
extinguishing at Sandoz agrochemical storehouse in the Schweizerhalle industrial complex, Basel-
Landschaft, Switzerland, on 1 November 1986, which released toxic agrochemicals into the air and
resulted in tons of pollutants entering the Rhine river, turning it red.[1]
The chemicals caused a massive mortality of wildlife downstream, killing among other things a large
proportion of the European eel population in the Rhine,[2] although the situation subsequently recovered
within a couple of years
The stored chemicals included, urea, fluorescent dye, organophosphate insecticides, mercury compounds
and organochlorines.[4] Among the major resulting water pollutants were dinitro-ortho-cresol, the
organophosphate chemicals propetamphos, parathion, disulfoton, thiometon, etrimphos and fenitrothion,
as well as the organochlorine metoxuron.[5]
The cause of the blaze was never established.[6] In 2000, Vincent Cannistraro, a former senior U.S.
intelligence official, stated that the Soviet KGB had ordered the East German Stasi to sabotage the
chemical factory. According to him, the operation's objective was to distract attention from
the Chernobyl disaster six months earlier in the Soviet Union.[7][8][9] The Swiss authorities were
considering opening investigations again.[8][6]
As a consequence of the incident Sandoz extended its health, safety and environment activities and
introduced new procedures for risk and emergency management, including auditing.

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ENHANCING SAFETY IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY:

Siting and layout of chemical plant:

The information presented in this section is a general composite of best practices and current
information about the design layout of your phosgene equipment for new construction,
expansions and existing operations. It describes Plant Siting and Layout Guidelines with
information relevant to the design and layout of new or revised facilities. Once the preliminary
design and layout work have been completed, consider conducting a siting and plant layout
review. The information provided in this section should not be considered as a directive or as an
industry standard that readers must adopt or follow. Instead, the information is intended to
provide helpful ideas and guidance that users may wish to consider in a general sense.
The purpose of this section is to provide considerations for safety aspects that could be affected
by the location and layout of phosgene containing equipment with respect to workers,
environmental receptors and the surrounding community. The design layout of phosgene
equipment is an important factor to consider for both new construction and expansions. For
existing operations, this is also important, but the review approach might be different because
the equipment is already fixed in location. Aspects relevant to design layout include being
located near populated buildings, other operations and surrounding community. Consider any
occupied temporary facilities such as trailers used during construction, maintenance activities
and office space.

The guidance discussed in this section is not meant to replace these reference books or similar
reference books, but to provide additional considerations for the siting of phosgene containing
equipment.
“Siting” means conducting a review of the location of equipment and piping with regard to:
1) possible impact on human or environmental receptors, or
2) where other plant operations could have impact on the phosgene equipment. In case one, for
example, design layout might consider such items as predominant wind direction and populated
areas down wind. In case two, the considerations might include items such as any flammable or
potential explosive processes, which - if an event occurred - could have impact on the phosgene
equipment.

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The following section on Plant Siting and Layout Guidelines provides information relevant to
the design and layout of new or revised facilities. It is important to note that the following
criteria represent considerations often used by facilities handling hazardous materials. However,
given the highly toxic nature of phosgene, during the construction of new phosgene handling
facilities, or significant modifications to existing facilities, facilities should also consider what
secondary mitigation measures may also be necessary or appropriate to address the potential risk
to local populations resulting from significant loss of containment.

Items to consider may include:

A) Plant Siting
• Locating phosgene containing units with consideration of prevailing wind
direction as far as possible from the general community outside the site
boundaries.
• Protecting on-site buildings occupied by a large number of people through a
combination of engineering controls, administrative procedures and/or distance,
together within a site to minimize the spread of phosgenecontaining areas.
• Conducting a facility siting risk assessment regarding location of phosgene
facilities within a site
• Locating phosgene containing units away from other processes which have
potential for explosion or fire, or events which may impact or damage equipment
containing phosgene.
• Incorporating additional safety and loss prevention precautions if phosgene
must be transported across plant boundaries either by pipeline or in pressurized
containers.

B) Plant Layout
• Providing that all sections of the plant are easily accessible for maintenance and
emergency response purposes.
• Locating phosgene generating or processing sections in plant areas with low
traffic density whenever possible and minimizing phosgene containing pipelines.
• Having additional engineering controls for prevention and mitigation of leaks
from the equipment where plant sections have special process conditions, or
where because of the surrounding situation, other controls may be needed. There
are several other parts of Section 6 that provide guidance for such controls
including materials of construction, secondary containment, and spill mitigation.
Refer to those parts for additional information. Designs that incorporate “layers
of protection” rather than relying on a single method of control are relevant in
this capacity
• Selecting the location of the control building in relation to the phosgene
containing sections and with consideration of the prevailing wind direction.
Wherever the selected location, having an elevated fresh air intake in the control

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building and maintaining the building under positive pressure have been used to
minimize infiltration of phosgene in the event of a release.
• Ensuring that temporary facilities (such as trailers) used during construction,
maintenance contractors or office space for plant support personnel are located
with consideration to the hazards of phosgene. Emergency procedures should
include the occupants of these temporary facilities. C) Design Final Review Once
the preliminary design and layout work have been completed, consideration
should be given to conducting a siting and plant process or a simple review using
a series of questions or checklist
Other considerations such as pressurized control buildings, “safe havens,”
phosgene leak detectors and alarms, explosion resistant windows and walls can
also be relevant. In addition to the plant siting and layout options noted above,
the following are some possible questions that can be used in facility siting
reviews.
The questions can be applied to both existing plants and new plants.
1. For facilities in the United States, has a phosgene release been addressed as
part of the US EPA’s RMP Plan Worst Case and Alternate Case Scenarios?
2. Do you have local plot plans?
3. Do you have local maps showing potential offsite exposure / receptor sites?
4. Do you have historical meteorological data, wind rose and stability classes?
5. Has the maximum release quantity of phosgene been identified?
6. Are there occupied buildings or occupied temporary trailers in or near (e.g.,
within 100 meters) the possible phosgene release or storage points?
7. Are there roadways (public or private), bridges or tunnels near the possible
phosgene release or storage points?
8. Is there some other public transportation (e.g., railways, marine, aviation) near
possible phosgene release or storage points?
9. Has access for maintenance equipment (e.g., cranes, forklifts, and cherry-
picker devices) been addressed in the design of the phosgene storage and
handling areas?
10. Has the design addressed multiple and reliable emergency escape routes for
egress? Have these routes considered any temporary occupied trailer facilities?
11.Is the phosgene storage vessel potentially exposed to a credible external fire
scenario?
12.Is there a need for, or consideration of, a formal API RP 752 1. Facility Siting
Study or Screening Study? Were appropriate standards used to determine layout
and spacing of the phosgene facilities?
13.Is there a need to examine the discharge orientation of phosgene safety relief
devices (e.g., pressure safety valves; vent scrubber discharges)?
14.Are there any building air intakes positioned such that they could induce
phosgene vapors?
15.Are any buildings intended to be designated as temporary safe-havens, and if
so, what criteria are used (pressurized, double airlocks, etc.)?

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 16.Can phosgene migrate through underground sewers/ or closed drain systems?
17.Have you identified and evaluated every “low” point (e.g., sump, manhole, or
other place) where phosgene vapor could collect?
18.Has the electrical area classification been considered?
19.Has the drainage and run-off from deluge systems and unusual intensive rain
been considered? Has pooling in curbed or diked areas also been considered?
20.Has the location of the control room and operator shelter, and degree of
building airtight integrity been considered?
21.Are there overhead power lines?
22.Have you considered a controlled access area in or near the phosgene facilities
and the distance (degree of separation) from uncontrolled access areas that are
used by other nonphosgene unit personnel?
23.Have you considered suitable distance between the phosgene facilities and the
plant boundary property line (fence line)?
24.Is the property adequately fenced to prohibit access by the general public?
25.Is the phosgene facility enclosed or open-structure construction? Will a small
leak be able to dissipate or will it be contained in a building?
26.Is there emergency lighting for egress in the event of a power failure?
27.Is there an emergency alarm system for phosgene releases?

Hazardous Area Classification for Flammable Gases and Vapors

Area classification may be carried out by direct analogy with typical installations described in
established codes, or by more quantitative methods that require a more detailed knowledge of the plant.
The starting point is to identify sources of release of flammable gas or vapour. These may arise from
constant activities; from time to time in normal operation; or as the result of some unplanned event. In
addition, inside process equipment may be a hazardous area, if both gas/vapour and air are present,
though there is no actual release.

Catastrophic failures, such as vessel or line rupture are not considered by an area classification study. A
hazard identification process such as a Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA) or a Hazard and Operability
Study (HAZOP) should consider these abnormal events.

The most commonly used standard in the UK for determining area extent and classification is BS EN
60079 part 101, which has broad applicability. The current version makes clear the direct link between
the amounts of flammable vapour that may be released, the ventilation at that location, and the zone
number. It contains a simplistic calculation relating the size of zone to a rate of release of gas or vapour,
but it is not helpful for liquid releases, where the rate of vaporisation controls the size of the hazardous
area.
Other sources of advice, which describe more sophisticated approaches, are the Institute of Petroleum
Model Code of Practice (Area Classification Code for Petroleum Installations, 2002), and the Institution
of Gas Engineers Safety Recommendations SR25, (2001). The IP code is for use by refinery and
petrochemical type operations. The IGE code addresses specifically transmission, distribution and
storage facilities for natural gas, rather than gas utilisation plant, but some of the information will be
relevant to larger scale users.

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 Zoning

Hazardous areas are defined in DSEAR as "any place in which an explosive atmosphere may occur in
quantities such as to require special precautions to protect the safety of workers". In this context, 'special
precautions' is best taken as relating to the construction, installation and use of apparatus, as given in BS
EN 60079 -101.
Area classification is a method of analysing and classifying the environment where explosive gas
atmospheres may occur. The main purpose is to facilitate the proper selection and installation of
apparatus to be used safely in that environment, taking into account the properties of the flammable
materials that will be present. DSEAR specifically extends the original scope of this analysis, to take into
account non-electrical sources of ignition, and mobile equipment that creates an ignition risk.

Hazardous areas are classified into zones based on an assessment of the frequency of the occurrence and
duration of an explosive gas atmosphere, as follows:

 Zone 0: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is present continuously or for long periods;
 Zone 1: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operation;
 Zone 2: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal operation and,
if it occurs, will only exist for a short time.
Various sources have tried to place time limits on to these zones, but none have been officially adopted.
The most common values used are:

 Zone 0: Explosive atmosphere for more than 1000h/yr

 Zone 1: Explosive atmosphere for more than 10, but less than 1000 h/yr
 Zone 2: Explosive atmosphere for less than 10h/yr, but still sufficiently likely as to require controls
over ignition sources.
Where people wish to quantify the zone definitions, these values are the most appropriate, but for the
majority of situations a purely qualitative approach is adequate.

When the hazardous areas of a plant have been classified, the remainder will be defined as non-
hazardous, sometimes referred to as 'safe areas'.

The zone definitions take no account of the consequences of a release. If this aspect is important, it may
be addressed by upgrading the specification of equipment or controls over activities allowed within the
zone. The alternative of specifying the extent of zones more conservatively is not generally
recommended, as it leads to more difficulties with equipment selection, and illogicalities in respect of
control over health effects from vapours assumed to be present. Where occupiers choose to define
extensive areas as Zone 1, the practical consequences could usefully be discussed during site inspection.

As an example:

A proposal was made to zone an aircraft hanger as Zone 1, although the use of fuels handled above their
flash point would be a rare event. It proved difficult to obtain a floor-cleaning machine certified for Zone
1 areas, though the floor needed sweeping regularly. The option of writing out an exception to normal
instructions to allow a non Ex-protected machine to be used regularly is not recommended. Instead, a
more realistic assessment of the zones is needed, and special instructions issued for the rare event of
using more volatile fuels.

A hazardous area extent and classification study involves due consideration and documentation of the
following:

 The flammable materials that may be present;

 The physical properties and characteristics of each of the flammable materials;
 The source of potential releases and how they can form explosive atmospheres;
 Prevailing operating temperatures and pressures;
 Presence, degree and availability of ventilation (forced and natural);

14
 Dispersion of released vapours to below flammable limits;
 The probability of each release scenario.
These factors enable appropriate selection of zone type and zone extent, and also of equipment. The IP
code gives a methodology for estimating release rates from small diameter holes with pressurised
sources, and shows how both the buoyancy and momentum of the release influence the extent of a zone.
It tabulates values for an LPG mixture, gasoline, natural gas, and refinery hydrogen for pressures up to
100barg. Similarly the IGE code gives a methodology for natural gas, relating the leak rate to the hole-
size and the operating pressure. The tables of dispersion distances to the zone boundary address in the
main quite large diameter deliberate vents. There is in practice little overlap between the codes.

The results of this work should be documented in Hazardous Area Classification data sheets, supported
by appropriate reference drawings showing the extent of the zones around (including above and below
where appropriate) the plant item.

Layer of Protection Analysis

LOPA is the newest methodology for hazard evaluation and risk assessment. On a sliding scale
of sophistication and rigor, LOPA lies between the qualitative end of the scale (characterized by
methods such as hazard and operability, or HAZOP, analysis and what-if analysis) and the
quantitative end (characterized by methods using fault trees and event trees). LOPA helps the
analyst make consistent decisions on the adequacy of existing or proposed layers of protection
against an accident scenario. The technique is ideally suited for companies striving to meet
specific risk targets or to lower risk as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP).

15
LOPA is a risk assessment methodology which uses simplified, conservative rules to define risk as a
function of both frequency and potential consequence severity. LOPA is defined as a simplified risk
assessment of a one cause - one consequence pair [8]. Companies have developed their own protocols
for application of LOPA principles within their risk management systems. A variety of approaches are
employed which could use order-of-magnitude, half order-of-magnitude, and decimal math. For
simplicity, this paper will use the order-of-magnitude math originally shown in [4]. Conceptually, LOPA
is used to understand how a process deviation can lead to a hazardous consequence if not interrupted
by the successful operation of a safeguard called an independent protection layer (IPL). An IPL is a
safeguard that can prevent a scenario from propagating to a consequence of concern without being
adversely affected by either the initiating event or by the action (or inaction) of any other protection
layer in the same scenario.

Layer 1: Process Design (e.g. inherently safer designs); x

Layer 2: Basic controls, process alarms, and operator supervision; x

Layer 3: Critical alarms, operator supervision, and manual intervention; x

Layer 4: Automatic action (e.g. SIS or ESD); x

Layer 5: Physical protection (e.g. relief devices); x

Layer 6: Physical protection (e.g. dikes); x

Layer 7: Plant emergency response; and not shown x

16
Layer 8: Community emergency response

Safety Integrity Level:

Safety integrity level (SIL) is defined as a relative level of risk-reduction provided by a safety
function, or to specify a target level of risk reduction. In simple terms, SIL is a measurement of
performance required for a safety instrumented function (SIF).
The requirements for a given SIL are not consistent among all of the functional safety standards. In
the functional safety standards based on the IEC 61508 standard, four SILs are defined, with SIL 4
the most dependable and SIL 1 the least. The applicable SIL is determined based on a number of
quantitative factors in combination with qualitative factors such as development process and safety
life cycle management.

Assignment:
Assignment of SIL is an exercise in risk analysis where the risk associated with a specific hazard,
that is intended to be protected against by a SIF, is calculated without the beneficial risk reduction
effect of the SIF. That unmitigated risk is then compared against a tolerable risk target. The
difference between the unmitigated risk and the tolerable risk, if the unmitigated risk is higher than
tolerable, must be addressed through risk reduction of the SIF. This amount of required risk
reduction is correlated with the SIL target. In essence, each order of magnitude of risk reduction that
is required correlates with an increase in one of the required SIL numbers.
There are several methods used to assign a SIL. These are normally used in combination, and may
include:

 Risk matrices
 Risk graphs
 Layers of protection analysis (LOPA)

There are several problems inherent in the use of safety integrity levels. These can be summarized
as follows:

 Poor harmonization of definition across the different standards bodies which utilize SIL
 Process-oriented metrics for derivation of SIL
 Estimation of SIL based on reliability estimates
 System complexity, particularly in software systems, making SIL estimation difficult to
impossible

Method for Specifying SIL Requirements:

17
.

Risk Reduction:

18
External Risk Reduction Facility:.

IEC 61508:
Safety related system* based on technology other than electrical/electronic/programmable
electronic(E/E/PE) technology
Measure to reduce or mitigate the risks which are separate and distinct from, and do not use, E/E/PE
safety- related systems or other technology safety-related systems
For Ex. Relief valve, disaster monitor, creditable control system function,
Shielding, emergency management, activatedwater containment system

SIL Ranges:

DEMAND MODE OF OPERATION

Safety Average Risk Reduction

Integrity Probability of

19
 Level (SIL) Failure on Demand

4  10-5 to <10-4 >10,000 to  100,000

3  10-4 to <10-3 >1000 to  10,000

2  10-3 to <10-2 >100 to  1000

1  10-2 to <10-1 >10 to  100

Safety standards

The following standards use SIL as a measure of reliability and/or risk reduction.

 ANSI/ISA S84 (Functional safety of safety instrumented systems for the process industry
sector)
 IEC 61508 (Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety related
systems)
 IEC 61511 (Safety instrumented systems for the process industry sector)
 IEC 61513 (nuclear industry)
 IEC 62061 (safety of machinery)
 EN 50128 (railway applications – software for railway control and protection)
 EN 50129 (railway applications – safety related electronic systems for signalling)
 EN 50402 (fixed gas-detection systems)
 ISO 26262 (automotive industry)
 MISRA, various (guidelines for safety analysis, modeling, and programming in automotive
applications)
 Defense Standard 00-56 Issue 2 – accident consequence

CHAPTER 2: UNIT OPERATION AND PROCESS HAZARD

Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID):

A piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) is a drawing in the process industry. A P&ID shows all
piping, including the “physical sequence of branches, reducers, valves, equipment, instrumentation and
control interlocks.” A P&ID is used to operate the process system, since it shows the piping of the
process flow along with the installed equipment and instrumentation.

20
• P&ID – Piping and instrumentation diagrams (PID) describe the process flow for chemical
processes. A great deal of information can be represented in a “simple” diagram. Information
about the piping is represented, including pipe size, pipe material of construction, insulation, and
pipe specification. Location of valves, pumps, check valves, filters, strainers, and hoses are
simply displayed for an easy-to-understand and -identify arrangement.

• Instrumentation is displayed using standardized symbols and labeling representing the process-
sensing and -control elements. Instrumentation includes:

• Temperature Elements

• Flow Meters and Flow Transmitters

• Pressure Gages and Pressure Transmitters

• Level Gages and Level Transmitters

• Analyzers (pH, gas, LEL, etc.)

• Weight Instruments (scales, load cells)

• since it shows the piping of the process flow along with the installed equipment and
instrumentation. P & IDs play a key role in maintaining and modifying the process they describe,
because it is important to demonstrate the physical sequence of equipment and systems,
including how these systems connect.

Items to Include In a P&ID

The following list outlines the items that typically are found in a P&ID:

• Instrumentation and designations

• Mechanical equipment with names and numbers

• All valves and their identifications

• Process piping, sizes, and identification

• Vents, drains, special fittings, sampling lines, reducers, increasers, and swaggers

• Permanent start-up and flush lines

• Flow directions

• Interconnections references

• Control inputs and outputs, interlocks

• Interfaces for class changes

• Computer control system

• Identification of components and subsystems delivered by the process

21
 • Typically, process flow diagrams of a single unit process will include the following:

• Major equipment items

• All equipment sizes with relevant information as required.

• All equipment names and numbers Process piping.

• All major process lines.

• All major utility lines involving material flow.

• All stream numbers, temperatures, pressures, flows. Control valves and other major valves.

• Connections with other systems.

• Major bypass and recirculation streams.

• Operational data (temperature, pressure, mass flow rate, density, etc.).

• Process stream names.

UNIT OPERATION

In such operations, there is no chemical reaction to form a new product. It indicates no chemical change
but mechanical or physical change like distillation, cutting, heating, cooling, drying, mixing, grinding,
washing, packing, transferring, filtering, handling, radiation etc.

Some general operations in a sequence are as follows - Steam distillation : Live steam is passed in the
still to recover the solvent. Vapours of solvent and water are passed in a shell-tube type condenser and

22
cooler. Then the cooled distillate are taken in a separator where solvent and water separate out and are
diverted to respective storage. .

Heating : Heating operation can be done either directly or indirectly. In direct heating, steam is passed in
the material directly to heat the material. In indirect heating, heating media (e.g. steam, hot oil, hot flue
gases etc.) are passed in jacket / coil of the vessel.

Cooling : It can be done directly or indirectly. In direct cooling, ice or cooled water is added to the
material directly. In indirect cooling, cooling media (raw water, chilled brine, cold oil etc.) are passed in
jacket / coil of the vessel.

Drowning means transferring reaction mass from the reaction vessel to a tank which is containing water
or other medium (e.g. dilute acid, dilute alkali etc.) Filtration : This operation is for separating solids and
liquids. The conventional items used for this operation are press, nutch, centrifuge. The filtration can be
done either under vacuum or pressure or at atmospheric pressure.

Pulverisation : This operation is done to reduce size of the material. Usually crushers, pulverises, ST mill
are used.

Blending : This operation is done in a blender to mix thoroughly two or more dried products.

Washing : This operation is done in presses, nutches or centrifuge to remove soluble impurities and
acid/alkali from the product.

Packing is filling up of finished product in the containers.

Storing of liquid raw materials : Bulk liquid raw materials which are received in tanker loads are emptied
out in storage provided for this purpose.

Unit operations are classified as under :

1. Mechanical unit operations –

(1) Size reduction .

(2) Size enlargement, mixing, agitation, blending and kneading and

23
(3) Separations e.g. gravity settling, filtration, centrifugal, impingement, screening, jigging, magnetic,
electrostatic, hydro and flotation.

2. Mass transfer operations - evaporation, distillation, absorption, humidification, extraction,

leaching, crystallisation, ion exchange, adsorption, drying.

3. Heat transfer operations - conduction, convection, radiation.

4. Material handling, transportation & conveyance - pumping, compression, fluidisation and

containerisation (solid filling).

Controls : Distillation operation needs trip and alarm device to stop heating as soon as cooling stops. In
addition, the vessel should have a safety valve to discharge any accidental pressure. In centrifuging,
blending, grinding, crushing, pulverising or sieving of any flammable or explosive substance, inert
blanketing, earthing and avoidance of sources of ignition are essential. Where stirring and heating both
are going on, stirrer failure alarm and a device to cut heat source, are necessary.

Fertilizer Industry:

The fertilizer plants, particularly those manufacturing ammonia are amongst the most complex plants in
the chemcialindustry . The processes involved in the production of ammonia, nitric acid, phosphoric
acid, sulphuric acid and their conversion to various types of fertilizers involve handling of various
hazardous substances and cover a wide range of technologies. The operating conditions are also severe
and affect the safety of

equipment and its material of construction, personnel involved and the environment.

As part of a national study on process

safety and work environment in various types of fertilizer plants by the Central

and the three Regional Labour Institutes working under the Directorate General

Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes, Mumbai, a study on process

safety in fertilizer industry was undertaken during 1994-95. The objectives of the study were to (a) gain
an insight into the hazards inherent in the processes of manufacturing fertilizers, (b) evaluate their safety
and health implications and (c)recommend preventive measures for improving the standard of safety
and health.

METHODOLGY :

The study on "Process Safety" was conducted on 18 fertilizer units comprising nitrogenous, phosphatic
and mixed fertilizer producing units. Information on the technology, process, built-in safety, etc., was
obtained from technical literature and from various publications of the Fertilizer Association of India.

24
Questionnaires on technical aspects were prepared and information obtained from the plants, P&I
diagrams, block diagrams, material balance diagrams, material safety data sheets, reactions, documents
on detailed manufacturing processes, startup and shutdown procedures, safety manuals emergency plans
were studied and discussed with management personnel. The technique of hazard and operability study
was also applied to search possible hazards and operational difficulties. Areas and activities were
inspected. Personal interviews were conducted with management, supervisors and operators to derive the
information regarding existing safety measures. Suggestions to improve the systems were discussed with
the management and recommendations were compiled.

Pesticide Industry:

Pesticide is a chemical used to destroy an organism detrimental to human interest. It includes

insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, bactericides, miticides, nematocides, moUuscicides.
They are generally halogenated (Cyclodienes, Bischlorophenyls, Cycloparaffins, Organo-chlorines
and Chlorinated terpenes) or Organophosphorus (Parathion, malathion, TEPP, OMPA, DDVP, abate,
ciodrin etc. ) type. They are classified as extremely hazardous, highly hazardous, moderately hazardous,
slightly hazardous etc. For these classifications and their details including Lethal Dose values see
Reference No. 1 given at the end of this Chapter. Strict safety rules are necessary during their processing,
handling, packaging etc. Exhaust ventilation and use of PPE are essential.

Statutory Provisions:

Schedule 15, Rule 102, GFR, Sch.l5, Rule 114, MFR and Sch.29,Rule 95, TNFR give statutory
provisions for manufacture and handling of dangerous pesticides listed in Appendix-1 to that Schedule.
Appendix-11 gives cautionary placard.

The measures include prohibition of employment of women and young

persons, air space of 500 m3 or more per person, efficient exhaust draft on charging, discharging,
blending and powder or liquid preparation, sound and sloping floor with gutters and drainage, daily
washing, workbenches of stainless steel, waste container with lid and waste disposal by burning, safe
disposal of empty containers, no manual or direct handling, protective clothing and their daily washing,
medical facilities including doctor and antidotes and medical examination - pre employment, quarterly
examination and record in Form 20, GFR additional rest interval of 10 minutes before each meal and
before the end of the day's work, washing and bathing facilities with at least 50% bathrooms and 1 place
for 5 workers with clean towels, soap and nail brushes, prohibition of food and drink in workrooms,
cloak room for clothing and PPE, mess room with incharge person and prior permission o? the CIF to
start manipulation of a new pesticide i.e. not listed in Appendix 1.

Sch.l5, u/r 102, GFR defines "pesticides" as agents used for the purpose of destroying or arresting the
growth or increase of harmful organism and defines "dangerous pesticides" as those listed in Appendix-1
as under:

Appendix-1, List of Dangerous Pesticides (Under GFR & MFR both) Prathion Mercury compounds
Diazinon Methyl bromide Hexaethyl tetraphosphate Cyanides Tetrathyl pyrophosphate Chlordane
Tetraethyl ditripyrophosphate Endrin Demeton (systex) Aldrin Schradan (OMPR) Dieldrin Para-Oxon
(E. 600) Texaphene Methyl Parathion Dinitro-o-cresol Dimefox Arsenical compounds Sulphotepp
Cryloite EPN Pentachlorophenol Nicotine or its compounds Carbojuran

25
This list gives commonly better to refer the exhaustive Insecticides Act. used pesticides. It is list u/s 3(e)
of the

Sch.l5, u/r 114, MFR, defines "dangerous pesticides" as those defined in Sec. 3(e) of the Insecticides Act
1968 or any other substance declared as such by the CIF in writing. List of Insecticides u/ s 3(e) of the
Act is very long with addition from time to time.

Sch.29, u/r 95, TNFR does not give Appendix1 i.e. a list of dangerous pesticides but defines dangerous
pesticides' as any product proposed or used for controlling, destroying or repelling any pest or for
preventing growth or mitigating effects of such growth including any of its formulations which is
considered toxic under and is covered by the Insecticides Act, 1968 and the rules made there under any
other products as may be notified from time to time by the State Government.

"Manipulation" includes mixing, blending, formulating, filling, emptying, packing or otherwise

handling. Appendix-11, Cautionary Placard is similar in all above three State Rules and is reproduced
below:

Cautionary Placard

1. Pesticides are generally poisonous substances.

2. Therefore in rooms where these are handled

(a) do not chew, eat, drink Or smoke; keep food or drink away from pesticides.
(b) use the protective wear supplied e.g. gloves, aprons, clothes, boots, etc.

3. Before meals or when any part of the body has come in contact with the pesticides, wash with soap
and water.
4. Before leaving the factory, take a bath and change your clothing.
5. Do not use any container that has contained a pesticide as a pot for food or drink.
6. Do not handle any pesticide with bare hands; use a handled scoop.
7. Avoid spilling of any pesticide on body, floor or table.
8. Maintain scrupulous cleanliness of body and clothing and of your surroundings.
9. In case of sickness like nausea, vomiting or giddiness, inform the manager who will make necessary
arrangements for treatment.

Effects and Controls :

Pesticides and agrochemicals enter into the body through inhalation, ingestion or skin absorption. They
are classified as toxic, harmful, corrosive, irritant, flammable, explosive or oxidising. Toxicity is mostly
denoted by LD,, or LC,, values. All agrochemicals should be labelled, transported safely and correctly
stored in a room (locked and cool). Containers should be opened only after wearing correct respirator
(positive air pressure), neoprene or plastic hand gloves, aprons, boots etc. Protective clothing are always
essential while handling pesticides. Inhalation of vapour should be avoided. Contact with skin, eyes and
clothing should also be avoided. Contaminated clothing should be immediately changed, the entire body
.should be thoroughly washed with soap and water. After working with pesticides, shower bath should be
taken and clothing should be changed. Contaminated equipment should be cleaned with soap or soda ash.

26
Local exhaust ventilation on filling line must be effective.

Types of effects may be acute (immediate) or chronic (prolonged or slow delayed). Some common
symptoms are - dizziness, headache, shaking and weakness. More toxic effects may cause convulsions,
irrational behaviour or unconsciousness. First-aid treatment includes - removal of affected person to a
safe, clean and airy place, washing of the part affected and to put the person in recovery position
(slipping on shoulder). On swallowing, vomiting should be induced if person is in consciousness.
Medical charcoal and plenty of water may also be 'given.

Effect of organophosphorous pesticides is to reduce cholinesterase level in body and it can be noticed by
pin-point in pupils (eyes).

Blood cholinesterase activity test should be carried out every 15 days. If the level is found less than
62.5%, the worker must be transferred to another place where no exposure is possible. After medical
treatment and. safe report he can be put back to his plant. But meantime the engineering controls should
be provided or revised to eliminate the exposure. Leakage and spillage must be removed. Defect in PPE
should be checked and removed.

An Office Circular dated 27-7-1995 of Factory Inspection Office, Bharuch, sent to pesticide factories,
seems to be more important and suggests following safety measures :

1. For filling bottles or small containers of liquid, granules or powder, automatic filling machines
with closed chamber and attached local exhaust ventilation must be used. Weighing, plugging and
sealing operations and conveyor movement should also be automatic and under suction chamber so that a
worker has not to touch any thing and no spillage, vapour or dust shall touch his body.

2. To fill barrel or big container a chamber with exhaust hood and ventilation should be used.

3. To contain or collect leaking liquid small bund and pit shall be provided. Spilled pesticide should
be neutralised or washed with dry clean cloth and stored in a dustbin with spring-lid. Then it should be
safely disposed or burnt out.

4. Workers engaged to shift, move, clean or pack the filled (plugged) container or to clean any
spillage, shall be given goggles, long sleeved shirt and pent, good quality rubber hand gloves, waterproof
suit or apron, gumboot and air-line respirator. Safety showers and bathrooms shall be provided.

5. Illiterate, untrained and temporary contract workers are exposed to more risk. Therefore such
training should be given to them so that they can read or understand the necessary precautions.

6. Pedestal or positive air fan removes the vapour or dust from one worker to another. Therefore it is
inadvisable. Exhaust or negative air suction and air-line respirators are the effective remedies. Exhaled
air should be passed through carbon bed filter or effective absorber and final vent discharge should be
within safe limit.

7. Regular air monitoring at work place, ppm record and leakage checking are necessary.

8. A record of full name, address, signature, date of joining and photograph of all the workers at the
time of first employment are useful to detect cases of delayed effects or after-service effects.

9. If pre-employment and subsequent medical examination shows blood cholinesterase level less than
62.5%, that worker should not be employed in pesticide work. If RBC level is also low, the worker
should be kept away for 3 months from such process. Sufficient stock of PAN, Atropine etc. (antidotes)
should be kept in the factory first-aid centre.

27
10. The workers must be aware that in case of symptoms (dizziness, headache, vibration, vomit etc.),
which doctor they have to approach. They will follow the medical advice.

11. In each shift, qualified and trained supervisor shall strictly supervise the working conditions, work
habits, methods, use of PPE, washing, cleaning and no smoking, eating or drinking in work area.

Specified medical treatment is as under :

1. In case of skin contact of-organo-phosphorous, it should be immediately treated with solution of 5-

10% ammonia or 2-5% chloramine.

2. Give injection Atropine sulphate according to age, 2 to 4 mg intravenous or intramuscular. Continue

this injection every 5 to 10 minutes till pupils size and heart beats become normal.

3. Give injection PAM (2-Pyridine Aldoxime Methochloride) in glucose slowly. Toxogonin is a

condensation product of Pyridine aldoxime and dichlorodimethyl ether.

4. Maintain fluid and electrolyte balance.

5. Give antibiotic medicine to prevent secondary infection.

6. Give Frusemide if lungs are swallowed or water filled.

7. If breathing stops, artificial respiration must be tried till doctor comes. The patient should be kept in a
cool and quiet place. Give oxygen if difficulty is in breathing. If breathing trouble is more, the victim
should be shifted to hospital and put on ventilator.

Chlorine- Alkali:

Risk of electrocution, which may be caused by contact with faulty electrical installations or equipment
(electrolysis cells) or when the work is carried out in a humid environment where electricity, chemical
solutions and water are present.

Hazard of explosion due to the formation of hydrogen/chlorine mixture in the presence of ignition
sources, such as UV radiation, electrical equipment and hot surfaces. Such an explosion can occur when
high concentrations of hydrogen are produced inside the liquefaction and absorption installations.

28
Explosion as a result of overpressure in cylinders may cause injuries. Injuries of the eyes and other parts
of the body caused by splashed liquids from electrolysis cells, uncontrolled chemical reactions, during
addition of solutions and/or substances into an electrolysis cell, and during drainage of caustic soda
from an electrolysis cell Exposure to adverse working environments (high temperature and humidity,
vapours of corrosive substances).

Exposure to chlorine can cause the burning of eyes, the nose and the mouth; lacrimation and rhinitis;
coughing, sneezing, choking and substantial pain; nausea and vomiting; headaches and dizziness;
syncope; fatal pulmonary oedema; pneumonia; conjunctivitis; keratitis; pharyngitis; burning chest pain;
dyspnoea; haemoptysis; hypoxaemia; dermatitis; skin blisters.

Exposure to caustic soda can cause severe burns, serious damage to the eyes and the respiratory tract,
and in some cases severe pneumonia.

The symptoms are: sneezing, throat pains and/or a runny nose (caustic soda is formed throughout the
production of chlorine and is highly corrosive).

Discomfort and psychological problems related to the prolonged wearing of protective clothing (such as
heavy boots, aprons and other impermeable pieces), and to the worries (sometimes serious) caused by
the awareness of the inherent dangers of this work

Preventive measures:

 Use safety shoes with non-skid soles and resistant to corrosive chemicals
 Check periodically electrical equipment for safety before use and call a qualified electrician for
testing and repair of faulty or suspect electrical equipment
 Install effective exhaust ventilation to prevent air pollution; if necessary, wear personal
respiratory protective equipement and instruct employees how to use it
 Wear respirators when exposed to harmful aerosols, dusts, gases or vapours
 Wear suitable clothing according to the nature of the work: long-sleeved shirts, long trousers,
headgear, gloves and appropriate boots
 Wear appropriate eye protection; consult a safety supervisor or a supplier
 Wear appropriate ear protection; consult a safety supervisor or a supplier
 Apply chemical safety rules when handling or working with hazardous chemicals; read MSDSs
and consult a safety supervisor regarding specific chemicals
 Use safe lifting and moving techniques for heavy or awkward loads; use mechanical aids for the
lifting of heavy loads

EXPLOSION:-

Mechanical Explosion

Mechanical exposure is rusting of and pressurize container due to over pressurization, over stress,
weakening of the container as a result of heat, corrosion aur mechanical damage or buy an internal
explosion (chemical or physical).

29
Mechanical Damage (Weakening Of Container)

Ductile Failure - forces such as pressure comet temperature and load are working on the material of tank/
container, vessel and line. At relatively low stresses coma the material deforms elastically- the expansion
is proportional the stress. If the stress is removed the material will bring back to its original length
because individual atom of the material want to return to the positive where the magnetic force holding
the atom together are balanced.

However, a stage is reached where the magnetic force are insufficient for bringing the individual atom
back to their original location in the structure, and the metal being to deform plastically. Plastic strain is
not recoverable if the stress is taken off of and material starts narrow down rapidly. Eventual the metal
ruptures.

Creep failure :- Creep failure can occur in service because of prolonged minor over helping. And
increase in temperature of only 50`C can reduce the safe operation live by much as 90%. In fact a stress
that will give 11 year life at 500`C main cause of rupture in our at700`C.

Creep involve Permanent deformation which increase with time, leading to cracking at the boundaries of
the grain of the material and eventual rupture.

Brittle Failure :- when sudden shock ( sudden release of force- temperature) are applied to component
and structure, it become weak and eventual ruptures. A brittle material is much less capable of absorbing
for shock loading.

Metal fatigue- the salt development of cracks in structure until static rupture ensues, is caused by the
incidence of fluctuating stresses ( frequent shutdown and startup) in service.

Corrosion:- electrode as chemical attack on materials leads to material remove (pitting or wastage of
cracking).

[Tensile stress – pulling out

Comprehensive stress – pushing in

Shear stress - sliding & slipping

It’s deformation is called strain].

Physical Explosion-

Sudden formation of large quantities of vapour caused by water or some other liquid coming into contact
with some hotter material.

Examples

Vacuum distillation column- pockets of water lying is low part of the column come in contact with hot
oil circulated above the.

Whenever vapour is form very rapidly, due to physical interaction between two separate liquid which are
present initially at different temperature.

Water droplet Come in contact with hot oil.

Chemical Explosion-

30
Explosion

Sudden and violent release of large amount of gas. Damage main result from the picture and
fragmentation of container, shockwave cover heat or fire, for release of toxic gas.

Add explosion involving a chemical reaction can be either a “Deflagration” or “Detonation”.

Deflagration :- consists of a rapid reaction during which heat is transferred progressively from reaction
material to another neighbour material whose temperature is that rise to a point at which, it to reacts. The
rate at which deflagration takes place in hi, but less than the speed of sound. Large amount of hot gases
produced, but unless they are confirm no shockwave will be generated. If the gases are confirmed, it
causes a sudden rupture of the container.

Detonation- If the velocity of the reaction through the reacting material richest Sonic or Supersonic
speed, the explosion is a detonation. A Shockwave will occur your where there is no confinement
(Container).

Some detonation velocity are:-

Hydrogen – Oxygen 9200 feet per second

Tri – Nitrotoluene (TNT) 22800 feet per second

Nitroglycerin 26200 feet per second

Explosive

Saturn that is specifically used to produce an explosion because of the high energy reaction is undergoes.
The reaction an explosive undergoes maybe other combustion aur dissociation, but in either case in the
exothermic process in which the large amount of gas and heat is produced.

Lower explosive - one that normally will deflagrate, and whose reaction rate can be control.

High explosive - will denote, with shattering effect produced by the shockwave it generates.

Explosive Reaction

A Deflagration is generally a combination reaction in which a fuel combines with oxidizer. In some
instance there is also a dissociation reaction first. Most high explosive reaction involve highly energetic
exothermic dissociation in which a complex molecules breakdown into similar molecule, mostly gases
that expand rapidly because of the large amount of heat generated.

The shop, impact, friction, heat source if come in contact with explosives, then it result in an explosion.

TNT Equivalent- weight of TNT which will produce the same effect and that generate by the explosion
of another material. The common measure used for the compression in peak – process.

Nitroglycerin TNT equivalent of 1.42

Ammonium Nitrate TNT equivalent of 0.57

Decomposition/ Dissociation

When chemical (molecule) reaches to is decomposition temperature, break into gases and this gases
expand due to heat generated in decomposition reaction and explosion results.

31
CH2

O  CH4 + CO2 + H2O

CH2

Ethylene Oxide (EO)

2NH3 N2 + 3H2

Polymerization

In a polymerization reaction comma simple molecule react to form a polymer full stop does a polymer is
made up of repeated basic unit produced from. Polymer can be synthesized from various type and
combination of monomers to yield unusual physical and chemical properties. Polymerization is generally
exothermic reaction, which unless careful control can Runaway and create a thermal explosion example.
Styrene, with heat of polymerization of 17 kcal/ molten, can vaporize at high polymerization rates,
rupture the actor and producer vapour dash air mixture within explosive limit. Against at high
temperature, as in a fire, styrene and its polymer undergoes exothermic degradation.

Uncontrol Exothermic Reaction-

in oxidation, Nitration and other such reaction, heat is generated and it is controlled by providing cooling
media to the reaction vessel if cooling media is failed and exothermic reaction become an control and the
heat generated can be explored the vessel ( system).

Runaway reaction-

Certain temperature is said to have a required rate of chemical reaction. The rate of reaction is
proportional to temperature . hence rate of reaction increase exponentially Width increase the
temperature. For every 10 degree Celsius rise in temperature on rate of reaction Doubles full stop when
rate of reaction increase exponentially with increase in Temperature, tremendous Amount of heat is
liberated and that cause explosion.

Incompatible Chemicals-

When incompatible chemical come in contact with each other or get mixed, then violet reaction take
place and that causes explosion.

Example:-

(CH3CO)2O + HNO3 CH3CONO3 + CH3COOH

 Ammonia and nitrogen tetroxide when come in contact with each other and hypergolic reaction
take place and they react so rapidly that combustion start without outside ignition source.
 Acetaldehyde from peroxide with air. Peroxide is explosive.
 Calcium carbide if Gates moisture, Acetylene gas liberates. Acetylene is highly flammable gas.
 Exothermic reaction take place when acid is mixed with water.
 Hydrogen form flammable mixture with chlorine gas and mixture ignits in sunlight( solar
energy)
 Phenol form explosive mixture with acetaldehyde.
 Slow addition of water to a mixture of Acetic acid and acetic anhydride.
Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE).

32
The store flammable liquid in the storage tank ok, if gets heat due to fire outside or physical explosion
inside more than its boiling point, the liquid state boiling full stops because of fast evaporation, vapour
pressure build up inside the tank and that cause rupture of tank. The vapours coming out of the tank from
a vapour cloud and travel further as per wind direction, if this vapour cloud Gates and ignition source of
the way, it explode, if blast effect is high, and this explosion is called a vapour cloud explosion. For low
blast effect, flashfire is possible.

Vapour Cloud Explosion ( VCE)

If the flammable/ combustible vapours/ gases are coming out from the tank/ vessel / container due to
heavy leakage comma from a vapour cloud and travel for the as per wind direction full stops if this
vapour cloud gate and ignition source of the way, it explode, if glass effect is hi, and this explosion is
called a vapour cloud explosion for low blast effect flashfire is possible.

Electrical Explosion-

Sudden conversion Electric energy into heat brakes and insulation and large Spark or series of Spark
come out.

Nuclear Explosion - The fusion / fission process of radioactive substance caution nuclear explosion.

Dust Explosion-

Any combustible solid material is finally divide from can create an explosion if in contact with air and
ignited. A dust explosion is a deflagration that result in a certain development of gas, heat and pressure
the explosion in confirm space may cause the rusting of the container, equipment, or plant in which it is
confirm with the dust is an organic substance, the carbon dioxide produce can asphyxiate anyone present,
but highly toxic carbon monoxide also create can cause fatalities.

Factor Affecting Explosiveness :

 Combustible nature of dust

Massive form................... low flammability

Finely divided .................. high flammability

Iron & aluminium .......... Finally divided required little energy of ignite.

Volatile matter from organic solids ignites at a temperature lower than that’s of solid matter.

 Size of dust particle

As does become finer, the contact between the solid surface and air becomes intimate and easily
combustible as gas.

 Concentration of particle cloud.

When concentration of dust is between specific limit it ignite.

 Temperature of combustible mixture

33
Outside energy is required from ignition. When does started dignity the heat generated is sufficient
further ignition.

 Presence or absence of moisture

Moisture act as a coolant. Moisture cost particle to cling together forming longer masses which have
lesser tendencies to ignite.

 Presence of inert solid particle

Presence of in combustible material reduce or inhibits tendencies of a cloud is Ignite or to propogate.

Type More common potentially explosive dusts

Carbon Coal, Coke

Fertilizer Bone meal, blood flour

Food production starches, sugars, flour, grain dust

Metal powders Aluminium, Magnesium, Zinc, Iron

Miscellaneous wood flour, wood dust, hard rubber, sulphur,

Tobacco, plastic

Causes Preventive Measures

Electrical Proper maintenance, proper earthing

Static Electrical charges Bonding and earthing

Smoking Prohibition

Mechanical Friction Preventive maintenance

Hot surface Insulation, cordoning, safe design

Burner flame Safe operating procedure

Sparks (lighting, exhausts, vents) Arresters, well designed equipments

Mechanical spark Non – sparking tools

Hot work Work-permit system

Spontaneous chemical reaction Storage for long time (inventory to be

Reduced) Incompatible chemicals to stored at

different places

PROTECTION AGAINST EXPLOSION-

The method used for protection against explosion are:

 Containment

34
  Suppression
 Venting
 Isolation
 Partial contaminant
Containment -

Building having 30 cm thick wall and roof of similar thickness should be built from containment and to
resist the missile penetration.

Suppression –

Before explosion, Suppressing against in suppressed in the flame of propagation when the pressure Rise
is low and does over pressurization of tank is avoided.

Venting –

It is outward opening which open with small rice in pressure and went out the material and thus
overpressure is avoided.

Isolation –

Passage of an explosion from one section of plant to another can be avoided by high-speed isolation
equipment and explosion hazard is get some what reduced.

Partial containment –

To protect personal ,plant ,equipment of explosion blast, blast wall is used as Shield or barrier between
explosion hazard and personal, plant, equipment. Blast what should be 30 cm thick and there’s should be
clear space of 15 meter from blast wall of explosion hazard. The installation should be declared as
restricted place.

Paint Industry:

A paint and lacquer manufacturing worker operates and controls equipment and installations that
make and mix organic substances, solvents and pigments to produce lacquers and synthetic paints
according to formulas and work order specifications.

Dangerous about Paint:

Exposure to vapours of solvents, paints and lacquers can cause irritation and damage to eyes and
mucous membranes, to the respiratory and digestive tracts, and to the skin.

Exposure to organic substances (toluene, n-hexane, methylalcohol etc.) may cause damage to the
nervous system.

Skin exposure through contact with solvents and various components of paints, esp. with aromatic
hydrocarbons and organic halogen compounds can cause dermatitis.

Hazard of dermatitis or eczema when working with pigments that contain chrome and cobalt, or due to
contact with azo-dyes and aniline dyes.

35
Exposure to pigment dust (PM10) during grinding and mixing, while preparing the paints.

Exposure to organic substances may cause allergic reactions such as irritation of the respiratory tract
and of the eyes and the skin.

Hazard of explosion, due to presence of extremely fine organic dust in the air during grinding or mixing
of organic pigments while preparing paints.

Discomfort and physiological problems related to the use of malodorous organic substances throughout
the manufacturing process of the dyes and the lacquers, and from the finished products

Preventive measures:

 Wear safety shoes with non-skid soles.

 Use appropriate headgear and avoid wearing loose-fitting cloths during work with moving
machinery.
 Wear appropriate eye protection; consult safety supervisor or supplier.
 Call a qualified electrician to examine and repair faulty or suspect electric equipment.
 Learn and use safe lifting and moving techniques for heavy or awkward loads; use mechanical
aids for the lifting of heavy loads.
 Wear appropriate ear protection; consult a safety supervisor or a supplier.
 Install effective exhaust ventilation and air conditioning to prevent air contamination and heat
stress; if necessary, use odor neutralizing chemicals.
 Install effective exhaust ventilation to prevent air contamination; if necessary, use respiratory
protection.
 Protect the skin of the hands (with barrier cream, or chemical-resistant gloves) when in contact
with solvents and cleaning agents; use specific soaps for cleaning the skin of the hands, at the
end of the work shift. Get medical aid if skin rashes develop; consult an allergy specialist on
how to deal with sensitivity to solvents, metals, etc.

Paint manufacturing worker: Controls equipment to make dyes from coal tar derivatives: Measures
coal tar derivatives, using balance scale or graduated container, dumps them and required amounts
of sodium salt of nitrous acid with hydrochloric acid into vat of water, and starts agitator to make
chromogen (dye-forming substance). Adds ice to chromogen to maintain temperature at prescribed
level. Dips litmus paper into chromogen to determine its acidity. Adds required amounts of
auxochromes (salt-forming materials) to chromogen to strike (form) dye. Tests acidity of dye, using
pH meter, and corrects variances from standard by adding specified acid or alkali to dye [DOT].

Petrochemicals Industry:

The petrochemicals sector is a major segment of manufacturing industry as it has several connections
with other sectors of an economy. Petroleum distillates (petrochemicals) are any of a large group of
chemicals derived from petroleum and natural gas either by direct manufacture or indirect
manufacture as by-products which are used commercially. Oil and natural gas are supposed to be the
main sources for most petrochemicals because they are economical and readily accessible[1].
Manufacturing of petrochemical products requires about 5% of the oil and gas each year.
Petrochemicals share nearly 40 per cent of world chemicals market [2]. Petrochemicals play a major
role in today’s society as they are essential for food, clothing, shelter and leisure. The petrochemicals
are used in many industries like polymers, synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, plastics, soaps and
detergents, solvents, drugs, fertilizers, pesticides, explosives, paints, and flooring and insulating
materials. Petrochemicals are found in distinct products as aspirin, polyester clothes, luggage, boats,
automobiles, air craft and recording discs and tapes. Lubricating oil, kerosene, diesel fuel, gasoline,

36
LPG and jet fuel are not included in petrochemicals as these are not chemical compounds but are
mixtures of hydrocarbons [3,4].

Categories of Petrochemical Products

On the basis of their chemical structure petroleum products are mainly categorized into three
groups i.e. aromatics, olefins, and synthetic gas. Aromatics are mainly used for the production of
plastics and synthetic fibers, synthetic detergents, etc.

Olefins are considered as the major source for the preparation of industrial chemicals and its
important components are Toluene, Xylenes, and Benzene. Synthetic gases are usually meant for
the production of methanol and ammonia and are comprised of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
Hazards Associated with Petrochemical Industries Although the petrochemicals give us innumerable
useful products but they can also be injurious to the health of living beings and the earth’s
ecosystem.

Most of these chemicals when released can exhibit unfavorable effects on our environment such as
air, water and soil pollution. The aromatic compounds present in petrochemicals are important
environmental pollutants which may be introduced into the environment through natural oil seeps,
industry waste products and emissions, oil storage wastes, accidental spills from oil tankers, coal tar
processing wastes, petrochemical industrial effluents and emissions etc. Petrochemical industry is
an important source for the principal greenhouse gases responsible for global warming. Other
environmental impacts include ozone layer depletion, acid rain, air pollution etc. In the
petrochemical industry, potentially harmful substances release dare noxious, foul odor, or
combustible [7, 8].

In areas nearby petrochemical industries, elevated sound levels induce noise pollution associated
with feelings of headache, annoyance, uneasiness, stress, impatience, displeasure, hypersensitivity,
extreme anxiety, anger, endangerment and violence. Contamination of soils may take place from
residuals of refining processes including some hazardous wastes, catalysts or coke dust, tank
bottoms, and sludge from the treatment processes.

The petrochemical industry may also come up with loss of biodiversity and destruction of
ecosystems [9]. Effluents coming out of petrochemical industries contain a large amount of
polycyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols, metal derivatives, surface-active substances,
sulphides, naphthylenic acids and other chemicals [10].

Due to the inefficient purification systems, toxic products present in effluents accumulate in the
water bodies resulting in water pollution which is fatal to both aquatic and human life [11].

Exposure to petrochemicals may take place in different ways; they may be absorbed through the
skin or might be ingested. They can also affect human life by accumulating in tissues/organs and
cause brain, nerve and liver damage, birth defects, cancer, asthma and hormonal disorders. Skin
irritation, ulcers and allergic dermatitis are chronic effects of exposure [12-15].

37
Petroleum Refineries:

Crude oil is a complex mixture of thousands of different hydrocarbons and varying amounts of
other compounds containing sulphur, nitrogen, and oxygen as well as salts, trace metals, and water.
Crude oils can vary from a clear liquid, similar to gasoline, to a thick tar-like material needing to be
heated to flow through a pipeline. A petroleum refinery's main job is to split crude oil into its many
parts (or fractions) which are then reprocessed into useful products. The type, number, and size of
process units required at a particular refinery depends on a variety of factors including the type of
crude oil and the products required. The interconnected units making up a refinery are a maze of
tanks, furnaces, distillation towers (fractionating columns), reactors, heat exchangers, pumps,
pipes, fittings, and valves.

Products of crude oil refineries include

• fuels such as gasoline, diesel fuel, heating oil, kerosene, jet fuel, bunker fuel oil, and liquified
petroleum gas
• petroleum solvents including benzene, toluene, xylene, hexane, and heptane, which are used in
paint thinners, dry-cleaning solvents, degreasers, and pesticide solvents
• lubricating oils produced for a variety of purposes, and insulating, hydraulic, and medicinal oils
• petroleum wax
• greases, which are primarily a mixture of various fillers
• asphalt.

These products can be hazardous not only in their final state but as they are being processed and
refined. Health and Safety Hazards The plant and equipment of refineries are generally modern,
and the processes are largely automatic and totally enclosed. Routine operations of the refining
processes generally present a low risk of exposure when adequate maintenance is carried out and
proper industry standards for design, construction, and operation have been followed. The
potential for hazardous exposures always exists, however. Because of the wide variety of
hydrocarbon hazards and their complexity, it is impossible to identify all of the hazards here – and
impossible for construction crews to know everything they may need for protection when
performing maintenance, repair, or installation work in an oil refinery. As a worker you must
depend on the knowledge available from the plant operating and maintenance staff, normally
available through your employer.

If there is reasonable doubt about a situation in which you find yourself, exercise your “right to
know” and make use of WHMIS to obtain the information, equipment, and procedures necessary to
protect yourself and your fellow workers.

Hazardous Chemicals
In a refinery, hazardous chemicals can come from many sources and in many forms. In crude oil,
there are not only the components sought for processing, but impurities such as sulphur, vanadium,
and arsenic compounds.
The oil is split into many component streams that are further altered and refined to produce the
final product range. Most, if not all, of these component stream chemicals are inherently hazardous
to humans, as are the other chemicals added during processing.
Hazards include fire, explosion, toxicity, corrosiveness, and asphyxiation. Information on hazardous
materials manufactured or stored in a refinery should be supplied by the client's representative
when a work permit is issued.

Fire and Explosion

38
  The principal hazards at refineries are fire and explosion. Refineries process a multitude of
products with low flash points.
 Although systems and operating practices are designed to prevent such catastrophes, they
can occur. Constant monitoring is therefore required.
 Safeguards include warning systems, emergency procedures, and permit systems for any
kind of hot or other potentially dangerous work.
 These requirements must be understood and followed by all workers.
 The use of matches, lighters, cigarettes, and other smoking material is generally banned in
the plant except in specially designated areas.

Pharmaceutical Industry:

The pharmaceutical industry is making headways in responsible disposal of hazardous waste.

Although studies conducted to date do not suggest that the quantities of pharmaceutical wastes detected
in the environment may be harmful to human health, the pharmaceutical industry is increasingly looking
into ways to ensure the manufacture, distribution, use and disposal of products are conducted in an
environmentally safe manner.

Pharmaceutical companies and researchers are beginning to believe that the solution lies not just in the
safe disposal of pharmaceutical waste, but also in the
production of less waste.

Pharmaceutical manufacturers, through the use of research and technology, are now focusing on the
integration of “green” chemistry and engineering models during the manufacturing process. Other
advances, such as those in the enzymatic catalysis of synthetic reactions, solvent substitution and the
recycling of by-products and waste have the potential to increase efficiency and overall productivity.

At the same time, they can reduce waste streams and energy usage and minimize the need for harmful
reagents. This will augment the progress that has already been made by the pharmaceutical industry in
terms of removing impurities using thermal processing, advanced wastewater treatment and other
technologies.

Waste effects and disposal methods

Hazardous waste has properties that make it dangerous or potentially harmful to human health or the
environment. The universe of hazardous wastes is extensive and varied. Wastes can take the form of
liquids, solids, contained gases or sludge. They can be the by-products of the manufacturing processes or
may consist of discarded commercial products, such as cleaning fluids or pesticides.

39
They are classified as: ecotoxic, whereby they cause damage to the environment; carcinogenic, whereby
they cause or contribute to the causation of cancer; persistent, where they remain dangerous for a long
time; or bio-accumulative – waste that accumulates as it makes its way up the food chain.

As a general measure, about 200kg of waste is generated per metric ton of active ingredient
manufactured by the pharmaceutical industry. This waste contains spent solvents and other toxic
organics in significant concentrations requires treatment before it can be disposed of safely. Of these,
volatile organic compounds and particulate matter are among the principal air pollutants produced by the
pharmaceutical industry.

There are several effective technologies for dealing with and minimizing the release of these particulates.
These include stack gas scrubbing (which reduces air pollution from a cupola stack or other stack that
deliver particulate matter into the atmosphere), carbon absorption and biological filters. Combustion is
used for the destruction of toxic organics.

However, disposal of liquid effluents from solid wastes is a much tougher problem and is very much at
the forefront of the public debate about the impact of the industry on the environment.

Wastes are generally safely treated by reverse osmosis and/or ultra-filtration, which are used to recover
and concentrate active wastes. Treatment can also include flocculation, flotation, coagulation, filtration,
ion exchange, carbon absorption, detoxification of active ingredients by oxidation and biological
treatment.

Exhausted carbon may be sent for regeneration or combustion, organics are steam stripped and toxic
metals are precipitated and filtered out. Solid-waste by-products are then generally incinerated at
temperatures above 1,000°C. The flue gases are then scrubbed and the remaining waste sent to landfill.

Mike Murray, head of Manufacturing and Environment at the Association of the British Pharmaceutical
Industry says that overall the treatment depends on the type of waste: “If the waste involves any finished
products, it will go for incineration,” he explains.

“The industry would not take any chances with rejected or returned products finding their way onto the
market. Anything that looks like a product would definitely involve incineration.”

Chapter 3: Safe Handling of Chemicals

SAFETY PRECAUTION WHIL WORKING WITH CHEMICALS

A sample guideline is as under: The dangers of working with chemical substance can be reduced to a
minimum by observing certain substances can be reduced to a minimum by observing certain simple
basic rules:

1. Gaseous, liquid or solid chemical substances whose properties are not fully known should be
treated as dangerous and handled very carefully.

40
 2. Avoid contact with chemical substances. Chemicals should always be handled mechanically.
Containers and implements which can be contaminating with chemicals should be handled
wearing gloves. In special cases, additional protective measures will be prescribed.
3. Cleanliness is a basic requirement for safe working with chemicals. Emission of dust, vapours
and gases, and the spillage of liquids and solids can be largely eliminated by careful working.
Local ventilation installations must be used. Implements should be cleaned immediately after
use.
4. Chemicals substances should always be used exactly according to the written procedure. Anyone
deviating from the procedure on his own responsibility is a danger to himself and others.
5. Chemicals should only be used when the drums, sacks, containers or pipelines containing them
are clearly labelled.
a. Control that the product name and delivery number on the drums and on the delivery
note coincide. Though appearance alone is no guarantee of correct id entity, a visual
check should be made. In cases of doubt, or when a mix-up has actually occurred, a
report must be made immediately
6. Many highly reactive chemicals may only be used under strictly controlled conditions. For
substances which react violently with water, the water contact should be avoided.
7. Substances which decompose dangerously under the influence of contact with air, elevated
temperature, impact or pressure, or contact with catalysts, appropriate safety measures contained
in the written procedure should be followed. Dry at low temperature, for example release the
vacuum in vacuum driers with an inert gas instead of air. Do not open the drier before room
temperature has been attained. Release the vacuum in vacuum distillations with and inert gas.
Expose distillations residues to the air only when cold. Handle and store catalysts only under the
specially defined conditions.Prevent compounds which are particularly prone to decomposition.
(e.g. certain diazo – compounds) form drying out (leaks, splashes)
8. Substances which ignite spontaneously e.g. white phosphorus, pyrophoric catalysts etc. should
be handled under and inert gas or liquid. Where necessary wear special protective clothing, keep
the prescribed means of extinguishing on hand.
9. Prevent the possibility of dangerous combinations. Follows the written procedure precisely.
When pre paring work, ensure complete separations of compounds which are dangerous when
mixed.
10. Not only actual explosives, but also numerous widely impact. Example; acetylene and
derivatives, acetyl nitrate, acrylic and its esters, ethylene imine,ethylene oxide, azides ,
amomethase ,peroxide, chlorates, perohlorate ,cyanogens chloride, hydrogen cyanid,
hydprazinedervates,Ozonides, propargylalcohol and other propargyl compounds is governed by
special safety measures which are to be found in the written procedures
11. Chemicals which are spill or contaminated should not be simply discarded in the refusebin, but
disposed of according to instruction the supervisor
12. The quantities of chemicals stored in a chemical plant at any time should be kept to the minimum
required for normal working.
HIGHLY EXOTHEMIC REACTIONS :

In exothermic reactions, heat is given out as reaction proceed. This reaction of heat raises the
temperature of reaction mass. Approximately for every 100C. rise in temperature, reaction rates doubles.
Thus with increase in temperature reaction proceeds faster and still more heat is given out.

This chain of operation makes the reaction uncontrollable unless adequate arrangement for removing
heat is provided in the reaction vessel. The reaction rate has to be gradually increased, so that reaction
does not reach runway stage.

41
For highly exothermic reactions since temperature has to be increased very gradually, automatic
programmers are provided which maintain a predetermined rate of rise in temperature and thus prevent
the reaction from reaching runways stage. In addition to safety valve, a rupture disc with surge vessel is
provided to receive the entire reaction mass in case of reaction reaching runways stage.

The pressure gauge, temperature gauge, safety vive, rupture disc, drowing tank, cooling device, agitator,
feed control, drain valve, etc. should be regularly checked and properly maintained.

PRESSURE REACTIONS:

Any vessel maintained at a pressure above 1 atmosphere is a pressure vessel. Suitable means of pressure
release such as safety valve, rupture disc should be provided, gases released from safety valve, if
poisonous, should be scrubbed before venting to atmosphere. Emphasis should be laid proper design,
maintenance and testing of pressure vessels. Their thickness should be periodically checked for
corrosion, pitting etc. pressure guage, temperature guage, temperature regulator safety valve, rupture
safety valve, rupture guage pressure reducing valve, drawing tank, drain valve, feed control, temperature
control (heating, cooling control), agitator control stoppage alarm, gas leakage alarm safe vent safety
valve, flame trap non return valve indicator, earthing, flame arrester safe and sound jacket, water cooling
of gland packing, cooling medial stoppage alarm, automatic cut off and regulating devices, remote
control provided as per requirement.

FLOAMMABLE AND EXPLOSIVE REACTIONS :

Utmost care should be taken during their storage, transport handling and reaction. As far as possible
manual handling of such chemicals should be avoided because they aretoxic and flammable, bulk
storage of these chemicals come under preview of Chief Controller of Explosive. Free fall of flammable
liquids should be avoided. Suitable dip pipes should be provided. All lines carrying flammable material
must be bounded by copper clamps and earthed. Continuity should be less then 1 Ohm. Pumps handling
these chemicals should have brass impeller to avoid sparks due to friction. Flow velocity should not
exceed 6 m/sec in pipeline to avoid static charge accumulation. Reaction of flammable chemicals
including-solvent distillation should be carried out at low pressure or under vacuum or inert blanketing.
Flore or incinerator should be provided if required. Another danger to flammable solvents comes from
smoking and electric sparks. All electric fitting should be flameproof including lightning. During
maintenance, use of ferrous tools should be provided. Fire extinguishers should be kept ready.

TOXIC REACTIONS :

For handling acid, alkali and other toxic chemicals workers must be provided with suitable protective
appliances such as rubber or PVC hand gloves, gum-boots, safety goggles, apron etc. suitable poster
showing dangerous properties of these chemicals should be prominently displayed.

Arrangement for combating spills of these chemicals such as wash water or sand for covering up should
be available nearby. The workers should be suitably trained in the use of these chemicals before giving
responsible job independently. Suitable scrubbers, absorbers, or neutralizers for organic gas, vapour etc.
should be provided and well maintained.

For handling poisonous gases such as chlorine, ammonia, sulphur dioxide, phosgene, phosphine etc.
workers must be trained before assigning them responsible jobs. They should be provided with suitable
respiratory protection. Arrangement should be provided in the plant.

A chemical can enter our body through injection, inhalation, or skin contact. Lead, mercury, aromatic
solvents, and amino aromatic compounds, benzene, tolune, chlorine. Chromium etc. are a few examples

42
which can find entry into human body through various routes. The workers bust be suitably protected
from exposure to such chemicals.

Efficient exhaust system, scrubbers and protective appliances to avoid body contact should be provide.
Skin absorption is the most important route and least understood by the average worker. Worker
education plays and important role in the use of PPE. Workers should be trained to wear proper PPE.
After handling of dangerous chemicals, workers must change their clothing followed by bath with soap
and water. Provision of safety shower within reach is essential.

Periodic medical test of exposed to hazardous chemicals should be carried out. If worker shows any
indication of poisoning due to chemicals suitable preventive measures should be taken.

BULK STORAGE OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS

The largest quantities of chemicals are available in storage facilities, which may be at factory site or in
other isolated storage places. Therefore, it is very important to prevent the loss of containment from
storage of hazardous chemicals. The loss of toxic chemicals could give rise to the worst kind of chemical
industry disaster like Bhopal. Losses through fires in storage result in financial loss rather than loss of
life and make relatively less public impact.

There are numerous standards and codes of practice which are applicable to storage. Here under this
topic an attempt is bei9ng made to highlight some of the principles laid down in the standards & codes.
The Bureau of Indian Standards have brought out a number of safety codes for chemicals and other
hazardous materials.

1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The objective of storage in a factory is to smooth fluctuations in the day-to-day requirements, and
availability. If there are no fluctuations, there is no need for storage.

The are basically two basic principles in the design of a storage facility, which are kept in mind :

(i) Economic consideration; and

(ii) Safety aspects.
The types of storage which are economic in these alternative designs may be different and may have
different and may have different safety implication also. A hazardous chemical stored under pressurized
condition may pose comparatively more hazards than t5he same chemical stored under atmospheric
conditions. The chemical will need more spece when stored under atmospheric storage conditions and
hence will cost more. So a compromise has to be made between the two aspects.

Most of the hazardous chemicals held in storage are flammable liquids or liquefied gases. The code
specifies measures to minimize spillages. The vessels and pipe work should be of high standards. The
number of connections below the liquid level should be kept to a minimum, preferably just one
filling/discharge line if possible. The minimum size connections should be used for draining and

43
sampling. Barriers should be provided to protect the vessel against external damage. Measures to control
spillages and fire are also available in the codes.

2. TYPES OF STORAGE
THE MAIN TYPES OF STORAGE ARE: FLUIDS REFFERED AS:

(1) Liquid at atmospheric pressure and temperature - Volatile liquids

(Atmospheric Storage)
(2) Liquefied gas under pressure and at atmospheric - Flashing liquefied gas
Temperature (pressure storage)
(3) Liquefied gas under pressure and at low temperature - Semi-refrigerate liquefied
(refrigerated pressure storage, semi-refrigerated storage)
(4) Liquefied gas at atmospheric pressure and at low - Refrigerated liquefied gas
Temperature (fully refrigerated storage)
(5) Gas under pressure - Gas under pressure.
A leak of a volatile liquid stored under condition (1) results only in slow evaporation but in case of leak
of a chemical stored under condition (4) initial flash off will take and then evaporation will be slow but
faster than the first case. So in brief the situation will vary depending upon the type of storage involved
in a teak. The economics of storage of liquefied gases are that it is preferred to use pressure storage for
small quantities, pressure or semi-refrigerated storage for medium to large quantities and fully
refrigerated storage for very large quantities.

3. LAYOUT OF STORAGE
The storage, process and terminals should be suitably arranged. The storage should be built on
ground able to support the heavy load and located between the process and the terminals. The
wind characteristics should also be taken into consideration which reduces the hazard of
flammable liquids or vapours.
3.1 SEGREGATION:- the segregation and separation of hazardous chemicals within the storage are
mainly based on :(1) Classification of hazardous chemicals stored:(2) of electrical areas:(3)of
fire protection measures.
The classification of hazardous chemicals are based on based on their physical, chemical and
hazardous properties like the flash point classification, toxicity rating, UN classification etc,
Electrical area classification into zone 0, 1 and 2 is based on fire hazard potential.
3.2 BUNDS:- In general, bunds are provided for atmospheric storage tanks and for fully
refrigerated storage tanks of liquefied gas. Bunds are generally not recommended for pressure
or semi-refrigerated storage of liquefied gas.
The purpose of bund is to retain liquid so that it can be dealt within a controlled manner.
Atmospheric storage tanks are generally provided with full bunds. If there are more than one
tank inside the bund the capacity should be that of the largest tank after allowing for the
displacement due to the other tanks. Low division walls between the tanks within a bund are
recommended. Sometimes it may not be practicable to provide full bund capacity: under that
circumstance use may be made of a separate impounding area into which a liquid spillage may
be run.
The bund wall should be far enough from the side of the tank to prevent a jet of liquid jumping
over. The comers of the bund should be rounded. The bund wall. Walls of the bund should not
be so high to hinder fire fighting. In some literature the maximum height is given as 2 metre.
There should be minimum access allows safe access/escape in all wind direction.

44
 For pressure storage vessels containing LPG a full bund is not recommended, because after
spillage a large amount of liquid will remain after the initial flash off. For example, 67% of
propane will remain in liquid form after an initial flash off from a pressure storage tank of
propane at 16 deg. C.(Theoretical).
Fully refrigerated storage tanks containing liquid ammonia should also be provided with a full-
bund.
3.3 SEPARATION DISTANCES:- Minimum recommended separation distances for storage are
given in various codes and other publications. In India safety distances for pressurized (toxic,
flammable & corrosive chemicals) storage is given in the static and Mobile pressure vessel
(SMPV) Rules 1981 (Table-1)
Two main factors which should determine separation are: (1) Heat from burning liquid: and (2)
ignition of a vapour escape. To get exact separationdistances for storage, engineering
calculations are done based on direct flame impingement and on heat radiation.
The minimum recommended separation distance for storage tanks for class A and B flammable
liquids are given in Table-2. (Institute of petroleum, 1965, Refining Safety Code).

MINIMUM SAFETY DISTANCE FOR FLAMABLE CORROSIVE AND TOXIC GASES

SO. Water capacity of vessel (in litres) Minimum distance Minimum distance
No. from buildings or line between pressure
of adjoining property vessels
(i) Not above 2,000 5 metres 1 metre
(ii) Above 2,000 but not above 10,000 10 metres 1 metre
(iii) Above 10,000 but not above 20,000 15 metres 1.5 metre
(iv) Above 20,000 but not above 40,000 20 metres 2 metre
(v) Above 40,000 30 metres 2 metre

SI. Factor Type of tank roof Minimum distance

No.
1. Distance between tank and a) Fixed roof A minimum of 50 ft. (15m)
building containing
flammable material, e.g. b) Floating roof A minimum of 20 ft. (6m)
filling shed or storage
building
2. Distance between tank and Both types A minimum of 50 ft.
boundry or any source of (15m), any source of
ignition ignition, irrespective of
distance should not be
within the bund.
3. Maximum tankage capacity a) Fixed roof 60,000 ton water capacity
in one bund b) Floating roof 1,20,000 ton
4. Volume of bund Both types Net volume not less than
100% of capacity of the
largest tank

45
 3.4 Other Aspects :- Diversion walls can be used to divert large vapour flows to area where they
can be dealt with more safety. Stream curtains are considered as a means of maintaining
separation from an ignition source. Fire walls are utilized ti give protection against flame or heat
radiated from a fire.
4. STORAGE TANKS AND VESSELS
The main types of storage tanks and vessels for liquids and liquified gases are :
(1) Atmospheric storage tanks;
(2) Low pressure storage tanks;
(3) Pressure or refrigerated pressure storage tanks; and
(4) Refrigerated storage tanks.
4.1 Atmospheric Storage :- Atmospheric storage tanks are of types, namely (1) fixed roof tanks; and
(2) floating roof tanks. Atmospheric tanks are designed to withstand an internal
pressure/cacuum of not more than 1 psig.
4.2 Low pressure storage :- Low pressure tanks are designed to withstand internal pressure in the
range of 0.5-15 psig. Use is also made of low pressure tanks in refrigerated storage, as described
below.
4.3 Pressure and refrigerated pressure storage :- Pressure storage vessels are regular pressure
vessels and can be designed to high pressure as required. The lower end of the scale for pressure
storage are used.
4.4 Refrigerated storage :- This is a domed roof, flat bottomed tank. It is essentially an atmospheric
storage tank, with a design pressure below 1 psig.

5. SAFETY FEATURES – ATMOSPHERIC STORAGE VESSEL

5.1 Atmospheric venting :-
A fixed roof atmospheric storage tank is connected to atmosphere by a vent to prevent the tank
from overpressure or under pressure at the time filling and emptying, respectively. The vent
should always be kept free from the blockage.
5.2 Pressure/Vacuum Calves (PV) :- A fixed roof containing volatile liquid breaths heavily. To
prevent vapour loss a PV calve is effective. The blockage of the valve should be avoided.
5.3 Flame Arrestor :- If the vapour space above the liquid in a fixed roof atmospheric storage tank
contains a flammable mixture, there is a possibility that it will be ignited via the vent. A flame
arrestor may be used to prevent this.
5.4 Fire Relief :- Fixed roof tank should also be provide with certain arrangements to prevent it
from getting damage/pressurized due to heat in case of a fire. In practice it is done by making
the seam between the Snell and the roof weak so that it is the first to rapture. This is known as
rupture seam arrangement.
(1) Minimum temperatures which may be attained
(2) Material of construction
(3) Allowances in pipe work for stresses due to movement, expansion/ contraction and
vibration.
(4) Joints (flanged joints should be kept to a minimum).
(5) Size of pipeline below the liquid the liquid level.
(6) Liquid expansion valves between shut-off valves.
(7) Access to valves.
(8) Protection against mechanical damage.
(9) Number of pipeline below the liquid level.
8. ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT

In storage installations the main types of ancillary equipment are pump, refrigeration
compressors and vaporizers. Pumps are a potential source of leakage of flammable vapours. A pump

46
should be provided with a bypass discharge line back to the storage, to prevent the pump getting hot, if
pumping against a closed valve. Pumps should be located outside the bund.

9. FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION

Fire protection of storage has several objectives. Those are : (1) ti minimize hazard to personnel;
(2) to minimize loss due to the initial fire; and (3) to prevent spread of fire to other vessels and
equipment. Personnel are at risk principally from an expansion or sudden spread of fire.

IMPORTANT PRECAUTIONS FOR SAFE HANDLING LPG

1. Overfilling is most common occurrence, leading to serious fires in LPG storage. Ensure proper
attention. Correctness of level indicators, proper setting of valves and calculation availability of
space prior to receipt.
2. Control leaks, which are the cause of accidents and fires. Take prompt corrective action.
Remember a small liquid leak becomes a large dangerous vapour cloud.
3. Drains may freeze when depressurizing equipments or drawing water. Be sure ice is not slopping
flow. (Open first block valve adjacent to line/ equipment full and then crack open slowly the
second valve shut off second valve first.)
4. Sampling liquid light ends can be hazardous be sure proper equipment and procedures are used.
5. Install bull plugs on all small connections bleeders and drains when not in use.
6. Check for oxygen in vapor spaces of non – vented operating drums and storage vessels.
7. During shut – down remove residual hydrocarbons before admitting any air. During start – ups
remove residual air before admitting LPG keep air out when on stream.
8. Be sure adequate electrical grounds are used at loading and unloading racks.
9. Do not pressurize a container with air to empty it use Nitrogen.
10. Be sure proper storage or transport container is used for the hydrocarbons to be contained. Never
put propane in a butane container.
11. Use caution to perform mechanical work on operating equipment. Follow rigidly work permit
system hot work. Which is unavoidable should be carried out ensuring appropriate safety
precautions and supervision.
12. Never leave a connected tank truck car unattended.
13. If an L P Gas spill or leak occurs, clear the area of any source of ignition (for instance do not
take vehicles, including fire trucks nearby) stop the leakage or flow of L P Gas to the affected
equipment.
14. Vessel containing L. P. Gas that is exposed to fire should sprayed with water to keep the shell
surface cool.

HANDLING OF CORROSIVE SUBSTANCE

Corrosive substance causes severe damage when in contact with the living tissues or in the case of
leakage it damages the surrounding. It may cause fire when comes I contact with org. chemicals. Certain
corrosive substances have other more serious hazardous property such as toxicity. Imp Corrosive
substance is Acid, Alkalis, halogens, organic halides, esters and salts.

Ehen this substance comes in contact with the skin, they may produce chemical burns or deep ulceration,
dermatitis.

47
 1. Prevent its contacts with skin, eyes and mucous membranes.
2. Corrosive substance should not be allowed to react with other materials.
3. All the containers, pipe, equipments should be protected by suitable exiting unaffected by
corrosives.
4. All containers should be clearly labelled to indicate contents.
5. A high std. of housekeeping is essential.
6. Adequate ventilation and exhaust system for corrosive toxic gases should be provided.
7. Personal protective equipments such as corrosion resistant suit, face shield, gas masks, barrier
cream should be used.
8. Eye wash and safety shower should be uninstalled in corrosive handling area.
HANDLING OF GAS CYLINDERS, STORAGE AND HANDLING OF FLAMMABLE GAS

- Do not drop, and strike

- Do not use magnetic crane for loading and unloading
- Unload on surface which padded with mattress to minimize shock
- Store away from heat, store vertically.
- Store away from passage, entrances, stairs etc.
- Spark, excessive heat or flame should not allowed to come in contact with cylinder.
- Leaky cylinder should be kept at isolated place to avoid its exposure.
- Cylinder should be slowly depressurized
- Do not interchange the valve assembly of cylinder of difference gases
- Flammable gases are generally stored in the liquified and compressed state and usually stored in
cylinders
In the handling and storage of cylinders, it must be ensured that the cylinders are protected form damage
due to deterioration and heat.

Storage rooms for cylinders should be dry, cool and well ventilated, Toxic cylinders, oxygen cylinders
should not be stored near cylinder containing flammable gases.

STORAGE AND HANDLING OF FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS

Flammable liquids are easily get ignited and are difficult to extinguish. Their vapours from explosive
mixture with air closed containers has moderate fire risk but become severe when containers start leaking
to avoid leakage container should not be essential in storage areas of flammable liquid. Should be
isolated by distance and protective walls, before handling container should be carefully inspected and
leaky container shall be segregated.

Storage room shall be effectively ventilated cutting welding and smoking is avoided in the storage areas.
Effectively fire hydrant system shall be installed in storage areas and sufficient no of fire extinguishers
should be available in suitable location in storage areas.

HANDLING AND STORAGE OF FLAMMABLE SOLIDS

Flammable solids are of fall behaviors ;

- Pyrophoric in nature
- Reaction with moisture and water
- Spontaneous combustion
- Generation of static electricity
- Dust explosion
Storage of flammable solids could be open or in bags, hoppers

48
 1. If it is stored in open, then the height of stack should not be more than 3m. dust formation and
ignition should be strictly avoided
2. Water sensitive are stored flightly in drums, moisture is avoided
3. If it is stored bags, bags should be stacked to avoid water damage
4. Stored area should be away from that source
5. Automatic fire alarm should be installed in storage area
HANDLING –

Normally flammable solids are carried out in bulk carriers, bucket conveyor etc.

Good housekeeping is maintained to avoid dust collection and hence dust explosion

Near conveyor, earthing metal comb should be installed to discharge electrostatic charge produced near
belt and pulley.

Maintenance of handling of equipment should be such that frictional spark is avoided.

Electrical install must be of dust proof type

The storage area should be equipment with hydrant system and adequate no of fire extinguishers should
install in that area.

TRANSPORTING, RECEIVEING, STORING & HANDLING HAZARDS & CONTROLS;

Storage tanks of dangerous chemicals must be controlled properly. Safe inventory must be maintained.
Content should be minimum possible. Necessary safety fitting on the tanks should provided. LPG tanks
and tanks of other, flammable or toxic chemicals must have proper safety devices, toxic gases should be
kept in liquified state if possible. Cooling media and devices, safety valves, pressure gauge, temperature
gauge, scrubber, level or contents indicators flare tower, water curtain, toxic exposure sensors and
alarms, exhaust by pass, safe discharge and collection, etc. should be provided as per requirement.

Name and quantity must be clearly mentioned to assess the hazard potential, barrels, carboys, glass
vessels must be kept handled and used in safe manners. Use emergency kits, tools etc. where necessary.

All the vents of storage tanks of low boiling chemicals should be connected to an appropriate scrubber to
take care of at least thrice the normal boiling rate.

TRANSPORTATION AND HANDLING OF CHEMICALS:

While considering transportation of chemicals one has to consider the physical and chemical properties
of the product being handled, whether it is a solid, a power, a liquid or a gas under pressure; the type of
packing, hazards, the mode of transport available.

MODES OF PACKAGING:

Glass bottles and carboys are some of the oldest packaging available for corrosive liquids, solvent etc,
some of the bulk industrial materials still being transported in bottles are Bromine Mercury etc. the
laboratory reagents and pure grade chemicals are also transported in glass bottles of various size. Many
corrosive chemical like Nitric acid. Suiphury chloride, Thiony chloride etc. are transported in glass
carboys holding 15 – 50 kg of the material.

49
These glass bottles and carboys have to be properly protected against shock. Wooden crates for
carboys,plastic or paper packing for bottles is usual. Dangerous chemical are further protected by
packing in clays or other absorbent material so that in case the bottle the chemical is absorbed and cause
least damage. Plastic bottles, jars, carboys and drums: These could be constructed out polyhtene either of
low density or high density PVC or other materials. Quality a lot of chemicals ranging from laboratory
chemical to Industrial raw material are being packed and transported in plastic containers.

These containers may be further protected by wooden case. The material must be correctly chosen.
Several tragedies have occurred because, on long storage the plastic containers became brittle and the
chemical leaked out.

Steel drums in various sizes have been used for storage and transportation of solvents and chemicals.

Even corrosive chemical like chiorosutphonic acid are shipped in steel containers.

This is quite a common packing for chemicals of all description and quite economical too. Recently
polythene and PVC liners, as well as polythene lined drums, have been made available and these are used
for packing even highly corrosive material like hydrochloric acid. Proper sealing of the drums in
essential.

Bags of various types: Jute bags and paper bags are use for the innocuous chemicals like soda ash, Salt,
sulphur, etc. polythene lined jute bags have been use for material which need to be protected against
moisture. Woven high density polythene bags are being used for packing corrosive and water sensitive
materials like caustic soda and caustic potash. Obviously this packing cannot stand piercing and must be
well protected and handled such that the bags are not damaged. In transport the bags must be properly
stacked and secured.

Gases under pressure in cylinders: Quite a few gases like chlorine, Sulphur dioxide, Ammoina, ethylene
oxide, Oxygen, etc are sold in cylinders containing quantities ranging from 50-1000kgs.

Steel cylinders are the commonest, but various kinds of linings are also given for special products, The
rule governing the design, testing and filling of cylinders are quite elaborate and must be followed.

Tank cars for bulk transport of chemicals are very common, particularly for petroleum products,
solvents, acids and alkali solutions. Tank can be made of various materials of construction such as steel,
stainless steel, rubber -lined FRP of FRP lined, lead -lined or any other special construction. The tank
cars should be in various sizes, holding 5-10 tons for road transport or 20-50 tones or more for rail
transport.

For safety the tank cars should be properly designed and fabricated to meet the service service condition.
Contamination should be avoided as it could be dangerous for the product as well as discharging should
be provided.

Vent valves, arrangements to prevent static electricity build up when handling solvents, are a must.
Gases under pressure such as liquefied natural gas, chlorine etc. are also transported by tank cars.

MODES OF TRANSPORT:

1. Railroad Transportation accounts for quite a large proportion of the chemical transportation. The
greatest hazard in this mode of transportation is that because of the far flung operations, it is not
possible to train everyone connected with the operation in the proper care to be taken. Proper
labelling of hazards involved is a help. Derailment and accidents are other hazards.
The preventive measures are:

50
 a) Improved design of the tankers and the couplers.
b) Limitation on the size of the tanks.
c) Positioning of the hazardous chemicals away from the Locomotive.
d) Avoiding bunching together of hazardous chemicals.
e) Proper labelling of contents and hazardous nature of the chemicals.

2. ROAD TRANSPORTATION OF CHEMICALS IS VERY COMMON :

Road tank cars are constructed in a wide variety of materials like steel, stainless steel, lined
material and FRP construction.Sometimes these wagons have to be heated or cooled. The
MaharashtraGovernment has made it compulsory to displace above class labels on the tank. But
such rules should be from the central Government so that it is equally applicable throughout
India.

Arrangements for loading and unloading of the liquids have to be well designed. It is preferred to
load toxic and flammable materials from the bottom. It is preferable to provide a discharge pump
on the tank.

Drums, crates cylinders are also transported by truck. The important thing to see is that the
chemical is securely packed so that spillages to do not occur on the road and toxic vapours are
not release. The cylinders or drums should be securely lashed so that they do not drop off the
truck and cause, a danger. The driver and the attendant should be fully conversant with the nature
of the material and the hazards involved; and trained to handle the situation.

3. TRANSPORT THROUGH PIPELINES : Petroleum products, crude oil, and natural gas are
some of the more important products transported by pipelines, the size may vary anywhere up to
50” diameter and the pressure up to 1200 psig. Pipelines have been laid for long distance, often
across national boundaries. Booster stations are largely automatic stations requiring very fail safe
devices. The pipelines are usually buried about 1 meter ground and must be protected against
corrosion. Leakages are likely to occur. The pipelines to be checked constantly. The biggest
danger to pipelines comes from outside sources like unauthorized digging and from corrosion.

TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS STATUTORY REQUIREMENTS

EXPLOSIVES

Explosives are classified into eight classes. Commercial Explosives are mostly solids. Under Explosives
Rules Sc. II, incorporates specifications for packages, maximum quantity allowed in each package.

The word ‘Explosive’, the name of authorized explosive, the name of class & division, the safety
distances, category of explosive, the name of manufacture and net weight should be marked on outer
package of fire works.

51
The vehicle transporting fire works/explosives should have licence.

Vehicles carrying explosives should bear the word ‘E’ written on the sides & rear. The name and address
of the licences and its number should also be written in small letters on the side.

The vehicles carry the load permitted by rules.

The vehicles should not be parked at places where public safety would be endangered. In available
circumstances if the vehicles required to be parked at such place, the nearby police station should be
informed.

The traffic rules, such as distances between vehicles, crossing unmanned railway crossing or main
highway, parking etc. strictly be followed. Vehicles if meets with an accident, nearest police station and
the owner/transporters should be informed.

Owner/transporters after getting such information should inform the Chief Control of Explosive
(C.C.O.E.) if any repair is required to the vehicle, the explosives to be transferred first under the
supervision of a competent person, or it should be stored under proper security at safe distances from the
road and at least 300m away from the inhabited premises and CCOE should be informed about the
situation.

PETROLIUM RULES

Vehicles carrying Petroleum Class A and B have licence granted under this rules.

The vehicles to be built, tested & maintained an accordance with the requirements given in the rules. The
safety fittings, emergency vent, shut off valves to the out-let of each component, spark arrestor to exhaust
should be fitted as per given codes.

Tanker loading petroleum should be conspicuously marked on each side & rear the word “Flammable”.

The loading capacity of a tanker, the net carrying capacity of the tanker should be as per the norms
specified in the rules.

No repairs to a tank-vehicle should be carried out unless it has been examined by a authorised person.

After repair the tank has to be retested by a competent person before taking the vehicle in use. Tank
vehicle should carry: Fire extinguisher, PPE, emergency kit.

The tanker should not be parked on a public road or in any congested areas or at a place within 9m of any
source of ignition.

While transporting barrels, drums etc. they should not be projected beyond the sides or the back of
vehicle. The containers filled with petroleum should be loaded with bung upwards.

STATIC AND MOBILE PRESSURE VESSELS (UNFIRED) RULES &

GAS CYLINDERS RULES.

Transportation of compressed gases in bulk is regulated under SMPV (Unfired) Rules and tonne
container, portable cylinders filled with compressed gases comes under Gas Cylinder Rules.

The vehicle transporting compressed gases in bulk should be of a type approved by CCOE and vessel
design should confirm to IS 2825.

52
Under the rules, a through examination and maintenance of the vehicle should be carried out by a
competent person.

In an emergency, nearest police station should be informed.

Vehicles should not be parked in public places or at congested area.

The name of the gas being transported should be prominently marked on the vessel of the vehicle.

Transportation of tonne containers and gas cylinders should be carried in accordance with the guide-lines
given in Gas Cylinders Rules.

The gas cylinder containing flammable gases and toxic gases should not be transported al9ong with the
cylinders containing any other compressed gas, or it should not club with food-stuff.

A warning label, name of gas, instructions for safe use should be attached to cylinder.

Every cylinder, when transported, should have its valves protected by means of stout metal cap or cover
and in case of cylinders containing highly toxic gases the valves should be protected with gas-tight metal
caps or covers.

Any cylinder which develops leak during transportation should be remove immediately to an isolated
open safe place & nearest police station should be informed.

MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET (M.S.D.S.)

STATUTORY PROVISIONS

Sec. 41 B (7) of THE FACTORIES ACT, 1948

The occupier of a factory involving hazardous process shall, with the previous approval of the chief.
Inspector, lay down measures for handling, usage, transportation and storage of hazardous substances
inside the factory premises and the disposal of such substances outside the factory premises and
publicize them in the manner prescribed among the workers and general public living in the vicinity.

Rule 73-M of THE MAHARASHTRA FACTORIES RULES 1963.

The occupier of every Factory carrying on a : hazardous process” shall arrange to obtain or develop
information on the form of Material Safety Data Sheet in respect of every hazardous substance or
material handled in the manufacture, transportation and storage in the factory. It shall be accessible upon
request to a worker for reference.

Every such Material Safety Data Sheet shall include the information in the form in the schedule to this
rule.

53
THE MANUFACTURE, STORAGE & IMPORT OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS (AMENDMENT)
RULES 2000

Rule 17 (2) – An Occupier, who has control of an industrial Activity, shall arrange to obtain or develop
information in the form of MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET AS SPECIFIED IN SCHEDULE 9.

Section I : MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION AND USE – Material Name. It’s formula,

Section II : HAZARDOUS INSREDIENTS OF MATERIAL – hazardous ingredients, approximate

concentration, LD50, LC50.

Section III : PHYSICAL DATA - Physical state, odour, specific gravity, vapour pressure, vapour
density, boiling pointing, freezing point, solubility in water, pH.

Section IV : FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS – Flammability, special procedures, lower & upper
explosive limit, Auto ignition temperature

Section V : REACTIVITY DATA – Chemical stability, incompatibility with other substances, reactivity
and under what condition, hazardous decomposition products.

Section VI : PREVENTIVE MEASURES – PPE, Engg. Control, Leakage/spillage & waste disposal
procedure, handling procedure storage requirement.

Section VII : FIRST AID MEASURES – sources used Additional information.

Section XI : MANUFACTURE’S/SUPPLIER’S DATA – Address and telephone number, contact person

in emergency.

Thus M.S.D.S. in above format provides detail information, hazards involved and preventives actions to
be taken in case of emergencies.

Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

Format of MSDS :

For proper identification of material hazards a material safety data sheet should be prepared and supplied
with each chemical so that its safety precautions .can be well understood. A specimen form is given
below :

1. Chemical Identity: 1. Name of the Chemical 2. Formula 3. Synonyms 4. Trade name 5. Chemical
Classification 6. Regulated identification 7. Shipping Name, Codes/Label 8. CAS No. 9. UN No. 10.
ADR No. 11. Hazchem (EAC) No. 12. Hazardous Waste ID No. 13. Hazardous Ingredients and CAS
No.

2. Physical & Chemical Data : 1. Appearance, State, Odour etc. 2. Specific gravity (Water = 1) 3.
Vapour density (air = 1) 4. Boiling point 5. Melting/Freezing point 6. Vapour pressure 7.
Solubility in water 8. Scrubbing/Neutralising/Inactivating media 9. pH 10. Others

54
3. Fire & Explosion Hazard Data : 1. Flash point 2. Autoignition Temperature 3. Flammable
limits : LEL/.UEL 4. TDG Flammability 5. Explosion Sensitivity to Impact 6. Explosion
Sensitivity to static electricity

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 18- 16 Safety in Chemical Industry

7. Explosive material 8. Flammable material 9. Combustible and flammable Liquid 10.

Pyrophoric material 11. Hazardous Combustion products 12. Hazardous Polymerisation 13.
Corrosive material 14. Organic Peroxide 15. Oxidiser 16. Others

4. Reactivity Data: 1. Chemical stability 2. Incompatibility (Materials to avoid) 3. Reactivity 4.

Hazardous reaction products

5. Health Hazard Data : 1. TLV (ACGIH) 2. STEL/SET 3. LC50 or LD50 4. Odour threshold 5.
Carcmogen ? Poison ? Liberates poisonous fume? 6. Routes of entry 7. Body parts that may be affected
8. Effects of exposure and symptoms 9. Emergency and first aid treatment 10. Engineering controls
necessary for safe handling. 11. NFPA Hazard signals 12. Special Health hazards.

6. Preventive Measures: 1. Ventilation required and type 2. Personal protective equipment required
and type 3. Handling and storage precautions

7. Emergency and First-aid Measure : 1. Steps to be taken in case material is released or spilled. 2.
Waste disposal method for solid, liquid and gaseous waste. 3. Fire, extinguishing media, special
procedures and Unusual hazards. 4. Exposure - First-aid measures. Antidotes, Dosages.

8. Additional Information / References 9. Manufacturer / Supplier's Data : 1. Name of Firm 2. Mailing

address 3. Telephone/Telex/Fax Nos. 4. Telegraphic address 5. Contact person in emergency 6. Local
bodies involved 7. Standard packing

8. Tremcard Details / Ref. 9. Other

10. Disclaimer:

Interpretation and use of MSDS

55
For the better understanding and use of the Material Safety Data Sheet, some terms are explained

below:

1. Formula (Chemical) : It is a symbolic representation of a chemical entity or relationship

between elements, molecule and atoms, e.g. H, one molecule of hydrogen, 2HSO two molecules of
sulphuric acid, HO one molecule of water wherein there are two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen. CH benzene contains six atoms of carbons and six atoms of hydrogen in one molecule, group or
ion. Thus by formula we can know the hazardous ingredient of a chemical.

2. Synonym : Indicates alternate name of a material. e.g. Dimethyl ketone or 2-Propanone for
Acetone.

3. Trade Name : Commercial name of the product.

4. Chemical Classification : General classification is organic or inorganic. Hazardwise classification

can be flammable, explosive, toxic or poisonous, corrosive, reactive, infectious, oxidising, radioactive
etc.

5. CAS No. : It is Chemical Abstracts Service number to provide a single unique identifier with
naming the chemical, e.g. CAS No. for acetic acid is 64-19-7. It does not indicate the hazards of a
material.

6. UN No. : It is United Nations four digit number assigned to potentially hazardous material (e.g.
Ammonia UN No. 1005) or Class of material (e.g. corrosive liquids UN No. 1760). These numbers are
internationally recognised and used by emergency response personnel (including ire fighters) to identify
material during transport emergencies. UN, Hazchem, NA and PIN numbers have the same uses. See
also Part 14.2 (4).

7. Hazchem (EAC) - No. : Hazchem (hazardous chemical) Code or EAC (Emergency Action Code) is
an emergency code confirmed by the Health & Safety Executive, UK. It consists of a number (I to 4)
followed by one or two letters and signifies type of a fire extinguisher required, type of personal
protective equipment required, whether the spillage should be contained or diluted with water, whether
the material is reactive and whether evacuation of the surrounding area necessary. Hazchem No. of
Sodium cyanide is 4X and that of Vinyl chloride is 2WE.

ADR No. : It is an Agreement concerning carriage of Dangerous goods by Road. This European
agreement was arrived at Geneva by 19 European countries for the safety of international transport by
road. It deals with the classification of hazardous substances, their packaging, loading and unloading,
transportation and its equipment. It gives hazard identification numbers like UN hazard class number.
Their comparison is given below

Classification of Dangerous Goods by UN Number ADR Number

1. Explosives 2. Gases-Compressed, liquefied, dissolved under pressure or deeply refrigerated. 3.

Flammable liquids. 4. Flammable solids. 5. Oxidising substances or Organic Peroxides. 6. Poisonous

56
(Toxic) or Infectious substances. 7. Radioactive substances. 8. Corrosive substances. 9. Miscellaneous
dangerous substances.

2. Emissions of gas due to pressure or due to chemical reaction. 3. Flammability of liquids (vapours) and
gases. 4. Flammability of gases. 5. Oxidising (fire intensifying) effect. 6. Toxicity. 8. Corrosivity. 9. Risk
of spontaneous violent reaction.

Doubling (repeating) of an ADR digit indicates increase of that particular hazard. Prefix 'X' indicates
that the substance can dangerously react with water. As an example ADR HIN (Hazard Identification
No.) of Benzene is 33 (UN No. is 1114 and Hazchem No. is 3WE).

9. Appearance, State, Odour: Appearance includes colour. State means physical state - solid, liquid or
gas. Odour indicates smell. Odour threshold is that minimum level (ppm) where the odour will start. If
odour threshold is lower than the permissible safe limit (e.g. TLV, STEL, IDLH or LC), the odour
indicates the presence of gas and some safety margin is available to run away or to take precautionary
step. But if it is higher, the gas becomes toxic or hazardous before its odour starts and this condition is
risky. In that event a reliable gas detector is useful. Sometimes odor is added to detect the gas leakage
e.g. addition of mercaptan in domestic LPG. Ability to detect odour may vary from person to person and
may mislead if the other odorous materials are simultaneously present.

10. Specific Gravity (water = 1) : It is the ratio of the density of a material to the density of water
(which is I g/cc). Lighter material (Sp. gr. <l, e.g. benzene 0.88) will float and heavier material (Sp. gr.
>l, e.g. sulphuric acid 1.84) will sink. This information is useful for spill or fire control.

11. Vapour Density (air = 1) : It is the vapour weight per unit volume. In MSDS it is given as the ratio
of the density of a gas or vapour to the density of air. The air density is 1.293 gm/l, but here it is
considered as 1 for easy comparison of gases. Lighter gases (Vd<l, e.g. ammonia 0.59) will go up (rise)
in the air and heavier gases (Vd>l, e.g. chlorine 2.49) will come down on the bottom. This information is
useful for ventilation design and evacuation (emergency) activity.

12. Boiling Point: It is that temperature at which the material changes from a liquid to a gas. Below this
point the liquid can evaporate to form vapour but at the BP the change from liquid to vapour is faster.
This increases the vapour concentration and its pressure. This condition poses higher risk of fire,
explosion or toxicity.

13. Thermal Decomposition Products : If the material decomposes (breaks down) without boiling, the
temperature at which it decomposes is given with the word "dec'. Some of the decomposition products
are hazardous. The thermal decomposition products may be quite different from the chemicals formed by
burning the same material (hazardous combustion products). Information regarding thermal
decomposition is useful to design ventilation system where a material may be heated.

57
14. Hazardous Decomposition Products : They are formed when a material decomposes (without
heating) because it is unstable or reacts with common material like water or air (oxygen). This
information is useful to design storage and handling procedures. For example, phosgene decomposes into
corrosive and toxic fumes of HCI and CO because of heating or coming into contact of water or steam.
Here HCI and CO are hazardous decomposition products.

15. Hazardous Combustion Products : These are the chemicals which are formed when a material
burns. They may be toxic, flammable, smoke, carbon particles or other hazards. Their amount varies
according to temperature and oxygen (air) available. They may be different from the thermal
decomposition products. This information is useful to decide the fire fighting material and procedure.

16. Melting Point : It is that temperature at which a solid material melts and becomes a liquid. This
information is useful for storage and handling purpose. A melted material may distort a container.

17. Freezing Point : It is that temperature at which a liquid material freezes and becomes solid. This
information is useful for storage and handling purpose. A frozen material may burst a container.

18. Vapour Pressure : It is .the pressure (mm of Hg) upon atmosphere of the vapour of a material at a
fixed temperature (e.g. 20 °C). Higher vapour pressure indicates higher concentration and therefore
higher hazard due to fire or inhalation.

19. Solubility : It is the ability of a material to dissolve in water or another liquid (solvent). It may be
expressed as a ratio or described by words like insoluble, very soluble, sparingly soluble or miscible.
This information is useful to decide a scrubbing media, spill control or fire fighting material and
procedure. Such solvent should not be hazardous.

20. Scrubbing neutralising or inactivating media : These are those materials (liquids) which dissolve or
react with the hazardous material (gas, liquid or solid) to diminish its hazardous exposure e.g. caustic,
lime, water etc. If this is not possible, proper absorbent may be used e.g. sand, sponge rubber etc.

21. pH : It is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity (basicity) of a material when dissolved in water. It is
expressed in a scale from 0 to 14 as under :

0-2 Strong acidic 0-5 Weak acidic 0-8 Neutral 9-11 Weak basic 12-14 Strong
basic

This information is useful to select a neutralising material for scrubbing or effluent treatment or spill
control.

22. Flash Point : It is the lowest temperature at which a material gives off enough vapour near its
surface to form a flammable air vapour (gas) mixture so that it can be ignited if a spark is available. The
lower flesh point indicates higher hazard as it can cause fire at a lower temperature. It is expressed as
Closed Cup (CC) or Open Cup (OC). CC value is slightly less than the OC value.

23. Auto-ignition Temperature : It is the lowest temperature at which a material begins to burn in air
without any contact of spark or flame. During heating if the material decomposes, the decomposed
chemical may auto-ignite at some other temperature. Different test methods give different auto-ignition
temperatures for the same material. Therefore this value is an estimate. The material should be stored,
processed or handled well below its auto-ignition temperature to avoid the risk of self fire or explosion.
Substances liable to spontaneous combustion are those liable to spontaneous heating under normal
conditions or to heating up on contact with air and being then liable to catch fire'.

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 24. Flammable or Explosive Limits (LEI/UEL) : The lowest concentration (percentage in air) of gas or
vapour which will burn or explode if ignited, is called the Lower Explosive (or Flammable) Limit i.e.
LEL or LFL. The upper concentration (percentage in air) of gas or vapour which will burn or explode if
ignited, is called the Upper Explosive (or Flammable) Limit i.e. UEL or UFL. The range between LEL
and UEL is called the Explosive (or Flammable) Range. The fire or explosion risk lies within this range
but not out of it. Below LEL the gas-air mixture is too lean to ignite and above UEL it is too rich to
ignite.

However the concentration above UEL should be considered dangerous as due to entrainment of fresh
air, it may be diluted and enter the explosive range. Similarly after LEL if gas discharge is continued in
the same air, it can also enter the explosive range. Thus explosive range can be reached depending on
flow of gas and air affecting their concentration. Air and gas temperature may also affect Therefore the
range should be considered as approximate values. For gas/vapour it is expressed in % of air (1% =
10,000 ppm) and for powder in gm/m3 of air.

This information is useful to avoid the conditions leading to the explosive range and to ascertain it
before allowing any person to enter any vessel or confined space where such air-gas mixture is
suspected. Explosimeters are available to detect this range. Detection should be of percentage of LEL
and all safety devices (alarms, controls, trips etc.) should operate well below the LEL. Fire hazard should
be prevented at predetermined percentage of LEL.

25. TDG Flammability : Transport of Dangerous Goods (TDG) classifies the materials according to
their flammability as under 2.1 Flammable gas. 3 Flammable liquid (Subclasses 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3
based on flash point). 4.1 Flammable solid. 4.2 Spontaneously combustible material. 4.3 Material
which gives off a flammable gas on contact with water.

26. Explosion Data (Sensitivity) : It gives explosive properties of a material e.g. low, moderate or high.
It gives two types of sensitivity :

Explosion Sensitivity to Impact - It indicates whether or not the material will burn or explode on shock
or friction, and

Explosion Sensitivity to Static Electricity - It indicates how readily the material can be ignited by an
electric spark or static discharge.

27. Explosive Material : An explosive material is that material which can explode on impact or by
electric spark. Schedule-1 of Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989
defines 'Explosives' as those chemicals which explode under the effect of flame, heat or photo-chemical
conditions or which are more sensitive to shocks or friction than dinitrobenzene (old definition) or
pyrotechnic substance (firework) or which is capable of producing gas at such temperature, pressure and
speed to cause damage to surroundings or exothermic reaction by heat, light, sound, gas, smoke or their
combination (new definition).

28. Combustible and Flammable Material : Flammable solid, liquid or gas which can catch fire and
burn rapidly or explosively are flammable materials.

The terms combustible and flammable both indicates the ability of a material to burn. Any material that
will burn at any temperature is combustible by definition. Flammable are a special group of combustible
materials that ignite easily and burn rapidly. For example, NaCI, CC4 and CO2 are noncombustible
while sugar, cellulose and ammonia are combustible but non-flammable. The more readily ignition

59
occurs, the more flammable the material, less easily ignited materials are said to be combustible, but the
line of demarcation is difficult to decide. Normally combustible liquids are classified as those whose
flash point is greater than 37.7°C (100 °F).

Flammable or Inflammable liquids are classified under MSIHC Rules as (1) Flammable gases (LEL upto
13% or explosive range 12%). (2) Extremely flammable liquids (FP<23 °C, BP<35 °C). (3) Very highly
flammable liquids (FP<23 °C, BP>35 °C). (4) Highly flammable liquids (FP between 23 °C to 60 °C)
and (5) Flammable liquids (FP between 60 °C to 90 °C).

Flammable liquids are extremely hazardous, as they give off vapours at low temperature and these
vapours by travelling to a source of ignition can cause flash back to the flammable liquid. It is difficult to
extinguish a burning flammable liquid with water because water may not be able to cool the liquid below
its flash point.

Flammable gases (normally boiling point < 20 °C) are equally hazardous as flammable vapours as
explained above. Confined flammable gases are most dangerous. Flammable gases are also defined as
those which at 20°C and at standard pressure of 101.3 KPa, have LEL 13% or less or a flammable range
of 12% or more regardless of the LEL.

Flammable solids can be ignited due to external heat, flame, process heating by interaction with water or
other substances. Flammable solids are of various types (1) Dusts or fine powders e.g. cellulose, flour
etc. (2) Spontaneously ignitable at low temperature e.g. yellow phosphorous (3) Those in which internal
heat is built-up by microbial or other degradation activity e.g. fish meal, wet cellulosic material (4)
Films, fibres and fabrics of low-ignition point materials.

Flammable solids are readily combustible or may cause or contribute to fire through friction or which
are liable to undergo a strong exothermic reaction.

29. Corrosive Material : It can attack (corrode) metals or human tissues such as skin or eyes. Structure
or metal container may become weak and eventually collapse or leak. Skin, eyes or other body parts can
be badly affected (burning) by corrosive materials. Acids, halogen gases, chlorides, caustic, phenol etc.
are corrosive.

30. Hazardous Polymerisation : A polymer is a natural or man-made material formed by combining

units called monomers, into long chains, e.g. styrene is the monomer for polystyrene.

Polymerisation is the process of forming a polymer by combining monomers into long chains.
Uncontrolled polymerisation can be hazardous, as it can cause heat, pressure or explosion. Some
chemicals can polymerise on their own without warming, others upon contact with water, air or common
chemicals. Vinyl chloride rapidly polymerises in presence of light, air or heat. Therefore polymerising
conditions should be controlled properly, lnhibitors(negative catalysts or compounds that retard or stop
an undesired chemical reaction such as polymerisation, oxidation, corrosion etc.) are normally added to
products to reduce or eliminate the possibility of hazardous polymerisation.

31. Pyrophoric Material : Any liquid or solid that will ignite spontaneously in air at about 54.4 °C (130
°F). Titanium dichloride and phosphorous are examples of pyrophoric solids, tributylaluminium and
related compounds are pyrophoric liquids. Sodium, butyllithium and lithium hydride are spontaneously

flammable in moist air as they react exothermically with water. Such materials must be stored in inert
gas or under kerosene. Some alloys (barium, misch metal) are called pyrophoric because they spark when
slight friction is applied. Pyrotechnic materials mean fireworks. Catalysts of pyrophoric material which
an burn in normal air, are replaced in the atmosphere of nitrogen blanketing. The workers have to wear

60
self-breathing apparatus while doing such job, because in the atmosphere of about 90% nitrogen, oxygen
is insufficient for breathing.

32. Oxidiser and Peroxide : It is a compound that spontaneously evolves oxygen either at room
temperature or under slight heating. Oxidisers include peroxides, chlorates, perchlorates, nitrates and
permanganates. These can react vigorously at ambient temperatures when stored near or in contact with
reducing materials (that will remove oxygen or add hydrogen) such as cellulosic and other organic
compounds. Storage areas should be well ventilated and kept as cool as possible.

Peroxides release atomic (nascent) oxygen readily. They pose fire hazards in contact with combustible
materials, especially under high temperature conditions. They are used as oxidising agents, bleaching
agents and initiators of polymerisation.

Oxidizing substances are not necessarily combustible in themselves but by giving oxygen they
contribute to combustion of other materials.

Organic Peroxides contain bivalent 0-0 structure, are thermally unstable and may undergo exothermic
self-accelerating decomposition.

33. Chemical Stability : A stable compound does not easily decompose or react readily. Chemical
stability is the ability of a material to remain unchanged in the presence of heat, moisture or air. An
unstable compound may decompose, polymerise, burner explode under normal environmental
conditions. Special precautions are required to store or handle unstable materials. For examples, CS2
decomposes in light and burns due to heat, spark, flame or friction and gives off toxic fumes of SOx.
Caprolectum liberates NOx fumes due to heating. TNT explodes due to heavy shock or by heating. Thus
conditions disturbing stability must be known.

34. Incompatibility : Compatibility means the ability of two or more materials to exist in close and
permanent association indefinitely. Liquids and solids are compatible if the solid is soluble in the liquid.
Water is compatible with alcohol (because it is miscible) but not with gasoline (e.g. petrol).

Incompatibility means disability to co-exist permanently. Therefore incompatible materials should not
be stored or kept together. For example, toluene reacts violently with some acids, plastic or rubber,
therefore, these substances should be kept away.

Incompatible materials can cause a fire, explosion, toxic release, violent reaction, polymerisation or
destroy the structure or function of a product. This information is useful for storage and handling
purposes.

35. Reactivity : Two or more chemicals can react with each other and give reaction products, e.g. 2H2
+ 02 = 2H20. A single chemical can react with air or water (which are also chemicals) and give the
product, e.g. phosphorous burns in air and gives its oxides (P2O2 P2O5), sulphur burns and gives SO2
etc.

Reactions are exothermic when they evolve heat and are endothermic when they need heat to maintain
them. A reversible reaction is one in which the reaction product is unstable and goes back to the original
substance spontaneously.

In MSDS we are concerned with the hazardous reaction or reactive material which can cause fire,
explosion, toxic release or violent reaction with air, water or common chemicals or under environmental

61
conditions. Phosphorous, CS, Sodium metal, acids (reactive with metals) etc. are known for their
reactivity. This information is useful for storage, handling and process safety purposes.

36. Hazardous Reaction Products : These must be known for the safety of process, workers and
environment. Here products are more important than the reaction because of their hazardous nature, e.g.
Chlorine reacts with alcohol and forms explosive alkyl hypochlorite. If toxic fumes are to be generated,
scrubbers are required, if flammable vapours are generated, inert gas blanketing is required and earthing
of the vessel also becomes necessary. If reaction products are highly poisonous like NaCN, HCN etc.,
they are to be handled in a closed system.

37. Health Hazard Data : For TLV, STEL, IDLH, LD/LC etc. see Part 1.5.1, for routes of entry, see
Part 1.5.3, for effects of exposure see Part 1.8.2, for engineering controls and Part 1.5.6 for health
hazards, all of Chapter-24.

For emergency and first aid treatment and antidotes see Chapter-26, for fire and NFPA (National Fire
Protection Association of USA) Code see Part 3.4 of Chapter-13, for ventilation see Chapter 10 and for
personal protective equipment see Chapter-25.

TLV and STEL are given in 2nd Schedule of the Factories Act. LD50, and LC50 are given in 1st
Schedule of the MSIHC Rules for the purpose of major accident hazard. LD,, for insecticides are given
in Rule 19 of the Insecticide Rules for labelling purpose. Lower these values, higher the toxicity. LD50
up to 200 mg/kg and LC50 up to 10 mg/l can cause major hazard. By local exhaust ventilation toxic gas,
dust or vapour must be captured and effective PPE must be worn by the workers. Above STEL, SBA is
desirable.

38. Tremcard : Transport Emergency Cards are to be given to the drivers carrying dangerous goods for
emergency information which may be needed at any time during journey. The cards contain short
information on nature of chemical, hazards involved, protective devices, emergency action for fire,
spillage, leakage, first-aid etc.

 Safety Precautions for Transporting:

o Railroad Transportation:

It accounts for quite a large proportion of the chemicals transportation. The greatest

hazard in this mode of transportation is that because of the far flung operations, it is not possible

to train everyone connected with the operation in the proper care to be taken. Proper labeling of

hazards involved is a help. Derailment and accidents are other hazards.

The preventive measures are:

(a) Improved design of the tankers and the couplers,

(b) Limitations on the size of the tanks,

(c) Positioning of the hazardous chemicals away from the locomotive

(d) Avoiding hunching together of hazardous chemicals

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(e) Properlabeling of content and the hazardous nature of the chemicals.

A serious risk is that an accident may occur at a place which is not easily accessible and

where competent guidance may not be available. In the USA Dan organization (CHEMETREC)

has been set up to deal with such cases.

(2) Transportation of Explosives by Rail :

Such rules (Railway Red Tariff Rules 62 to 74) are as under:

1. No explosives other than safety fuses and fireworks shall be transported by rail except

in the van specially constructed for the carriage of explosives and approved by the Chief

Controller of Explosives and the Railway Board.

2. Label &#39;Explosive&#39; on each side of the carriage shall be affixed.

3. Carriage containing explosives shall be kept away from the engine (other than electric

locomotive) and close coupled to the adjoining carriage not loaded with explosives or

other flammable or hazardous substances

4. Not more than 10 carriages containing explosives shall be attached to any one train. Not

more than 5 carriages of explosives shall be loaded oi unloaded at any one time at any

railway station.

5. No explosive shallbe transported by any passenger or mixed train.

6. Safety fuses for blasting, explosives of the third class (nitro compounds) in the form of

cartridges and not exceeding 2.5 kg in weight, detonators up to 200 (each weighing up to

225 gms) and sporting powders and propellants in double packing as prescribed, can be

transported by passenger or mixed trains.

7. Explosive consignment shall be received at the specified railway premises only, during

sunrise and sunset and by an authorized railway servant only.

8. Shunting of carriages containing explosives shall be carried out under the supervision of

authorized officer. Shunting speed shall not exceed 8 km/hi and no loose shunting will

take place.

9. The packages shall be removed by the consignee within 12 hours of day light following

their arrival. The Station Master shall keep the packages at a safe distance and covered

with tarpaulins or other suitable material.

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10. No explosive shall be carried except by rail across any railway bridge. This rule is not

applicable to carry safety fuses or gunpowder or nitro compound up to 5 kg or

ammunition Class-6, Division 2 and 3.

International Regulations concerning carriage of dangerous goods by rail (RID) and

British Railways list of dangerous goods and conditions of acceptances also provide rail

transport guidelines.

Road Transportation:

Road tankers are constructed in a wide variety of materials like steel, stainless steel,

lined material and FRP construction. Sometimes they need to be heated or cooled.

Road tankers and their fastenings should be capable of absorbing following forces -

1. In the direction of travel-twice the total weight.

2. Vertically downwards-twice the total weight.

3. Vertically upwards-total weight.

4. Horizontally at right angles to direction of travel-total weight.

The service equipment such as valves, fittings, gauges etc. should be protected against

impact. Three types of independent stop valves - internal, external and blind flange- are

required. For certain gases like HF, shell opening at bottom is not permitted. Fusible plug to

operate below 93 °C is suggested in case of petroleum tanker. Spark arrester on exhaust, a

portable fire extinguisher, TREMCARD emergency kit and instructions to driver are also

necessary.

See Part 6.2 of Chapter-28 for Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989 for transport of

hazardous goods also. Display of class labels on goods package (e.g. box, drum) and carriage

(e.g. vehicle, truck, tanker) are compulsory u/r 129 and 134 respectively.

U.N. Classification of Hazardous material :

Safety in chemical industry:

1. Study and identify chemical hazards using material safety data sheet (MSDS) and a

system of classification, packaging and labeling should be developed.

2. Select safer technology.

3. Select safer sitting of chemical industry for minimum loss to men, material, environment

64
etc.

4. Take all safety precautions at Design and construction stage.

5. Workplace hazards inside the factory should be controlled by good engineering controls,

(SOPs) safe operating procedure and using personal protective equipment.

6. All requisite safety devices, fittings, instruments, equipment, machines etc., must be

provided and well maintained.

7. Workers must be properly Educated &amp; trained for safe operation of the plant such as

proper Warning signs, color codes, Safety Work Permit Systems, fire fighting.

8. Conduct Mock-drills of MAH Unit &amp; Potential Emergencies due to Chemical Hazards to

know everybody their role in emergency planning and control.

9. Safe Storage, handling &amp; transportation of hazardous chemicals within and out-side

factory premises.

10. Safe Storage, disposal of hazardous wastes within and outside factory premises.(Sewage

&amp;Haz-Sludge)

11. Well monitoring and control of hazardous substances/Waste at work places (Inspection,

Audit &amp; Analysis / ETP &amp; STP) and of occupational ill-effects and diseases by pre and

periodical medical examinations of the workers.

The hazardous chemicals/dangerous goods are divided by the United Nation Committee

of Experts on the Transport of dangerous goods into the following classes:

CLASS 1 : Explosives

Division 1 - Substances and articles which have a mass explosion hazard.

Division 2 - Substances and articles which have a projection hazards but not a

mass explosion hazards.

Division 3 - Substances and articles which have a fire hazard and either a

minor blast hazard or a major projection hazard or both, but not a mass explosion hazard.

Division 4 - Substances and articles which present no significant hazard.

Division 5 - Very insensitive substances which have a mass explosion hazard.

CLASS 2 : Gases compressed, liquefied, dissolved under pressure or deeply refrigerated.

CLASS 3 : Inflammable liquids.

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CLASS 4 : Inflammable solids, substances liable to spontaneous combustion; substances

which, on contact with water, emit inflammable gases.

Division 4.1 - Inflammable solids.

Division 4.2 - Substances liable to spontaneous combustion.

Division 4.3 - Substances which on contact with water emit inflammable gases.

CLASS 5 : - Oxidizing substances; organic peroxides.

Division 5.1 - Oxidizing substances.

Division 5.2 - Organic peroxides.

CLASS 6 : - Poisonous (toxic) and Infectious substances.

Division 6.1 - Poisonous (toxic) substances.

Division 6.2 - Infectious substances.

CLASS 7 : - Radioactive substance.

CLASS 8 : - Corrosives.

CLASS 9 : - Miscellaneous dangerous substance.

See IS: 1446 for classification of dangerous goods.

Arrangement for loading and unloading of the liquid has to be well designed. It is

preferred to load toxic and flammable material from the bottom. It is preferable to provide a

discharge pump on the tank.

Drums, crates and cylinders are also transported by trucks. The-important thing to see is

that the chemical is securely packed so that spillage do not occur on the road and the toxic

vapors are not released. The cylinders or drums should be securely lashed so that they do not fall

off the truck and cause danger. The driver and the attendant should be fully conversant with the

nature of the material and the hazards involved; and trained to handle the situation.

TRANSPORTATION BY CROSS COUNTRY PIPELINES

 The MSDC of the chemical those transported by pipelines are to be kept readily available and
also to be displayed at prominent locations.
 The above ground pipelines should not obstruct the vehicle transport, working staff, ant
operations.
 Incompatible chemicals should not be stored in the vicinity of such pipelines.

66
  The surrounding area should be kept in clean all the time. Pipelines are to be properly earthed
and continuity should be measured periodically.
 The flanges of pipelines carrying flammables should be properly bonded.
 Minimum flages are to be kept on such lines.
 If the pipelines crossing the road (cross country pipelines), then it should be covered with outer
pipelines on that portion to withstand the impact of vehicles.
 For underground pipelines corrosion protection measures (Cathodic protection)are to be
employed. The resistance is to be checked regularly.
 At some distance, along the U/g pipelines, identification boards (plates) to be displayed.
 Sensors are to be installed to indicate with alarm high/flow pressure, high/low tempratures, and
deviation if flow rates and trip system to stop the transfer pumps if any division in the parameters
occurs.
 Safety relief valves (safety valves) are to be installed on the pressure lines.
 Intermediate booster pumps are to be used to increases the pressure.
 Pipelines should be dedicated for each type of chemicals or otherwise pegging is to be done as
and when required.
 External inspection/examination to be every six-month, hydraulic testing is to be done every
four/five years.
 Maximum credible loss (MCLS) study is to be done and accordingly “emergency action plan” is
to be prepared and mock-drills are to be conducted every six-month.
 Required suitable personal protective equipments and rescue operation devices are to be kept
readily available to tackle the emergency if arises.
IN – PLANT TRANSPORTATION : While handling chemical within the plant, pipelines for gases and
liquids are used. The different kinds of backings are use, but some other forms of transport, such as
conveyor belts and pneumatic conveyors are also used. Important methods for in plant transportation are:

a) Pipelines most plants have a system of storage tanks for liquids or even materials which can be
easily melted. The liquids are pumped to measuring tanks from where they are charged to the
reactors. A typical installation should be providing for pumping to the measuring and an
overflow line returning to the tank.
The pipelines can be of various materials, depending upon the nature of chemicals handled –
steel, stainless steel, polyethene, polypropylene, pvc glass, lead, glass – lined, rubber – lined.
The pipe lines should be well laid, giving adequate support, provisions for maintenance, isolation
valves in case maintenance is require, and painted for correct identification as per IS: 2379.
Pipelines carrying LPG and flammable materials should be properly bonded and earthed.
Isolation valves should be providing for easy control in case of breakage.

SAFETY IN LIQUID LOADING AND UNLOADING :

1. Take care of adverse weather conditions.

2. Safe access to the top of the trailer tank car.
3. Suitable fire extinguishers
4. Where air pressure is needed or other gases such as nitrogen, adequate hose lines should be
provide with reducing valves. Recommended pressure is 20 psig.
5. Steam lines, if heating is necessary.
6. Personnel discharging should be in the vicinity.
7. Adequate personal protective equipment should be provided.
8. Emergency shower should be provided.
9. Ensure the sufficient space is available in the receiving tank.
10. Training of personnel.
11. Avoid mixing of chemicals. Take full precautions.

67
 12. Routine through check – up procedure.
13. Proper identification on discharge lines.

b) DRUMS : When handling liquids, the material can be emptied bu sucking into a measuring
vessel ro by pumping out, using a small pump that could go into the bung opening, or by a gear
pump. Pressure should not be used, more so with corrosive liquids.
Solids can be discharged into reactors by drum tilters or emptied into specially designed screw
conveyor. Cut drums are invariably use and cause plenty of accidents, as workers are not careful
to hammer down the sharp edges. Partially used drums must be covered, special protection taken
to preserve the chemical and the product identified.
Empty drums are not really empty, if they have been used for solvents unless specially cleaned.
Dangerous chemicals like dimethyl sulphate, benzoyl chloride, etc. require elaborated cleaning to
really wash out the traces of harmful ingredients.
c) Naked carboys and glass bottles should never be transported. They should be transported in
wooden crates or cases and handled to avoid damage to the container.
d) Plastic carboys are very easy to handle and sturdy. Special spouts are usually provided to prevent
spillages.
e) Conveyor belts are frequently employed for handling quantities of chemicals. When dealing with
organic powders; steps should be taken to see that charge is not generated.
f) Pneumatic conveyors are increasingly used for transportation from one location to another within
the plant.
g) Gas cylinders should be handled with the right types of tackle and certainly not thrown about.
These should be protected against heat.

Pigging Operation in Pipeline:

In pipeline transportation, pigging is the practice of using devices known as pigs or scrapers to
perform various maintenance operations. This is done without stopping the flow of the product in the
pipeline. These devices are known as pigs because they scrape or clean just like a normal pig
These operations include but are not limited to cleaning and inspecting the pipeline. This is
accomplished by inserting the pig into a "pig launcher" (or "launching station") — an oversized
section in the pipeline, reducing to the normal diameter. The launching station is then closed and
the pressure-driven flow of the product in the pipeline is used to push the pig along down the pipe
until it reaches the receiving trap — the "pig catcher" (or "receiving station").

Pigging has been used for many years to clean large diameter pipelines in the oil industry. Today,
however, the use of smaller diameter pigging systems is now increasing in many continuous and
batch process plants as plant operators search for increased efficiencies and reduced costs.
Pigging can be used for almost any section of the transfer process between, for example, blending,
storage or filling systems. Pigging systems are already installed in industries handling products as
diverse as lubricating oils, paints, chemicals, toiletries, cosmetics and foodstuffs.
Pigs are used in lube oil or paint blending to clean the pipes to avoid cross-contamination, and to
empty the pipes into the product tanks (or sometimes to send a component back to its tank). Usually
pigging is done at the beginning and at the end of each batch, but sometimes it is done in the midst
of a batch, such as when producing a premix that will be used as an intermediate component.

68
Pigs are also used in oil and gas pipelines to clean the pipes. There are also "smart pigs" used to
inspect pipelines for the purpose of preventing leaks, which can be explosive and dangerous to the
environment. They usually do not interrupt production, though some product can be lost when the
pig is extracted. They can also be used to separate different products in a multiproduct pipeline.
If the pipeline contains butterfly valves, or reduced port ball valves, the pipeline cannot be pigged.
Full port (or full bore) ball valves cause no problems because the inside diameter of the ball opening
is the same as that of the pipe.

Mechanical interlocks
There are many reports of incidents in which operators have been injured or even killed while
performing a pigging operation. Common causes of such events are:

 opening of the closure door while the vessel is still pressurized;

 opening of the main process valve while the closure door is not fully closed;
 opening of the closure door while a high concentration of H₂S or other toxins remains inside the
vessel;
 The vent valve remaining open while the vessel is being pressurized with its medium.

Type of Pigs:

 Physical separation between different fluids flowing through the pipeline

 Internal cleaning of pipelines
 Inspection of the condition of pipeline walls (also known as an Inline Inspection (ILI) tool)
 Capturing and recording geometric information relating to pipelines (e.g., size, position).

Intelligent pig

Inserting a pig into a natural gas pipeline

Modern intelligent or "smart" pigs are highly sophisticated instruments that include electronics and
sensors that collect various forms of data during their trip through the pipeline. They vary in
technology and complexity depending on the intended use and the manufacturer.
The electronics are sealed to prevent leakage of the pipeline product into the electronics since
products can range from being highly basic to highly acidic and can be of extremely high pressure
and temperature. Many pigs use specific materials according to the product in the pipeline. Power
for the electronics is typically provided by onboard batteries which are also sealed. Data recording
may be by various means ranging from analog tape, digital tape, or solid-state memory in more
modern units.

69
The technology used varies by the service required and the design of the pig, each pigging service
provider may have unique and proprietary technologies to accomplish the service. Surface pitting
and corrosion, as well as cracks and weld defects in steel/ferrous pipelines are often detected
using magnetic flux leakage (MFL) pigs. Other "smart" pigs use electromagnetic acoustic
transducers to detect pipe defects.[14] Caliper pigs can measure the roundness of the pipeline to
determine areas of crushing or other deformations. Some smart pigs use a combination of
technologies, such as providing MFL and caliper functions in a single tool. Trials of pigs
using acoustic resonance technology have been reported.[15]
During the pigging run the pig is unable to directly communicate with the outside world due to the
distance underground or underwater and/or the materials that the pipe is made of. For example,
steel pipelines effectively prevent any significant radio communications outside the pipe. It is
therefore necessary that the pig use internal means to record its own movement during the trip. This
may be done by odometers, gyroscope-assisted tilt sensors and other technologies.[16] The pig
records this positional data so that the distance it moves along with any bends can be interpreted
later to determine the exact path taken.

Cathodic Protection in Underground Pipeline

Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique used to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making
it the cathode of an electrochemical cell.[1] A simple method of protection connects the metal to be
protected to a more easily corroded "sacrificial metal" to act as the anode. The sacrificial metal then
corrodes instead of the protected metal. For structures such as long pipelines, where passive
galvanic cathodic protection is not adequate, an external DC electrical power source is used to
provide sufficient current.
Cathodic protection systems protect a wide range of metallic structures in various environments.
Common applications are: steel water or fuel pipelines and steel storage tanks such as home water
heaters; steel pier piles; ship and boat hulls; offshore oil platforms and onshore oil
well casings; offshore wind farm foundations and metal reinforcement bars in concrete buildings and
structures. Another common application is in galvanized steel, in which a sacrificial coating
of zinc on steel parts protects them from rust.

Pipelines
Hazardous product pipelines are routinely protected by a coating supplemented with cathodic
protection. An impressed current cathodic protection system (ICCP) for a pipeline consists of a DC
power source, often an AC powered transformer rectifier and an anode, or array of anodes buried in
the ground (the anode grounded).
The DC power source would typically have a DC output of up to 50 amperes and 50 volts, but this
depends on several factors, such as the size of the pipeline and coating quality. The positive DC
output terminal would be connected via cables to the anode array, while another cable would
connect the negative terminal of the rectifier to the pipeline, preferably through junction boxes to
allow measurements to be taken. Anodes can be installed in a grounded consisting of a vertical
hole backfilled with conductive coke (a material that improves the performance and life of the
anodes) or laid in a prepared trench, surrounded by conductive coke and backfilled. The choice of
grounded type and size depends on the application, location and soil resistivity. The DC cathodic
protection current is then adjusted to the optimum level after conducting various tests including
measurements of pipe-to-soil potentials or electrode potential.
It is sometimes more economically viable to protect a pipeline using galvanic (sacrificial) anodes.
This is often the case on smaller diameter pipelines of limited length. Galvanic anodes rely on

70
the galvanic series potentials of the metals to drive cathodic protection current from the anode to the
structure being protected.
Water pipelines of various pipe materials are also provided with cathodic protection where owners
determine the cost is reasonable for the expected pipeline service life extension attributed to the
application of cathodic protection.

Chapter 4: Safety In Plant and Maintenance

.

START UP & SHUT DOWN PROCEDURE:

START UP :

71
For an air craft landing take off are more hazardous operation, similarly in chemical plant, the hazard is
greater during start up and shutdown.

The start up considered here is not the metal commissioning but the resumption of operation after a
shutdown. The actual producing for start up and shutdown depends on the precess and varies some whet
accordingly.

It is convenient here to mention briefly about the startup shutdown. Plant start up is and operation which
needs to be properly planned so that all the resources are available when required. Start up requires that
the plant be taken through a predetermined sequence of stages. It is important that this sequence be
planned see that it is safe and avoid damage to the plant and this planning should be flexible enough to
handle difficulties which may arise. The personnel involved in start up should understand the rosery for
the sequence chosen.

There are different modes of start up of the plant

1. Initial start up of plant

2. Start up of plant on demand
3. Start up of plant section when rest of plant shutdown
4. Start up of plant section when rest of plant shutdown
5. Start up of plant section when rest of plant is in services.
START UP ACTIVITIES:

1. Preparation before start up – Inspection of plant (for removal of blind and position of values)
2. Activation of services – Activation of compressed air, steam, water, purge gas.
3. Purging – It is done with water, steam or with purging inert gases.
4. Leak testing – By inspection pressure is testing etc.
5. Drainage/ venting – removal of water, purge gas etc.
6. Conditioning – freedom from toxic gases.
7. Taking into services – gradual adjustment of temp. Pressure etc. up to (bringing on stream)
normal of the plant.
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH STARTUP ACTIVITIES :

Wrong operation of valve – involving failure to ensure that correct valves are open and remaining valves
are closed.

Drain in start up normal sequence operation.

Valve left closed resulting in over – pressurization in the system.

Failure in temperature adjustment.

Purging material remained in the system.

Thermal and mechanical shock to the equipment

Mixing of steam and water-condensate causes water hammer.

Back flow of material, due to not maintaining pressure system correctly.

Safety Measures During Start Up – The plant should be inspected to check that it is ready for start up.
The axially system such as utilities, instruments, should be activated. Shutdown blinds should be removal
and running blinds be installed.

72
Start up is a time there is grates risk of getting unwanted material such as air, water into the system. So it
is necessary to remove such material before start up. During start up there is risk of instrument should be
checked. It is essential air avoiding diff. hazard during start up operational that there should be formal
and practical system of proper documentation and the personnel should be trained in the procedures such
as work permit.

There are various hazards associated with activation of steam system which includes water hammer, over
should be mechanical shock. Steam should be introduced gently with vents and drains open. Steam trap
should be commissioned measures should be taken to avoid collections of condensate which may give
rise to water hammer. Air should be removed by purging with suitable material steam is effective
material for purging. Water and inert gas should be also used as purging material.

1. Vacuum equipment may be free air by refilling with inert gas.

2. All joints and connections should be inspected for leakages.
Shutdown Activities : There are different made of shutdown which are as follows :

1. Normal shutdown of plant

2. Emergency shutdown of plant
3. Partial shutdown of plant
Shutdown includes following activities

a) Cooling and depressurizing

b) Pumping out or drain
c) Removal of residual product/reactant
d) Removal of corrosive or toxic materials
e) Removal of water purging material
f) Blinding activities
Removal of pyrophoric iron sulphide.

 If shutdown is prolonged precautions should be taken to prevent deterioration of the plant

 The excess pressure should be released.
 Vacuum unit should be cooled, the vacuum producing unit shut off and then the vacuum is
broken by introducing inert gas.
 When the unit cooled and depressurized the material should be pumped out. Can should be taken
that during pumping cut pump should not left suction because short period running can arsis
serious hazard.
 Residual removed by using suitable purging material such as water steam or inert gas and than
air should be passed to avoid under pressure
 Residual corrosive and toxic material should be removed by proper purging and cleaning for
maintenance.
 The installation of shutdown blind and removal of running blind should be carried out with work
permit system. Also isolation and line breaking is carried out with thus system.
 Removal of pyrophoric iron sulphide should be carried out with all fire extinguishing system.

COLOUR CODES:

USE OF COLOUR : Perception of visibility is improved by use of suitable colours on walls, ceilings,
floors and equipments. Light-reflecting qualities of surfaces contribute to fuller utilization of available

73
light and properly chosen colours help eliminate sharp contracts in brightness in the workers’ field of
vision, thus controlling good seeing.

White ceiling give maximum brightness. If floors and equipments are rather dark reflecting 25% to 40%
of the light, then upper walls should have a colour, an interior can be made parts of a plant. Green and
blue colour give a cool effect and are thus valuable psychologically, when temperatures are relatively
high.

Ivory and cream are warm colours. Rose shades are suitable for women, s rest rooms, whereas blue
colour is preferred for men’s rest rooms. Light gray is effective for machinery, parts at a point of
operation being painted orange to highlight the danger at that point.

Colour. Coding: Colour may be used as a coding technique for various controls. Colour codes can 1) be
useful for visual identification 2) be useful for standardizing controls for identification purposes and 3)
offer a moderate number of coding categories.

Colour is used extensively for safety purposes. While never intended as a substitute for good safety
measures and use of mechanical safeguards, standard colours are used to identify specific hazards and
their use eliminates confusion and misunderstanding.

Fire Protection Red recommended for identifying fire protection equipment, danger and emergency stops
on machines.

High Visibility Yellow because of its high visibility is the standard colour for marking hazards that may
result in accidents from slipping, Falling, striking against etc.

Safety Green in combination with white, such as the green cross on a white background designates the
location of first-aid and safety equipment.

Black & While and their combinations in stripes or checks are used for housekeeping and traffic
markings.

Alert Orange is the standard colour to highlight hazardous parts of machines or electrical equipment.
Such as exposed edges of cutting devices, the inside of removed guards and the doors and covers of
switch boxes and other similar electrical equipments.

Blue is used as signs to designate caution against starting or moving machines or equipment being
worked on.

Reddish Purple identifies radiation hazards such as radioactive material in rooms and containers.While is
for traffic lines.

COLOUR IDENTIFICATION OF PIPING SYSTEM :

Lack of uniformity of colour coding pipelines in industrial installations has often been responsible for
destruction of property and injury to personnel due to faulty manipulation of valves, particularly when
outside agencies such as contractor’s workers; fire-fighting squads etc. are called in. uniformity of colour
marking promotes greater safety, lessens the chances of errors and warns against the hazards involved in
the handling of materials inside the pipelines.

The piping in a plant may carry harmless, valuable or dangerous contents. Therefore, it is highly
desirable to identify different piping systems in accordance with a standard to prevent errors,
misunderstandings etc. the contents of a pipeline are generally classified as follows:

74
Classification Colour Designation

Fire Protection Red

Dangerous Orange or Yellow

Safe Green

Protective Material Bright Blue

The proper colour as above, may be applied to the entire length of the pipe or at least in bands 8” to 10”
wide near valves, pumps and at repeated intervals along the line. The name of specific materials may also
be stencilled in black at readily visible location such as valves and pumps. The code also recommends
highly resistant coloured substances for use, where and other substances may affect paints.

The system of colour coding on pipelines consists of a ground colour and colour bands superimposed on
the ground floor. The ground colour identifies the basic nature of the fluid carried and also distinguishes
one fluid from another. The various ground colours are given below :

Substances Ground Colour

Water Sea Green

Steam Silver Grey

Mineral, Vegetable and Animal Oils, combustible liquids Light Brown

Acids and Alkalies Dark Voilet

Air Sky Blue

Other Liquids Black

Cases Canary Yellow

Whenever ground colour is not applied throughout the entire length, it shall be applied near valves,
junctions, joints, service appliances, bulkheads, walls etc.

Colour bands are superimposed on the ground colour to distinguish a) one kind or condition of a fluid
from another kind of condition of the same fluid or b) one fluid from another but belonging to the same
group for example carbon monoxide from coke oven gas or diesel oil from furnace oil.

The ground colours should be extended on both the sides of the colours band to avoid confusions. Colour
bands must be applied near the valves, junctions, walls etc. the relatives proportional widths of the first
colour band to the subsequent band shall be 4:1 the minimum width of the narrowest colour band shall be
25mm. Arrows should be painted to indicate the direction of flow, particularly near valves, walls etc. and
also at suitable intervals along the pipe in a manner it is necessary to indicate separately the flow and
return pipes, this should be done by the use of word “FLOW” or letter “F” on the one pipe and the word
“RETURN” or letter “R” on the other.

For lettering for additional identification, there are recommended sizes of lettering for pipes of different
diameters. Attention should be given to the visibility of colour markings and where the pipelines are
located above the normal line of vision of the operator, the lettering should be placed below the
horizontal line of the pipes.

75
Tables are available for the following :

 For different types of services such as water for different purposes, air at different pressures,
vacuum, steam, drainage, lown gas and different types of oils showing their respective ground
colour and their first and second colour.
 Colour codes for different industrial gases together with their ground colour (usually canary
yellow or dark violet) and their first and second colour bands.
 Colour codes for medical gases with their grounds colour (usually canary yellow or sky blue)
with their first or second colour bands.
HAZARDS MARKING OF PIPELINES :

When it is desired to indicate that a pipeline carries a hazardous material, a panel of colours of suitable
width, as given below, shall be superimposed on the ground colour at suitable intervals, in addition to the
colour bands and the letterings.

 Slightly radioactive hazards : A base colour of jasmine yellow with black dots, suitably
superimposed.
 Highly radioactive hazards : A base colour of light orange with cross-diagonal stripes of black
colour, suitably superimposed.
 Other special hazards, equal diagonal stripes of black and golden yellow colours.
ACCIDENT PREVENTION SIGNS :

Accident Prevention sings are amongst the most widely used safety measures used in industry, so that
uniformity in the colour and design of sings is essential. Many employees may be unable to speak or read
the usual sings in the language of the majority of employees or standard sings, if properly trained. For
such purposes, the following colours are specified:

Red warns of special dangers.

Yellow denotes caution of possible dangerous of unsafe practices.

Green is used for safety instructions.

Black is for directional signs such as arrows pointing to stairways and exits.

Reddish Purple is used to identify radiation hazards such as radioactive materials in rooms and
containers.

Blue is for signs warning against starting or moving machines or equipments being worked on. Any
colour except red or yellow may be used for informational sings. \

Pressure Relief Devices :

If pressure inside a tank rises due to any reason, it may burst the tank from its weakest part or cause
leakage from where it is possible. The content thus coming out is a material loss and in addition, it may
create fire, explosion or toxic hazard. Therefore to avoid such situation a pressure relief device is
necessary.

76
A safety valve is a common pressure relief device. It can be set to a predetermined (desired) pressure and
when pressure exerted on it exceeds that pre-set value, it automatically opens and allows the pressure
to release in the atmosphere or in a catch-pot or drowning tank if the content coming out is hot or
hazardous. It automatically closes down also, after release of the excess pressure. Safety valves are of
four types - spring loaded, weight lever, solenoid and pilot. Safety valves are used to release gas or
vapour but not the liquid.

A Rupture Disc is required for the fast release or more flow from a bigger size hole or if internal pressure
is too high or too rapid or the material is sticky and chokes the safety valve. This disc is selected based
on many parameters (e.g. type of chemical, working pressure, temperature, reaction, material of the tank,
viscosity, corrosivity, toxicity and flammability of the content etc.) One disc can be used for one pressure
i.e. its set-pressure cannot be changed like safety valve, and after rupture the same disc cannot be reused.
Once opened, it cannot reset at the lowered pressure like safety valve, and will allow the whole mass to
come out till the hole is closed or the disc is replaced. This is its disadvantage. Therefore, it is
inadvisable on tanks containing flammable gases or liquids. Rupture disc can be used in conjunction with
a safety or relief valve. Then the disc will burst first without affecting the valve. If pressure is further
built up, then the valve will open. Pressure gauge is provided between the disc and the valve to indicate
that the disc has opened and what is the bursting pressure. Imperfections in manufacture, installation or
caused by corrosion can result in premature failure of the disc. The rupture discs are used to release gas,
vapour or liquid.

Relief valves do not full open at set pressure like safety valve, but open slightly and then open further as
the pressure increases. They are of two types - spring loaded or power actuated by electric, air, steam or
hydraulic power activated by a pressure sensor in upstream of the valve. Manually operated relief valves
(like vent valve) are also possible but they are to be operated after seeing the pressure in the pressure
gauge or after hearing an alarm. Relief valves are used for liquid discharge and not for gas or vapour.

Safety-relief valves can be used either as a safety valve or a relief valve, depending on the application.
They are used for gas, vapour and liquids.

Breather Valves:

Breather Valves, also known as direct acting Pressure/Vacuum Relief Valves, are special types
of Relief Valves which are specifically designed for tank protection. The range includes
pressure only, vacuum only and combined Pressure/Vacuum Valves, all available with flanged
outlets or vented to atmosphere.
Pressure/Vacuum Relief Valves are used extensively on bulk storage tanks, including fixed roof
tanks with floating covers, to minimise evaporation loss. The Valves prevent the build up of
excessive pressure or vacuum which can unbalance the system or damage the storage vessel.
Pressure and vacuum protection levels are controlled with weighted pallets or springs and can
be combined to provide the required Pressure/Vacuum settings. It is common to combine pallet
and spring systems in one unit i.e. pressure settings require a spring section, whilst the vacuum
settings use the pallet method.

Breather Valves operate

77
Most atmospheric tanks require a venting device that will allow large volumes of vapor
to escape under relatively low pressures. Usually the allowable set pressure is in
inches of water column pressure, both for positive and vacuum conditions. This is
because most large storage tanks have a relatively low maximum allowable working
pressure.

These tanks are generally large volume welded vessels that are built to API 650
standard. In order to accommodate large volumes at low set pressures, these Valves
have ports that are greater in area than the inlet or nozzle connection. The low setting
required necessitates weight loading the Valve as opposed to spring loading. Because
of the above, a Breather Valve requires approximately 100% over set pressure in order
to reach full opening of the Valve.

However, when deciding on a set pressure, the weight-loaded Valve operation MAWP
should be at least twice the required set pressure to obtain optimum flow. If the MAWP
is less than 100% above the required set, the Valve could be larger in size than
normally required. The possibility of Valve chatter and accelerated seat and diaphragm
wear will exist if less than 20% over pressure is allowed. Simply stated, a
Pressure/Vacuum Valve is not exactly like a high pressure safety Relief Valve and
should not be sized at 10% or 20% over pressure. When sizing a Pressure/Vacuum
Valve, consult the manufacturer flow curves and allow sufficient overset pressure

Flare System:

A gas flare, alternatively known as a flare stack, is a gas combustion device used in industrial plants
such as petroleum refineries, chemical plants and natural gas processing plants. They are also
common at oil or gas extraction sites having oil wells, gas wells, offshore oil and gas
rigs and landfills.
In industrial plants, flare stacks are primarily used for burning off flammable gas released
by pressure relief valves during unplanned over-pressuring of plant equipment.[1][2][3][4][5] During plant

78
or partial plant startups and shutdowns, they are also often used for the planned combustion of
gases over relatively short periods.
At oil and gas extraction sites, gas flares are similarly used for a variety of startup, maintenance,
testing, safety, and emergency purposes.[6] In a practice known as production flaring, they may also
be used to dispose of large amounts of unwanted associated petroleum gas, possibly throughout
the life of an oil well

The adjacent flow diagram depicts the typical components of an overall industrial flare stack system:

 A knockout drums to remove any oil or water from the relieved gases.
 A water seal drum to prevent any flashback of the flame from the top of the flare stack.
 An alternative gas recovery system for use during partial plant startups and shutdowns as well
as other times when required. The recovered gas is routed into the fuel gas system of the
overall industrial plant.
 A steam injection system to provide an external momentum force used for efficient mixing
of air with the relieved gas, which promotes smokeless burning.
 A pilot flame (with its ignition system) that burns all the time so that it is available to ignite
relieved gases when needed.[8]
 The flare stack, including a flashback prevention section at the upper part of the stack.

Mechanical Failure Prevention Strategy:

As a machinery breakdown can severely hamper the productivity and operations of a business, it is in
administrator’s best interest to ensure that equipment functions properly and fulfills the longest service
lifetime possible.

A priority of any organization that relies on critical equipment is to prevent its failure. As a machinery
breakdown can severely hamper the productivity and operations of a business, it is in administrators' best
interests to ensure that equipment functions properly and fulfills the longest service lifetime possible. To

79
prevent equipment failure and reduce maintenance costs, organizations can take a few steps to improve
these efforts:

1) Establish a maintenance schedule

When repairs and upkeep take place on machines at regular intervals, these efforts can significantly
improve the equipment reliability of these systems. Therefore, organizations should be sure to establish a
consistent schedule to follow for preventive maintenance, The Dominion advised. As part of this process,
administrators and key employees should first identify critical machines to be included in these plans.
The schedule should also list the types of maintenance that should be performed on each individual
system and at what intervals these fixes should be carried out. Administrators can count on the advice
and knowledge of key workers dealing with this equipment on a regular basis, as well as the
recommendations of manufacturers to help create this plan.

2) Eliminate potential defects

In addition to creating a plan for preventive maintenance, organizations should also seek to eliminate any
potential machinery defects which could lead to failure, stated Lifetime Reliability. Plant managers and
operators should do their research about the machines utilized in their facilities, and identify any
equipment defects that could create downtime. By looking into past failures of the same machines
experienced by other users as well as any notices from the manufacturer, individuals can prevent these
defects from affecting their business.

3) Utilize equipment monitoring

one of the best ways to prevent equipment failure is to deploy a condition monitoring system to gain
insight into the health of key assets. This technology includes sensors to measure key components and
provides opportunities to perform preventive maintenance before larger issues arise. This system can
boost overall facility uptime as well as equipment reliability, making it a smart investment.

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 Chapter 5: Fire and Explosion

Fire Definition:Fire is a chemical chain reaction (Oxidation Process) initiated by factors such
as Combustible materials, Air & Heat source with ignition temperature exerting heat, light and
poisonous gases/ smoke/ CO2 gas due to combustion.

Classification of fire:CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE AND EXTINGUISHERS

Table A and B give the classes of fire (A to E) and portable fire extinguishers necessary
for them.
Table A :Classes of Fire and Extinguishers

Class of Description Extinguishing IS No.

fire Medium
A Fires involving ordinary combustible Water type 934
materials like wood, paper, textiles, (Soda acid)
fibres and vegetables etc. where the Water type (gas 940
cooling effect of water is essential for pressure)
the extinction of fires. Water type 6234
(constant air
pressure),
Anti – freeze types
and
Water buckets
B Fire in flammable liquids like oils, Chem. Foam 933
grease, solvents, Petroleum products, Carbon dioxide 5507
varnishes paints etc. where a blanketing 10474
effect is essential. 2878
8149
Dry Powder 2171
4308
Dry Powder 10658
Mechanical foam 10204
Halon 1211 11108
Sand buckets

81
C Fires involving gaseous substances Carbon dioxide 2878
under pressure where it is necessary to 8149
dilute the burning gas at a very fast rate Dry powder 2171
with an inert gas or powder. Dry powder 4308
Halon 1211 11108
D Fire involving metals like magnesium, Dry powder 2171
aluminum,zinc, potassium etc., where Special dry powder 4861
the burning metal is reactive to water for metal fire 11833
and which requires special extinguishing Sand buckets
media or technique.
E Fires involving electrical equipment Carbon dioxide 2878
where the electrical non-conductivity of Dry chemical powder 2171
the extinguishing media is of first 4308
importance. Halon 1211 11108
When electrical
equipment is de-
energized, same as
for Classes A & B
Sand buckets.

* Class E is omitted is some literature (eg. IS: 2190)

Class K is suggested for fire involving cooking oils.
Table B :Types of Extinguishers and suitability for Fire (IS:2190)

Type of Extinguisher IS No. For type of Fires

A B C D
1. Water type (Soda acid) 934 S NS NS NS
4406 * *
2 Water type (gas cartridge) 940 S NS NS NS
3 Water type (stored pressure) 6234 S NS NS NS
4 Chemical foam type 933 NS S NS NS
5507
10474
5 Mechanical foam type 10204 NS S NS NS
6 Dry powder type 2171 NS S NS NS
10658
7 Dry powder type 11833 NS NS NS S
8 CO2 type 2878 NS S S NS
8149
9 Halon 1211 type 11108 NS S S NS
* S = Suitable , NS = Not Suitable

82
NFPA classification of Fire Extinguishers

83
Class A : Fires in ordinary combustible material, such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber
and many plastics, that require the heat-absorbing coolant effect of water
or water solutions, the coating effects of certain dry chemicals that retard
combustion, or the interruption or the combustion chain reaction by the
dry, chemical or halogenated agents.
Class B: Fires in flammable or combustible liquids, flammable gases, grease and
similar material that must be put out by excluding air (oxygen), by
inhibiting the release of combustible vapor with AFFF or FFFP agents, or
by interrupting the combustion chain reaction.
ClassC : Fires in live electrical equipment. The operator's safety requires the use of
electrically non conductive extinguishing agents, such as dry chemical as
halon. When electric equipment is de-energized, extinguishers for class A
or B fires maybe used.
ClassD : Fires in certain combustible matals, such as Mg, Ti, Zr, Na, & K that
require a heat absorbing extinguishing medium that does not react with
the burning metals.
ClassK : Class K fires involve cooking oils. This is the newest of the fire classes.
Common Causes of Industrial Fire:
One study of more than 19000 fires in industrial plants revealed the following causes of fire:

Causes of Fire %
Electrical 19

Friction 14

Foreign Substance 12

Open flames 9

Smoking & matches 8

Spontaneous ignition 8

Hot surfaces 7

Not determinable 7

Combustion sparks 6

Miscellaneous 5

Overhead materials 3

Static electricity 2

100%

84
 Another study of more than 25000 fires reported to the Factory Mutual Engineering
Corporation from 1968 to 1977 gives following causes:

Causes of Fire % Share

Electrical 22

Incendiaries (deliberate 10
fire)

Smoking 9

Hot surfaces 9

Friction 7

Overheated materials 7

Cutting & Welding 7

Burner flames 6

Spontaneous ignition 5

Exposure 4

Combustion sparks 3

Miscellaneous 3

Mechanical sparks 2

Molten substances 2

Static sparks 2

Chemical action 1

Lightening 1

Total 100

85
Above percentage indicates the frequency of fire causes. It is not indicative of their relative
importance at particular plant, place or property. These are old figures and old causes.
Change in causes is always possible.
These causes can be subdivided in many sub causes as under:
Sparks may be mechanical, electrical, static, due to cutting and welding etc.
Hot surfaces may be due to bearings and shafting, stoves, heaters and small appliances,
petrol, kerosene, LPG, acetylene or alcohol torches, potable furnaces, blow torches, smoke
pipes, chimneys, flues and stacks, stationary heating devices, gas fired appliances viz. stoves,
heaters, boilers, salamanders etc.
Spontaneous ignition is due to oxidation of fuel where air is sufficient but ventilation
is insufficient to carry away the heat as fast as it is generated. Exposure to high temperature
and, presence of moisture increase the tendency toward spontaneous ignition. We unslaked
lime and sodium chlorate, rags or wash saturated with linseed oil or paint, sawdust, hay
grains etc., and finally divided metals promote spontaneous ignition.
Hazardous chemicals and metals like phosphorous, sodium, potassium, oxidising
materials nitro-cellulose film and pyroxylin plastics, fuels solvents, lubricants, wood, paper,
cloth and rubber products, sprays and mists, LPG and other flammable or explosive gases are
known for fire hazards.
Hyperboles, pyrophoric substances, adiabatic compression, radiation, catalytic action,
natural sources, lightening, cooking equipment, electrical distribution and installation, static
electricity, arson, rubbish, playing with fire, hand tools, pallet material storage and explosive
dust, gas, vapour or air mixture are all causes contributing to fire.

10.2 Fire Load Determination :

After fire detection and alarm system and before fire suppression or extinguishing system, it
is necessary to know the fire load so that based on that, amount of fire extinguishing system
can be designed and number of fixed and portable fire extinguishers can be calculated.
Fire load is the concentration or amount of combustible material in a building per sq.
mt. of floor area. It is defined as the amount of heat released in kilo calories by the fuel per
square meter area of the premises. Fire loads are useful to calculate the water requirement to
quench the fire, as when water comes in contact with burning surface it absorbs heat. I cc of
water absorbs I cal of heat when the' temperature is raised by 1°C. The fact should also be
considered that all the fuel does not burn at a time and all the water does not absorb heat as it
flows away.
Bombay Regional Committee (BRC) on fire has prescribed rules for fire load
calculation. Fire loads are calculated to assess potentiality of fire hazard, need of amount of
fire prevention and protection systems (e.g. water or other agent) and amount of premiums
required for fire insurance.
Fire load classification is as follows:
Low fire load - Less than 1 lakh B.Th.U.
Moderate fire load - Between 1 to 2 lakhs B.Th.U.
Higher fire load - More than 2 lakhs B.Th.U
See Rule 66A(11) of the Gujarat Factories Rules for area calculation by ABCD formula.
For fire load calculation see-last Part 8.

86
WORKED EXAMPLES :
Fire load calculation:
For the purpose of solving examples, following information needs to be understood.An
important factor in establishing the basis for the assessment of the fire risk pertaining to any
building is the concept of 'fire load' which indicates the quantity of heat liberated per unit
area when a - building and its contents are completely burnt.All occupancies/buildings, etc.
can be graded according to their fire hazard and are to be provided for with suitable fire
precautions on the basis of the fire load.Hence, grading of buildings according to both, fire
load and fire resistance, can be made.
The formula for calculating fire load is as under:
Fire load= (combustibles in kg) x calorific value in kcal/kg
Floor area in square meters

 Fire grading of the structures:Structural elements of buildings are graded according

to the time factor which is nearly equal to but does not exceed the test period which
the element fulfills its specified requirements.
Accordingly, all structural elements have been graded under the following five
categories depending upon their fire resistance, viz.,
Grade 1......... 6 hours
Grade 2......... 4 hours
Grade 3......... 2 hours
Grade 4......... 1 hours
Grade 5......... 0.5 hours

Occupancies of High fire load:

Godowns, warehouses, etc. This category as per I.S. specifications exceeds the fire load by
550,000 kcal/sq.mtr, but does not exceed an average of 1,100,000 kcal/sq.mtr of floor area. A
fire resistance of 4 hours for these types of occupancies is considered sufficient.
(For reference, the maximum for this type in F.P.S. system is 4,00,000B.Th.U/sq.ft
exceeding an average of 2,00,000 B.Th.U/sq.ft).
Occupancies of Moderate fire load:Retail shops, bazaars, stalls, factories, etc. Here the fire
load exceeds 2,75,000 kcal/sq.mtr, and is up to 550,000 kcal/sq.mtr. Occupancies of this type
should have a fire resistance of two hours.
Occupancies of Low fire load:Ordinary buildings for residential purposes, hotels, offices,
schools, etc, or occupancies having a fire load not exceeding 2,75,000 kcal/sq.mtr of net floor
area of any compartment, nor exceeding an average of 550,000 kcal/sq.mtr on a limited
isolated area. (for reference, the maximum for this type in F.P.S. system is 1,00,000
B.Th.U/sq.ft)
The fire resistance required by buildings of this category to withstand the complete
burn-out of their. contents without collapse is I hour as has been found after tests. Extensive
investigations carried out in Switzerland and Germany have shown that the fire load in
offices varies from 10 kg to 30 kg/sq.mtr wood equivalent to 43,356 to 130,068 kcal/sq.mtr.
This type of occupancy has an one hour rating with maximum fire loading up to 60 kg/sq.m.
Equivalent to 270,978 kcal/sq.mtr

87
 Example-1: A manufacturing process industry uses the following material. Calculate
the Fire load by using the following data: -

Area in Sq. Calorific value

Material Quantity in Kg.
mtr. (kJ/kg) (Kcal/kg)

Paper 100 100 15600 3725.28

Wood 2000 300 17500 4179

Coal 10000 500 20000 4776

Rubber 500 200 40000 9552

Petroleum 5000 400 43000 10268.4

product

1 K Joul = 0.2388 K. Cal

Fire load = (Combustibles in kg) x Calorific value in kcal/kg

Floor area in square meters

Fire load (paper) = 100 x 3725 = 3725 kcal/sq.mt

100

Fire load (wood) = 2000 x 4179 = 27860 kcal/sq.mt

300

Fire load (coal) = 10000 x 4776 = 95520 kcal/sq.mt

500

Fire load (rubber) = 500 x 9552 = 23880 kcal/sq.mt

200
Fire load (petroleum products) = 5000 x 10268 = 128350 kcal/sq.mt
400
Total fire load = 279335 kcal/sq.mt

As this is less than 550000 kcal/sq.mt, as stated above, it indicates low fire load and
requires fire resistance of 1 hour.
Installation of fire extinguishers:
Example-2:
Determine the number of fire extinguishers required to give adequate protection for a
given property. Risk: Light engineering workshop (Light hazard) Area: 315m x 112
m.
Type of hazard: Class 'A' fire due to normal combustibles.As per IS 2190 this is Light hazard.
Therefore one 9 ltr.water expelling extinguisher for every 600 sq.mtr of floor area is
required.Extinguisher should be available within 25mtr. radius..

88
Here total area = 315m x 112 m. = 35,280 sq. mtr.
No. of extinguishers= 35,280 sq.mt = 58.8 = 59
600 sq.mt
Example-3:Determine the number of fire extinguishers required to give adequate protection
for a given property. Risk: Petroleum processing unit (High hazard) Area: 300m x 150 m. i.e.
45000 sq. mtr. Type of hazard: Class 'B' fire due to petroleum products.
As per IS 2190 this is High hazard. Therefore two 9 ltr foam chemical/mechanical type; or 5
kg capacity dry powder extinguisher for every 600 sq.mtr with minimum of four
extinguishers per compartment is required.
Extinguisher should be available within 15 mtr radius.
Here total area is 45000 sq.mt.
Therefore No. of extinguisher = 45000 sq.mt .= 75
600 sq.mt
Fire Resistance of Building Materials :
In flammable area when building materials and paints are used, they should have good
fire resistance. Steel and masonry are fire resistant materials. Fire resistive structural material
should be selected depending upon the type of fire possible.

There are three types of materials:

(1) Non-flammable viz. metals, brick, clay, asbestos, concrete, cement, gravel, ceramics, sand
etc.
(2) Hardly flammable viz. staw brick, dry gypsum plaster, fibreboard, linoleum etc.
(3) Flammable viz. organic origin such as wood, cardboard, felt, paper etc.
As far as possible non-flammable material should be selected.
Fire or flame resistance is the capacity of structural element to perform its load-
bearing and enclosing functions i.e. to retain its strength and ability to withstand action of
fire, for a particular time during fire.
The fire resisting limits of buildings should be high to ensure safety and escape in
case of fire. Such limits are measured in terms of time (h) from the start of the fire to the
indication of any crack or loss of load carrying capacity (collapse) .or rise of excessive
temperature. The fire resisting limits also depend on the size (thickness and cross section) and
the physical properties of the building material. For example, 12 cm thick wall can withstand
fire for 2.5 h and a 25 cm thick wall for 5.5 h. Fire retardant coatings on wood and flame
proofing of fabrics are useful to some extent.
IS-.1642, 3079, 3594, 3808, 3809 and 6329 provide further details.

Design of Fire Safety of building plant, exists, etc: The building should be
protected both horizontally and vertically from spread of fire through floors, stairs, walls,
ventilating ducts etc. Fire resistant barriers can be used for this purpose.A fire stopping is a
fire-check wall of nonflammable material with a fire resistance limit of at least 2.5 h. It may
be blind or with fire resisting doors or gates. Stopping can be internal, external, roof and
separate (stand alone) fireproof walls. They are constructed to intersect the floors, ceilings
and roofs with fibreboard of 30 cm over roofs from non-flammable materials. Fire-resistance
limit of doors and gates in stopping should be more than 1.5 h. The total area of such
openings should not be more than 25% of the total surface area of the stopping.
Where the construction of stopping is not possible, fire check-zones (strips of non-flammable
materials) should be provided to divide floors and walls into sections more than 6 m wide.

89
Ventipanes or smoke escape windows should be provided to facilitate smoke removal during
fire. Exits and escape ways should be as per statutory requirement. Width of escape should be
more than a meter and should increase depending upon the maximum persons likely to use it.
High fire risk areas; storage, packing and dispatch areas, boiler and fuel rooms,
transformer room, kitchen and car parks should be separated by fire resistant construction.
Storage of flammable liquids and gases should be minimum possible. Gas cylinders should be
stored either in open air with shade or in a room of non-flammable construction and
ventilated permanently to the external air. Fire hazards of storage of explosive and flammable
substances, electrical equipment, static electricity, heating processes, painting, sparkling etc.,
should be foreseen and fully protected.
Lightening protection of buildings is most important as the heavy electric charge (up
to 150000 KV and 200 KA) may prove destructive causing fir6 and explosion in the ground
structure. Appropriate lightening arrester (protector) should be fitted higher than the highest'
object and covering the lightening protected zone. The resistance of the grounding device
should be less than 10 or 20 ohms depending upon its category.

Fire safety should be well thought of from sitting: and location stage to the maintenance stage
as follows:

a) Sitting and location: sufficient space, water and emergency facilities, effects of past
disasters, location of process areas for quick vapour dispersal and location of control
rooms.

b) Plant layout: Segregation of hazardous processes and storage, drainage and

compliance of statutory standards.

c) Design and Construction: Relief valves, by-passes, rupture discs, explosion vents,
safety interlocks, flame arresters, flameproof fittings, selection of material, fire
resistant construction, Under Ground storage

d) Plant Operation: Limited storage of flammable materials, good housekeeping, good

ventilation, work permit system, emergency action plan and training of employees.

e) Plant Maintenance : Reliability and monitoring procedures, inspection, testing and

preventive maintenance, spares availability and maintenance of fail-safe safety
devices.

IS-.1642, 3594, 6329,1646 and 15:2190 must always be followed for material and
details of construction of buildings, storage and use of portable fire extinguishers.
See Part 3.1 for statutory detail.

90
10.3 Causes of Fire & Remedial Measures:
Cause Remedial Measure

1 Electricity Standard and safe wiring, over load protection, double insulation
and earthing on portable equipment, ELCB and waterproof cord in
wet environment, use of proper flameproof equipment in
hazardous area and periodical inspection.
2 Bad house Storing rubbish, waste, oil, grease etc. in a waste-bin with closed
keeping cover, regular cleaning and inspection, bund (dyke) to storage
tanks of flammable liquid dust collectors, safe disposal,
incineration.
3 Bidi-Cigarretts No-smoking notices, separate smoking booths, checking of match
box, lighter etc. at security gates.
4 Hot surfaces Good insulation, fencing, ducting for smokes and flue.

5 Friction Good lubrication, proper belt tension, alignment, dust removal,

inspection and maintenance.
6 Excessive Heat Cooling, temperature controls trained operators and supervisors.

7 Welding cutting Special place or partition, heat resistant floor, spark control,
keeping flammable substance away, hot work permit,
flammability test in tank before hot work, use of proper
equipment.
8 Flame and Proper design, operation and maintenance, sufficient ventilation
combustion and ignition safety, heater insulation, hood, chimney, keeping
flame away, trips and interlocks.
9 Self ignition Keep environment cool and dry, necessary ventilation and
protection, keeping ducts and passages of waste and smoke clean,
separate store of highly flammable materials, not to put oil soaked
rags on hot surfaces, lagging and cladding, small vessels, good
House Keeping.
10 Exposure Barrier wall, sprinklers on fire path, wire glass in windows.

11 Ignition sparks Proper equipment, closed combustion chamber, spark arrester on

flammable vent and vehicle exhaust, flare, trip.
12 Mechanical Machine guarding to avoid entry of foreign particle, fencing,
sparks magnetic separator, non-sparking tools.
13 Molten hot Proper equipment with handles, better operation, and Maintenance
substance Non- mixing of water.
14 Static electricity Grounding, bounding, ionization and humidification, vehicle
(Due to belt drive, earthing while transfer through pipeline, earthing of vessel,
paper/ plastic equipment and piping, flow rate reduction, avoiding flammable
reeling, human atmosphere, splashing and settling, using earthed probe, antistatic

91
 body, fluidized device, conductive shoes and flooring, copper earthing with earth
bed, pneumatic resistance less than 10 ohm additive to change liquid resistance,
conveying, dust keeping filters away from storage tanks, extending inlet pipe up to
handling, liquid bottom to avoid free fall of liquid, non-conductive parts and
mixing, flow in earthing of l4evel gauges, avoiding oil drops in water, small size
vessel or pipe of non-conducting plastic containers, using N2 instead of CO2 as
agitation etc. inert gas, electrostatic eliminators on paper / plastic reeling
machines, use of radioactive ionization etc.

Control of Fire and Explosion in Flammable Substances :Fire or explosion in

flammable substance is possible only when it leaks and forms vapour in explosive range.
Therefore the first step necessary is to regularly check the tank, container, piping, equipment
etc. for leakage and to stop it.
Depending on the vapour density, ventilation should be provided at bottom or upper
level to remove accumulation of flammable vapour. If because of heating or cooling, the
vapour density is changeable, the ventilation/exhaust system should be designed for operating
conditions and not for MSDS value.
Natural ventilation openings can be provided near floor, near ceiling or both. Local
exhaust ventilation with explosion-proof .electrical equipment is the best measure.
Un-burnt gases or flammable vapour in combustion chambers of heater, ovens,
boilers, furnaces may form an explosive mixture. Therefore in the event of flame failure,
proper venting or purging time should be allowed or a timed precognition purge cycle should
be followed.
a) A gas detector can be used to check explosive range in the suspected area.
b) Gas valves and joints should be frequently checked for leaks. If gas is present,
ventilation should be allowed before restarting.
c) Source of ignition is another contributory factor for fire or explosion. Use of
flame/smoke detector, flameproof electric equipment, proper earthing to discharge
static electricity, checking of spark or heat generating processes and their control, hot
work permit etc. are the remedial measures.
 Fighting Fires of Pesticides :
Pesticides when bum emit toxic fumes and when dissolve in fire water; it cannot be allowed
to run anywhere as its contact will become poisonous and birds and animals may die if they
drink it. Effect depends upon its toxicity and concentration in air or water. Hazard is also
faced by the fire fighters, and the people in vicinity. Therefore utmost care is required while
fighting fire of pesticides.
Design of pesticide storage is most important in this regard. Fire detectors and automatic
sprinklers should work avoiding human need. Water inside must flow on well designed slope
to go to retention basin and from there to the specific collection pond or tank to collect
polluted water. Such pond/tank should have proper fencing to keep away people and animals.
After the control of fire, this contaminated water must be treated for safe discharge.
If fire takes place in open, persons fighting fire should wear self breathing apparatus,
should not face the wind direction, feet, hands and body should be protected, water should be
safely diverted to a safe place and covered by sand, lime or any inactivating media.
In case of solvent based liquid pesticide, foam and DCP may be more useful.
Other precautions include prohibition of smoking, keeping flammable pesticide away
from sun, heat and source of ignition, keeping people away from risk, calling help if needed

92
and cleaning up area and clothing after extinguishing the fire. Medical attention and treatment
without loss of time are necessary if any person is adversely affected.

Types of Extinguishers and suitability for Fire (IS:2190)

Type of Extinguisher IS No. For type of Fires

A B C D

1. Water type (Soda acid) 934 S NS NS NS

4406 * *
2 Water type (gas cartridge) 940 S NS NS NS

3 Water type (stored pressure) 6234 S NS NS NS

4 Chemical foam type 933 NS S NS NS

5507
10474
5 Mechanical foam type 10204 NS S NS NS

6 Dry powder type 2171 NS S NS NS

10658
7 Dry powder type 11833 NS NS NS S

8 CO2 type 2878 NS S S NS

8149
9 Halon 1211 type 11108 NS S S NS

S = Suitable , NS = Not Suitable

 NFPA classification of Fire Extinguishers

NFPA 10 classifies fires and fire extinguishers into the following 4 types:
Class A : Fires in ordinary combustible material, such as wood, cloth, paper,
rubber and many plastics, that require the heat-absorbing coolant effect
of water or water solutions, the coating effects of certain dry chemicals
that retard combustion, or the interruption or the combustion chain
reaction by the dry, chemical or halogenated agents.
Class B: Fires in flammable or combustible liquids, flammable gases, grease
and similar material that must be put out by excluding air (oxygen), by
inhibiting the release of combustible vapor with AFFF or FFFP agents,
or by interrupting the combustion chain reaction.
Class C : Fires in live electrical equipment. The operator's safety requires the use
of electrically non conductive extinguishing agents, such as dry
chemical as halon. When electric equipment is de-energized,
extinguishers for class A or B fires maybe used.
Class D : Fires in certain combustible metals, such as Mg, Ti, Zr, Na, & K that
require a heat absorbing extinguishing medium that does not react with
the burning metals.
Class K : Class K fires involve cooking oils. This is the newest of the fire
classes.

93
Foam System:ItIt uses fixed foam apparatus either automatic or manual. It may consist of
one or more portable foam extinguishers suspended in such a way that flame or heat releases
a cord or fusible link to operate the extinguisher automatically. Discharge rate may vary from
15 to 4000 gpm. Foams are of two types - chemical and mechanical. Chemical foam is
produced by a chemical reaction of CCX, bubbles and a foaming agent. Mechanical foam is
created when air and water are mechanically agitated with a foam solution.
Fire fighting foam (gas
(gas-filled
filled bubble solution) is lighter than most flammable liquids.
Therefore it formss a floating blanket on burning liquid, cuts off oxygen supply and also cools
the fuel.

94
 Foam system is generally used to protect fuel tanks, oil and paint storage rooms,
asphalt coating etc. It can be injected on the liquid surface in a tank to provide blanketing
effect and to cut off flames and vapours.
Foam is of two types - Low expansion and High expansion foam. Low expansion
foam is of four types Chemical foam, Mechanical -or air-generated foam, Protein foam and
Synthetic (fluorinated surface active agent) foam. Foam generators of different types are
available.
Foam-water sprinkler and spray systems use mechanical foam equipment with a
deluge sprinkler system.
High-expansion foam is best suited for class A and B fires in confined spaces
such as sewers, basement. It is made by mixing a small amount (@ 1.5%) of foam liquid into
a foam generator where water and large quantities of air are mixed. Accumulated foam can
act as an insulating barrier for the surface not involved in fire. Thus it prevents fire spread.
Ventilation is necessary to vent the displaced air and gases when foam is being
applied.

Carbon dioxide systems :These are fixed, local or flood type. They are generally useful
for electrical, liquid and gas fires.CO2 system may be of high-pressure or low pressure type.
In the high pressure system, CO2 is kept in a compressed gas cylinder at normal temperature,
while in the low pressure system, it is stored in an insulated pressure vessel at —18 °C and
300 psi by mechanical refrigeration. At such low temperature more CO2, can be stored
economically. Safety valves are provided to take care of refrigeration failure. Liquid CO2 can
bedelivered through nozzles at 15 kg/sec.In both the systems, CO2 can be released manually
or automatically through nozzles close to the expected source of fire. Unlike water or
chemical, CO2 does not spoil the stock or equipment.
In a room, compartment or small building, total flood system can be used where wall
openings can automatically be shut when the gas is released. Warning alarm to alert people
working nearby is necessary. Sufficient time must be allowed to evacuate the area.In a
confined place, the area should be well ventilated and checked for 0, content after the fire is
extinguished.
Dry Chemical Powder (DCP): Dry Chemical Powder is neither toxic nor conductor of
electricity, nor does it freeze. It is stored in an inert gas cylinder under pressure. Installations
can be provided for simultaneous closing of fire doors, windows, ventilating ducts, operating
valves, shutting off fans and machinery and actuating alarms.
The dry chemical piped systems are developed for fast extinguishment in a confined
area or for localized application. They are useful on flammable liquid and electrical hazards
and can be operated manually, automatically or remotely. The agent is kept in a pressurized
container fixed or mounted on vehicles.
Action of extinguishment is to interrupt the chain reaction of fire by the dry chemical
agent.Dry chemicals include Sodium bicarbonate as standard dry chemical. Potassium
bicarbonate.General purpose powder (ABC) and Monnex powder. If electrical equipment is
not involved, foam can be used to follow DCP application.

Fixed Fire Installations:Fixed automatic fire installations are desirable from the design
stage, as they can be used for longer time and are more effective than the portable type.

(1) Fire Hydrants:Fire hydrants are economical and should be installed freely around the
plant. They should be kept accessible, unobstructed and protected for safety. Indicator posts
are advisable.
Fire hydrants, hoses, nozzles and couplers are part of the system. Fixed nozzles are
single or double headed. Monitor nozzles are on swivel joint and can be turned as desired and

95
to clear any obstruction. Hose nozzles can be extended and laid (i.e. more flexible) wherever
required. They are of fixed flow type, adjustable flow (variable discharge) type and a
combination type.
The number of hydrants needed depends on the fire exposure and the hose-laying
distance to the built-up areas. The discharge ports should be at least 18 inch (45 cm) above
the ground level.
Fire Hose and Nozzles of standard size, double jacketed rubber-lined should be stored
in hose boxes and should be subjected to a full pressure test once a year. Space around hose
lines and control valves should be clear. Aisles and door ways should be wide enough and
clear to allow rapid use of hose reel cart or mobile equipment.

Monitor Nozzles are used in yards and large congested areas where it is difficult to lay hose
line in an emergency. The nozzle is so positioned to direct a high pressure water stream over
desired area and height.

Water Reservoirs are necessary for the supply of fire water at good pressure and
volume. They should not be used for other purposes such as process requirement. If the
reservoir is common, suction pipe (its bottom end) for process water should be at a higher
level than the suction pipe for fire water into the bottom of the reservoir to maintain the level
of reserved water for fire protection.
Water Supply from reliable sources is essential. Reservoirs, overhead tanks, pressure
tanks, pumps, pipes and connections must be maintained well. Flow discharge may vary from
10 to 40 litres per second and pressure from 7 to 10 kg./cm2.

96
TAC guidelines(rules) for water supply for hydrants are as under :Water for the hydrant
service shall be stored in any easily accessible surface or underground lined reservoir or
above ground tanks of steel, concrete or masonry. The effective capacity of the
reservoir(above the level of the foot valve seat in case of negative suction and above the level
of the top of the pump casing in case of positive suction) for the various classes of
occupancies (as per rule 7.2) and size of hydrant installations shall be as indicated in Table C
hereunder:
Note 1: Reservoirs of and over 2,25,000litres capacity shall be in two interconnected
compartments to facilitate cleaning and repairs.
Note 2: Large natural reservoirs having water capacity exceeding ten times the aggregate
water requirements of all the fire pump drawing there from may be left unlined.
Table C : Capacity of water storage
Nature of Risk Capacity of static storage exclusively
reserved for hydrant service.

1. Light Hazard Not less than 1 hour’s aggregate pumping

capacity with a minimum of 1,35,000litres.

2. Ordinary Hazard Not less than 2 hour’s aggregate pumping

capacity.

3. High Hazard (A) Not less than 3 hours’ aggregate pumping

capacity.

4. High Hazard (B) Not less than 4 hours’ aggregate pumping

capacity.

Note 1 : The capacity of the reservoir for Ordinary and High Hazard Class Occupancies may,
at the discretion of the Committee, be reduced by 2 hours' inflow from a reliable source
(other than a town's main) but in no case shall the reservoir capacity be less than 60% of that
mentioned above.

Note 2 : In case of Light Hazard Class Occupancies the minimum capacity of the reservoir
shall be increased to 2,25,000 litres if the highest floor of the building is more than 15 mt
above the surroundings ground level.

97
 The capacity for hydrant service shall be determined by the class of occupancy and
size of installation as per Table D.
Table D: Pump, Capacity and Delivery Pressure:
Sr. Nature of Number of Hydrants Pump Delivery
No. Risk Capacity in pressure at
Litres / Sec rated
3
(m / hour) capacity
kg/cm2

1 Light hazard i) Not exceeding 20 27 (96) 5.6

ii) Exceeding 20 but not exceeding 55 38 (137) 7
iii) Exceeding 55 but not exceeding 100 47 (171)
7
iv) Exceeding 100 47 (171) plus

47 (171) for
every additional 7/8.8
125 hydrants or
part thereof.

Note : The total pumping capacity need not be greater than 190 (683) irrespective of the
number of hydrant points.

2 Ordinary i) Not exceeding 20 38 (137) 7

Hazard
ii) Exceeding 20 but not exceeding 55 47 (171) 7
iii) Exceeding 55 but not exceeding 100 76 (273)
iv) Exceeding 100
76 (273) plus 7
76 (273) for
every
additional 125 7/8.8
hydrants or
part thereof.

Note : The total pumping capacity need not be greater than 302 (1092) irrespective of the
number of hydrant points.

3. High Hazard i) Not exceeding 20 47 (171) 7

(A) ii) Exceeding 20 but not exceeding 55 76 (273) 7/8.8
iii) Exceeding 55 but not exceeding 100

iv) Exceeding 100

114(410) 7/8.8
114(410) 7/8.8/10.5
114(410) for
every

98
 additional 150
hydrants or
part thereof.

4 High Hazard i) Not exceeding 20 Two of 47 (171) 7

(B) Two of 76 (273) 7/8.8
ii) Exceeding 20 but not exceeding 55 Two of 114(410)
7/8.8
iii) Exceeding 55 but not exceeding 100 Two of 114(410)
plus one of
114(410) for
every additional
200 hydrants or
part thereof. 7/8.8/10.5
iv) Exceeding 100

This provision will apply only in cases where the hydrant service has been hydraulically
designed as per NB 3(13) u/r 7.5.10.
Note: In case of Light Hazard Occupancies, the pump delivery pressure will need to
be 7 kg/ cm2 if the highest floor of the risk is at a height exceeding 15 mt above the
surrounding ground level:
Proper drainage facility shall be provided to drain the fire-fighting water out of the
basement.
Storage of material in the open shall be protected as under:
Metals, Metallic goods, Machinery and goods, One single hydrant for every 60m. of the storage
Machinery and other non-hazardous storage. periphery located beyond 2 m., but within 15 m.
of storage area.

Coal or Coke One single hydrant for every 45m. of the storage
periphery located beyond 2 m., but within 15m.
ofstorage area.

Other storage One double hydrant for every 45 m. of the

storage periphery located beyond 2 m., but within
22.5m. of storage area.

Note 1:In case of open storage areas of following materials, at least 50% of hydrants shall be
replaced by fixed monitors having nozzle bore of 38 mm diameter if the individual stack
height is more than 6 m. and total storage exceeds 5000 tonnes.
Bamboo Bagasse.
Grass/Hay Timber.
Note 2: Where hydrants/monitors located along one longer side of a storage area are more
than 90 m. from those along the other longer side, such a storage area shall not be deemed
to be protected.
Protection for combustible/flammable liquid Storage Tanks:
Tank less than 20 m. in diameter. One double headed preferably two single
headed hydrants located beyond 15 m., but
within 35m.of tank shell.

Tanks over 20 m. in diameter. Two double headed or four single headed

hydrants located beyond 15 m. but within 35
m. of tank shell.

99
Note 1: In case tanks are located more than 22.5 m. from the dyke walls, one double hydrant
or two single hydrants shall be replaced by a 38 mm monitor.
Note 2 : Where the distance of tank from the monitor exceeds 45 m. in addition to provisions
of Note I, the tank shall be protected by Fixed Foam or Medium Velocity Water Spray
System having prior approval of the Committee.
Note 3 : Hydrants/Monitors shall not be installed within dyked enclosures nor can the hydrant
main pass through it.
Note 4 :Fixed roof type storage tanks, floating roof type storage tanks exceeding 30 m. in
diameter and Bullets/Spheres containing products having flashpoint below 32 °C shall be
protected by Medium Velocity Water Spray System conforming to relevant regulations.
However, manually-operated systems shall also be acceptable.
Water spray systems shall not be insisted for Insulated Vessels/Spheres."
Water spray protection for small size tanks up to 10 mtr. diameters in ordinary and high
hazard risks shall not be insisted upon."
(2)Automatic Water Sprinklers :They are of six types. Wet pipe, dry pipe, pre-action,
deluge, combined dry pipe and pre-action and sprinklers for limited water supply system.
Automatic alarms operated by the flow of water should be a part of sprinkler installation.
Such an alarm may be connected to a central fire station. The sprinklers should be regularly
checked to avoid their failure to work.Automatic sprinklers are most efficient and widely
used. It reduces insurance premium considerably.
Its basic function is to spray water automatically to a fire, the system can also work as
a fire alarm. This can be done by installing an electrical water flow alarm switch in each main
riser pipe.
Sprinklers should be selected on the basis of temperature rating and occupancy. Their
types are Either heat-element or chemical melts or expands to open the sprinkler. Normal
detector setting is 68 °C. Sprinklers heads normally cover 12 m3 per head. Amount of water
required depends on risk protected, flow range being 0.04 to 0.514 I/m'.
In deluge system, water is admitted to sprinklers that are open at all times. Deluge
valves (water supply valves) can be operated manually or automatically by an automatic
detection system.
Maintenance and inspection of water supply valves, system piping for obstruction,
nozzles and water supply tests etc. are necessary.

(3) Water Spray System :Water spray system uses water in small droplets through
special nozzles giving various pressures. The system is supplemented to and not a
replacement for automatic sprinklers. It should be checked that the water should not be
reactive with the material burning.
The system is similar to the deluge system except that the open sprinklers are replaced
by spray nozzles. The system is generally applied to flammable liquid and gas tanks, piping
and equipment, electrical equipment such as oil filled transformers, switches and motors. To
avoid short circuit, current should be cut off before applying tile spray.
The spray nozzle holes are smaller than those in ordinary sprinklers, therefore they
can be choked. To avoid this, strainers (filter or screen) are required in water supply lines.
The nozzles having the smallest holes, have their own internal strainer in addition to the
supply line strainer.
TAC guidelines on Water Spray Systems give retailed rules. Some extract is given
below:
Definitions and terminology relating to the components of the water spray systems are as
follows:

100
(a) Water Spray System : A special fixed pipe system connected to a reliable source of fire
protection water supply and equipped with water spray nozzles for specific water discharge
and distribution over the surface or area to be protected. The piping system is connected to
the water supply through an automatically actuated Deluge Valve which initiates flow of
water. Automatic actuation is achieved by operation of automatic detecting equipment
installed along with water spray nozzles. There are two types of systems namely High
Velocity and Medium Velocity systems. The former is useful for liquids with flash point
above 65 °C and the latter for flash point below 65 °C.
(b) Spray Nozzle and Valves: A normally open water discharging device which, when
supplied with water under pressure will distribute the water in a special directional pattern
peculiar to the 'particular device. Nozzles used for High Velocity Water Spray systems are
called "Projectors" and nozzles used for Medium Velocity Water Spray systems are called
"Sprayers". Both these nozzles are made in a range of orifice sizes with varying discharge
angles so that discharge can be controlled for optimum protection.
Different types of valves are used with fire water piping system or water hydrants as
shown in fig.
(c) Deluge Valve : A quick opening valve which admits water automatically to a system of
projectors or sprayers and is operated by a system of detectors and/ or sprinklers installed in
the same areas as nozzles.
(d) Control of Burning : Application of water spray to equipment or areas where a fire may
occur to control the rate of burning and thereby limit the heat release from a fire until the fuel
can be eliminated or extinguishment effected.
(e)Exposure Protection: Application of water spray to structures or equipment to limit
absorption of heat to a level which will minimise damage and prevent failure whether source
of heat is external or internal.
(f) Impingement: The striking of a protected surface by water droplets issuing directly from
projectors and/or sprayers.
(g) Run Down : The downward travel of water along a surface caused by the momentum of
the water or by gravity.
(h) Slippage : The horizontal component of the travel of water along the surface beyond the
point of contact caused by the momentum of water.

101
 Fig .Types of valves.

(i) Insulated Equipment : Equipment, structure vessels provided with insulation which for
the expected duration of exposure, will protect steel from exceeding a temperature of 454 "C
(850 °F) for structural members and 343 °C (650 °F) for vessels.

(j) Density: The unit rate of water application to an area or surface expressed in litres/min/ m

102
(k) Automatic Detection Equipment : Equipment which will automatically detect one or
more components directly related to combustion such a heat. Smoke, flame and other
phenomenon and automatic actuation of alarm and protection equipment.
(l) Fire Barrier : It is a continuous wall or floor that is designed and constructed to limit the
spread of fire.
(m) Range Pipes : Pipes on which sprinklers are attached either directly or through short
arm pipes which do not exceed 30 cm in length.
( n) Distribution Pipes : Pipes which directly feed the range pipes.
Testing and maintenance of water spray system is given m Table Table Periodical
Testing and Maintenance Chart

Sr Subject Activities Duration

1 Reservoir Level checking Weekly

Clearing One in 2 years

2 Pump Running test Daily

Test flow 5 minutes

Lubrication Annually

Gland Quarterly

Packing Weekly

Overhaul One in 2 years

3 Engine Running Once in day (5 mins)

Fuel tank check Daily

Lubrication Quarterly

Battery status Weekly

Load test Annually

Overhaul Once in 2 years

4 Motor Lubrication Weekly

Starter contact checking Weekly

Insulation resistance check Half yearly

5 Main piping Gauge pressure Check daily

Flushing Once in 2 years

6 Sluice valves Operation Monthly

103
 Gland packing Monthly

Lubrication Quarterly

7 Deluge valves Operation Weekly

Alarm check Weekly

Cleaning Quarterly

Overhaul Annually

8 Sprayers Cleaning Quarterly

Flow test Quarterly

9 Detectors Performance Six monthly

10 Spray installation Performance Quarterly

Physical check up of piping for Monthly

seeing dislocation of support,
wrong orientation overloading
etc.

11 Pressure gauges Calibration Annually

12 Painting of entire Every 2 years

installation

(4)Foam System :It uses fixed foam apparatus either automatic or manual. It may consist of
one or more portable foam extinguishers suspended in such a way that flame or heat releases
a cord or fusible link to operate the extinguisher automatically. Discharge rate may vary from
15 to 4000 gpm. Foams are of two types - chemical and mechanical. Chemical foam is
produced by a chemical reaction of CCX, bubbles and a foaming agent. Mechanical foam is
created when air and water are mechanically agitated with a foam solution.
Fire fighting foam (gas-filled bubble solution) is lighter than most flammable liquids.
Therefore it forms a floating blanket on burning liquid, cuts off oxygen supply and also cools
the fuel.
Foam system is generally used to protect fuel tanks, oil and paint storage rooms,
asphalt coating etc. It can be injected on the liquid surface in a tank to provide blanketing
effect and to cut off flames and vapours.
Foam is of two types - Low expansion and High expansion foam. Low expansion
foam is of four types Chemical foam, Mechanical -or air-generated foam, Protein foam and
Synthetic (fluorinated surface active agent) foam. Foam generators of different types are
available.Foam-water sprinkler and spray systems use mechanical foam equipment with a
deluge sprinkler system.High-expansion foam is best suited for class A and B fires in
confined spaces such as sewers, basement. It is made by mixing a small amount (@ 1.5%) of
foam liquid into a foam generator where water and large quantities of air are mixed.
Accumulated foam can act as an insulating barrier for the surface not involved in fire. Thus it
prevents fire spread.Ventilation is necessary to vent the displaced air and gases when foam is
being applied.

104
Fire Detection and Alarm Systems:Various types of detectors are available operating
on principles of thermal expansion, thermoelectric sensitivity, thermo conductivity or
photosensitivity to detect presence of smoke, increase in temperature, light intensity or total
radiation. Their types are: Thermal expansion detectors. Radiant energy detectors.Light
interference detectors and ionization detectors. They should be properly located depending
upon their range. They simply give alarm and cannot extinguish fire. They make us alert for
fire fighting.

Fire detectors (A & B) and LPG detector (C)

Though fire detection and alarm systems are separate systems but the latter has to operate just
after the former operates. Therefore they are considered together. IS 2175 and 2189 also deal
with them together.
Two main functions of any fire detection system are
1. To give alarm to start up extinguishing procedure, and
2. To give early warning to area occupants to escape.
It is wrong to speak 'fire detectors'. Actually they detect sensible heat, smoke density or flame
radiation to operate before actual fire follows. Their 'sensor' detects measurable quantity of
these parameters. A decision making device coupled with the sensor, compares the measured
quantity with a predetermined ' value, and when it is different, an alarm is sounded. A
detector both detects and signals.
Human being is a good detector as he can act m a flexible way i.e. run away, put out
the fire or call the fire department. No other detector can work in such selective manner.
Selection of the type of detector is important For example, low risk areas need
thermal detectors, a ware house may have infrared and ionization detectors and a computer
area requires ionization or combination detectors.
Location and spacing should be determined to obtain the earliest possible
warning.Sensitivity, reliability, maintainability and stability are important factors for
selection.
Fire process has four stages - incipient stage, smouldering stage, flame stage and heat
stage. Many types of fire detectors are available for various situations and useful at different

105
stages of a fire (see part 1.4). Thermal detectors are of fixed temperature detectors, rate-
compensated thermal detectors, rate of rise thermal detectors, line thermal detectors and the
bulb detection system.
Smoke detectors are of photoelectric type and are of two classes - The beam
photoelectric or reflected beam photoelectric detectors.
Flame detectors are of infrared (IR) or ultraviolet (UV) type.
Ionization (combustion products) detectors are the
single chamber or dual chamber ionization detector and the
low-voltage ionization detector.
Fire Alarm system may be separate to run manually or
connected with fire detectors and operable automatically. All
workers must be made aware of the sound pattern and its
meaning. Fire alarm sound should be distinguishable from
other sound m that area. It should be clearly audible to all
facility personnel. Sound for beginning of fire and end of fire
should be kept different.

10.5 BLEVE (Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion ):

Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE), also referred as a fireball, is a
combination of fire and explosion with an intense radiant heat emission within a relatively
short time interval.
When a tank or pressure vessel containing liquid or liquefied gas above its boiling
point (so heated) fails or ruptures the contents release as a turbulent mixture of liquid and gas,
expanding rapidly and dispersing in air as a cloud. When this cloud is ignited, a fireball
occurs causing enormous heat radiation intensity within a few seconds. This heat is sufficient
to cause severe skin burns and deaths within a few hundred meters depending on the mass of
the gas involved. A BLEVE involving a 50- tone propane tank can cause '"third-degree burn
at @ 200 mt and blisters at @ 400 mt
Road/rail accident to a tank car/wagon or due to weakening of structure by fire or
physical impact on a overstressed vessel/tank can cause a BLEVE.

Some reported major BLEVE examples are as under:

Year Location Chemical Death Injury

1966 Feyzin, France LPG (Propane) 18 90

1969 Laurel, Miss LPG 2 -

1970 Cresent City, III LPG 0 66

1971 Houston, Tex Vinyl chloride 1 -

1972 New Jersey Propylene 2 -

1985 Mexico City LPG 650 2500

106
Types of Explosion
Dust Explosion: It is possible due to flammable dusts of wood, coal, food(starch, flour,
sugar, cocoa, feed stuffs), chemicals, plastics (urea formaldehyde, resin, polyethylene,
polystyrene), metals(aluminum, magnesium) etc.
It results from rapid combustion of fine solid particles like iron, aluminum, wood,
starch etc. Many solid particles when reduced to fine powder becomes very flammable and
explosive.
At a starch/corn plant at Ceder Rapids, Iowa in 1919, 43 people were killed and at
Peking, Illinois in 1924, 42 people were killed due to dust explosion.
At a starch plant at Ahmedabad, 29 workers injured and out of them 20 died due to
starch dust explosion on 19-12-1991.
Explosion characteristics of dust suspension are as under:
1. Explosibility classification.
2. Minimum explosible concentration.
3. Minimum ignition temperature.
4. Minimum ignition energy.
5. Maximum permissible oxygen concentration to prevent ignition.
6. Explosion pressure characteristics.
(a) maximum explosion pressure.
(b) maximum rate of pressure rise.
(c) average rate of pressure rise.
Sources of ignition for dust explosions are :
(1) Flames, heat or hot surfaces
(2) Welding and cutting
(3) Mechanical sparks
(4) Self-heating
(5) Static electricity and
(6)Electricalequipment.

107
Preventive methods for dust explosion include:
(1) Avoidance of dust suspensions
(2) Wet process
(3) Elimination of source of ignition and
(4) Inserting.
Methods of protection against dust explosion include;
(1) Isolation
(2) Containment
(3) Explosion suppression and
(4) Explosion venting.
Dust fires can occur in dust deposits and are of two types - flaming and smouldering fires.

 Halon Gas Extinguisher (Halon Alternatives):

Halon 1011, 1211 or 1301 a liquid gas is filled in extinguishers. It is used in place of CO,
extinguishers but is lighter in comparison. 1.5,3 and 6 kg cylinders and bigger sizes are available
in wheel mounted model. By pressing a knob in cap-assembly it can be started. Nose should be
covered to avoid direct inhalation.
It is suitable for class B and C fires. See IS 11108 for Halon 1211.
Halon is a fast extinguishing agent. It is ideal for intense and rapid fires. It is non-conductive and
leaves no traces when applied. Therefore it is also suitable for electrical fires, computer rooms
etc.
Halon interrupts the chain reaction at the flame zone of fire. It is two times as effective as CO2
on a weight basis and five times as effective as CO2 on volume basis.
Halon is stored under pressure in a cylinder. A squeeze grip type nozzle is provided on top of the
cylinder valve depending upon capacity. It is available in 2,4,5,25 and 50 kg capacities. Mostly
two types of Halons (halogenated agents) are used as they are less toxic - (1) Halon 1211-
Bromochloro difluromethane i.e. CF2BrCI and (2) Halon 1301 - Bromotrifluromethane CF2Br.

Portable Fire Extinguishers:In addition to the fixed fire installations stated in next part,
portable (first-aid) fire extinguishers are always desirable for quick manual use on small fires and
fort the period till automatic equipment or outside fire fighters work. All such extinguishers
should be (1) of reliable make, standard (IS) and properly identified (2) of right type depending
upon the class of fire (3) sufficient in number (4) properly located where they are necessary and
readily accessible (5) recharged periodically, inspected and maintained in good working
condition and (6) known by the operators who are trained to use them.
Their types are : (1) Water type (2) Soda acid type (3) Carbon dioxide type (4) Foam type
(5) Dry chemical powder type and (6) Vaporizing liquid type. IS:2190 is most useful for
selection, installation and maintenance of portable first aid fire extinguishers. Details of these six
types are also given in IS:940, 6234, 934, 2878, 933 and 2171. Tables of their suitability
according to class of fire and scale i.e. their range or area coverage arc also given therein. Based
on them, number of extinguishers can be determined. Methods of their testing and test form are
also prescribed. Refer them for further details.

108
 For small fires mostly portable fire extinguishers are used. They are explained below in
brief:
(1) Soda Acid (Water Type) Extinguisher:This extinguisher is useful for class
A fire (wood, paper, fabrics, rubbish etc.). It should not be used on fires of
electricity, oil, chemical or metal. It is available in both the shapes cylindrical
and conical.Its normal capacity is 9 Ltr (weight 14 Kg) and to be used in a range
of 6 to 8 mt. It consumes within I to 1.5 minute. It should be checked every 3
months.It is held vertically up (not inverted). By standing 4 to 5 mt. away from
the fire, after opening the plunger, it is struck on the hard surface. A small
H„SC) (Sulphuric acid) bottle breaks and due to its mixture with soda
bicarbonate solution, C0„ (Carbon dioxide) is generated. Pressure of CO, throws
water at a distance. Its handle and bottom are held by two hands and water is
sprayed on fire to extinguish it.
(2) Foam Extinguisher:It is used on class B small fires. It: should not be
used on electrical or metal fire. It is available in 9 Ltr cylinder and used
in 4 to 6 mt range. It consumes within 1.5 minute. It is available in wheel
mounted trolley of 18 Ltr and 150 Ltr capacity for longer use. It should be
checked every 3 months.
By standing 3 to 4 mt away from the fire, the plunger is. pulled up and
turned right up to a slot. It is shaked by turning 180" twice. Then it is held
inverted. By chemical reaction CO is generated which throws foam outside.
The foam is not thrown directly in fire but it is thrown on nearer hard surface
so that because of striking further foam is generated and spread on burning
surface. It stops oxygen availability for burning and controls the fire. Foam
is effective up to 120 °C temperature only.

(3) CO2 (Compressed gas) Extinguisher:It is useful on class E i.e. electrical fire
because CO2 is nonconductive gas. It can be used on class B and C fire also, as it
diminishes oxygen to control fire. It is not advisable to use it in a closed room as more
CO2 may be inhaled. Therefore open doors and windows before using it in a room. It
should not be used on fires of metal, sodium, potassium and metal hydrides.
It is available in 2 kg ,4 kg, 6.8 kg and 22.5 kg capacities. Small cylinders have
handles and big cylinders have wheels. Its range is 1 to 1.5 mt. CO2 pressure is at 64 to
70 bar. It should be checked every three months.
(4) Dry Chemical Powder (DCP) Extinguisher :This can be used on any class of
fire. Therefore it is known as 'universal type extinguisher'. It is generally used on fire of
flammable liquid. It is not effective on fire of benzene, ether, EO and
CS2 For metal fire, special powder extinguishers are available. 1,2,5 and
10 kg extinguishers in cylinders and 68 kg in wheel models are
available.
A 10 kg cylinder is consumed within 12 to 15 seconds and its
range is 3 to 6 mt. A 68 kg cylinder is consumed within I to 1.5 minute
and its range is 6 to 8 mt. Both should be checked at 3 months interval.
By standing 6 to 8 mt near the fire, the cylinder is shacked twice
by turning 180°, a safety clip is removed and plunger is pressed or struck

109
so that CO, bottle breaks and it throws dry chemicals out. The dry powder blankets the burning
surface, stops 0, contact and CO, coming out also diminishes 0 proportion. Therefore fire is
controlled by double action. Its long nozzle should be turned in wind direction like a broom.
(5) Halon Gas Extinguisher (Halon Alternatives):Halon 1011, 1211 or 1301 a liquid gas is
filled in extinguishers. It is used in place of CO, extinguishers but is lighter in comparison.
1.5 ,3 and 6 kg cylinders and bigger sizes are available in wheel mounted model. By pressing a
knob in cap-assembly it can be started. Nose should be covered to avoid direct inhalation.
Halon is a fast extinguishing agent. It is ideal for intense and rapid fires. It is non-
conductive and leaves no traces when applied. Therefore it is also suitable for electrical fires,
computer rooms etc.
Halon interrupts the chain reaction at the flame zone of fire. It is two times as effective as
CO2 on a weight basis and five times as effective as CO2 on volume basis.
Halon is stored under pressure in a cylinder. A squeeze grip type nozzle is provided on
top of the cylinder valve depending upon capacity. It is available in 2,4,5,25 and 50 kg
capacities. Mostly two types of Halons (halogenated agents) are used as they are less toxic - (1)
Halon 1211-Bromochloro difluromethane i.e. CF2BrCI and (2) Halon 1301 -
Bromotrifluromethane CF2Br

Fixed Fire Installations :Fixed automatic fire installations are desirable from the design
stage, as they can be used for longer time and are more effective than the portable type.

10.6 Deflagration:It is an explosion with a resulting shock wave moving at a speed less than
the speed of sound in unreacted medium.
Deflagration is very rapid auto combustion of particles of explosive as a surface
phenomenon. It may be initiated by contact of a flame or spark but may be caused by impact or
friction. It is a characteristic of low explosives.
Deflagration or detonation is a form of explosion, the former is due to low burning
velocity (flame speed as I m/s) while the later is due to high burning velocity (flame speed as
2000-3000 m/s). A detonation generates high pressure and is more destructive than a
deflagration. The peak pressure caused by a deflagration in a closed vessel can reach up to 70-80
kPa (8 bar), whereas in case of detonation it easily reaches up to 200 kPa (20 bar).
A deflagration can turn into a detonation while travelling through a long pipe. In that case
deflagration velocity exceeds that mentioned above.
Detonation:It is an explosion with a resulting shock wave' moving at a speed more than the
speed of sound in unreacted medium.
Detonation is extremely rapid, self-propagating decomposition of an explosive
accompanied by a high pressure-temperature wave that moves at from 10009000 m/sec. It may
be initiated by mechanical impact, friction or heat. It is a characteristic of high explosives which
varies considerably in their sensitivity to shock, nitro-glycerine being one of the most dangerous
in this regard.Whether a deflagration or detonation takes place depends on the material involved
and the conditions under which it occurs. A vapour phase explosion requires some degree of
confinement for a detonation to take place.

110
 Detonation of a gas-air mixture is possible directly by a powerful ignition source or by
transition from deflagration. Such transition requires a strong acceleration of the flame front. It is
possible in pipelines but rarely possible in vessels.
A number of substances are listed which can produce detonation in gas-air mixture.
Some commonly known substances are:
Acetone Ethylene
Acetylene Hydrogen
Benzene Methane
Chloroform Methanol
Cyclohexane Naphthalene
Diethyl ether Trichloro ethylene
Detonation usually occurs at well below the upper explosive limits. Separate Detonation Limits
are available for some substances as under:
Substance Detonation Limits (%) Explosive Limits (%)

Lower Upper LEL UEL

Acetylene 4.2 50 3 82

Ether 2.8 4.5 1.8 48

Hydrogen 18.3 59 4 75

Though upper detonation limits are normally below upper explosive limits, exceptions have been
reported.
FIRE AND EXPLOSIONPHENOMENA
To understand these, some definitions arenecessary.
2.1 Definitions:
1. Auto-ignition (spontaneous ignition)temperature is the temperature at which amaterial will
self-ignite and sustaincombustion in the absence of a spark orflame.
2. Automatic Fire Alarm System is a fire alarmsystem comprising components and subsystem
required for detecting a fire,initiating an automatic alarm for fire andinitiating other action as
required.
3. Combustibility (Flammability orIgnitability) is the capacity of a substance toignite and
continue to burn in the presenceof a heat source.
4. Combustion is a chemical changeaccompanied by the evolution of heat andlight.
5. Control Centre is a permanently mannedroom preferably on ground floor within thepremises
at risk for the receipt of emergencycalls and equipped with communications needed for
transmission of calls forassistance to services, such as fire and police.
6. Detonation is propagation of flamesfollowing shock wave through pipes, vessels,etc., at a
very high speed (supersonic) and high localized pressure.
7. Explosion is an extremely rapid chemical(explosive) transformation of fuelaccompanied by
release of energy andcompression of gases capable of producingmechanical work.
8. Extinguishing media are agents which canput out fires. Common extinguishing agentsare
water, carbon dioxide, dry chemical,alcohol foam, halogenated gases (Halons)and water jel
compound.

111
9. Fire is a rapid oxidation-reduction reactionwhich results in the production of heat
andgenerally visible light.
10. Fire Alarm System is a combination ofcomponents for giving an audible andvisible and/or
other perceptible alarm offire. The system may also initiate otherancillary action. It includes
manual callpoints for initiating alarm.
11. Fire Point is the lowest temperature atwhich a mixture of vapour and air continuesto burn
when ignited.
12. Fire Resistance is the ability of an element ofbuilding construction, component forstructure
to fulfill, for a stated period of time,the required stability, fire integrity and/orthermal insulation
and/or other expectedduty in a standard fire resistance test (see IS3809).
13. Fire Resisting Wall is a wall capable ofspecifying the criteria of fire resistance withrespect
to collapse, penetration and excessivetemperature rise.
14. Flammability limits (Explosive range) i.e.the values (upper and lower) expressed inpercent
by volume of fuel vapour in air, isthe range of concentration within which aparticular vapour or
gas mixture with airwill burn (or explode) when ignited. Belowthe LEL the mixture is too lean to
burn andabove the UEL it is too rich to burn.
15. Flameproof Enclosure is an enclosure forelectrical machinery or apparatus that
willwithstand, when the covers or other accessdoors are properly secured, an internalexplosion of
the flammable gas or vapourwhich may enter or which may originateinside the enclosure,
without sufferingdamage and without communicating theinternal flammation (or explosion) to
theexternal flammable gas or vapour in which itis designed to be used, through any joints orother
structural openings in the enclosure.(The term ‘explosion proof’ is synonymous).
16. Flash back occurs when a trail of flammablegas, vapour or aerosol is ignited by a
distantspark, flame or other source of ignition. Theflame then travels back along the trail of
fuelto its source resulting into fire or explosion.
17. Flash fireis vary rapid combustion.
18. Flash Point is the lowest temperature atwhich a liquid will give off enough flammable
vapour at or near its surface, suchthat its mixture with air can be ignited by aspark or flame. It is
of more interest in safetythan the fire point.
19. Fuel is a substance that acts as a reducingagent, giving up electrons to an oxidizer
(e.g.Oxygen in air) in a chemical combustion. Itmay be an element like carbon,
hydrogen,magnesium etc., a single compound like CO,methane CH4, a complex compound
likewood or rubber or mixture like LPG.
20. Ignition Temperature is the lowesttemperature at which ignition occurs in amixture of
explosive gas and air when themethod specified in IS 7820 is followed.(Flash point is a higher
temperature at whichthe most explosive mixture will ignitespontaneously on account of
theenvironmental temperature).
21. Material Factor of a substance is a measureof its energy potential and is a function
offlammability and reactivity of the substance.The flammability depends upon the flashpoint or
heat of combustion while thereactivity depends upon the instability ofwater. Higher is the
Material Factor, higheris the fire and explosion hazard potential of aparticular substance. For
details see NFPA-704-M-1969.
22. Smoke Vents are openings, fitted withmanual shutters for removal of smoke froma fire.
23. Spontaneous Ignition or Combustionoccurs as the result of the gradualdevelopment of heat
generation by chemicalchanges. For example, baggas (grass) cubesheaped to be used as fuel,
generatesometimes, spontaneous combustionwithout spark and resulting into fire.

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Similarly oil soaked rags can sometimesignite without spark due to combining withoxygen
(oxidation), evolving heat and if theheat given off reaches the apparent ignitiontemperature of
the rags it may burst intoflame and result in fire. Water spraying canavoid such phenomenon.
24. Venting Fire is the process of inducting heatand smoke to leave a building as quickly
aspossible by such paths that lateral spread offire and heat is checked, fire fightingoperations are
facilitated and minimum firedamage is caused.

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Chapter-6 Pressure Vessels

 Pressure vessel :
Horizontal pressure vessel in steel.
A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure substantially different from
the ambient pressure.
Pressure vessels can be dangerous, and fatal accidents have occurred in the history of their development
and operation. Consequently, pressure vessel design, manufacture, and operation are regulated by
engineering authorities backed by legislation. For these reasons, the definition of a pressure vessel varies
from country to country.
Design involves parameters such as maximum safe operating pressure and temperature, safety factor,
corrosion allowance and minimum design temperature (for brittle fracture). Construction is tested using
nondestructive testing, such as ultrasonic testing, radiography, and pressure tests. Hydrostatic tests use
water, but pneumatic tests use air or another gas. Hydrostatic testing is preferred, because it is a safer
method, as much less energy is released if a fracture occurs during the test (water does not rapidly
increase its volume when rapid depressurization occurs, unlike gases like air, which fail explosively).
In most countries, vessels over a certain size and pressure must be built to a formal code. In the United
States that code is the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC). These vessels also require an
authorized inspector to sign off on every new vessel constructed and each vessel has a nameplate with
pertinent information about the vessel, such as maximum allowable working pressure, maximum
temperature, minimum design metal temperature, what company manufactured it, the date, its registration
number (through the National Board), and ASME's official stamp for pressure vessels (U-stamp). The
nameplate makes the vessel traceable and officially an ASME Code vessel.
The earliest documented design of pressure vessels is described in the book Codex Madrid I, by Leonardo
da Vinci, in 1495, where containers of pressurized air were theorized to lift heavy weights underwater,
however vessels resembling what are used today did not come about until the 1800s where steam was
generated in boilers helping to spur the industrial revolution. However, with poor material quality and
manufacturing techniques along with improper knowledge of design, operation and maintenance there
was a large number of damaging and often fatal explosions associated with these boilers and pressure
vessels, with a death occurring on a nearly daily basis in the United States. Local providences and states
in the US began enacting rules for constructing these vessels after some particularly devastating vessel
failures occurred killing dozens of people at a time, which made it difficult for manufacturers to keep up
with the varied rules from one location to another and the first pressure vessel code was developed
starting in 1911 and released in 1914, starting the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC).[1] In
an early effort to design a tank capable of withstanding pressures up to 10,000 psi (69 MPa), a 6-inch
(150 mm) diameter tank was developed in 1919 that was spirally-wound with two layers of high tensile
strength steel wire to prevent sidewall rupture, and the end caps longitudinally reinforced with lengthwise
high-tensile rods. The need for high pressure and temperature vessels for petroleum refineries and
chemical plants gave rise to vessels joined with welding instead of rivets (which were unsuitable for the
pressures and temperatures required) and in 1920s and 1930s the BPVC included welding as an
acceptable means of construction, and welding is the main means of joining metal vessels today.
There have been many advancements in the field of pressure vessel engineering such as advanced non-
destructive examination, phased array ultrasonic testing and radiography, new material grades with
increased corrosion resistance and stronger materials, and new ways to join materials such as explosion
welding (to attach one metal sheet to another, usually a thin corrosion resistant metal like stainless steel to
a stronger metal like carbon steel), friction stir welding (which attaches the metals together without
melting the metal), advanced theories and means of more accurately assessing the stresses encountered in
vessels such as with the use of Finite Element Analysis, allowing the vessels to be built safer and more
efficiently. Today vessels in the USA require BPVC stamping but the BPVC is not just a domestic code,
many other countries have adopted the BPVC as their official code. There are, however, other official

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codes in some countries (some of which rely on portions of and reference the BPVC), Japan, Australia,
Canada, Britain, and Europe have their own codes. Regardless of the country nearly all recognize the
inherent potential hazards of pressure vessels and the need for standards and codes regulating their design
and construction.
Pressure vessel features
Shape of a pressure vessel
Pressure vessels can theoretically be almost any shape, but shapes made of sections of spheres, cylinders,
and cones are usually employed. A common design is a cylinder with end caps called heads. Head shapes
are frequently either hemispherical or dished (torispherical). More complicated shapes have historically
been much harder to analyze for safe operation and are usually far more difficult to construct.
Spherical gas container.
 Cylindrical pressure vessel.
 Picture of the bottom of an aerosol spray can.
Fire Extinguisher with rounded rectangle pressure vessel
Theoretically, a spherical pressure vessel has approximately twice the strength of a cylindrical pressure
vessel with the same wall thickness,and is the ideal shape to hold internal pressure. However, a spherical
shape is difficult to manufacture, and therefore more expensive, so most pressure vessels are cylindrical
with 2:1 semi-elliptical heads or end caps on each end. Smaller pressure vessels are assembled from a
pipe and two covers. For cylindrical vessels with a diameter up to 600 mm (NPS of 24 in), it is possible to
use seamless pipe for the shell, thus avoiding many inspection and testing issues, mainly the
nondestructive examination of radiography for the long seam if required. A disadvantage of these vessels
is that greater diameters are more expensive, so that for example the most economic shape of a 1,000
litres (35 cu ft), 250 bars (3,600 psi) pressure vessel might be a diameter of 91.44 centimetres (36 in) and
a length of 1.7018 metres (67 in) including the 2:1 semi-elliptical domed end caps.
Construction materials
Composite overwrapped pressure vessel with titanium liner.
Many pressure vessels are made of steel. To manufacture a cylindrical or spherical pressure vessel, rolled
and possibly forged parts would have to be welded together. Some mechanical properties of steel,
achieved by rolling or forging, could be adversely affected by welding, unless special precautions are
taken. In addition to adequate mechanical strength, current standards dictate the use of steel with a high
impact resistance, especially for vessels used in low temperatures. In applications where carbon steel
would suffer corrosion, special corrosion resistant material should also be used.
Some pressure vessels are made of composite materials, such as filament wound composite using carbon
fiber held in place with a polymer. Due to the very high tensile strength of carbon fibre these vessels can
be very light, but are much more difficult to manufacture. The composite material may be wound around
a metal liner, forming a composite overwrapped pressure vessel.
Other very common materials include polymers such as PET in carbonated beverage containers and
copper in plumbing.
Pressure vessels may be lined with various metals, ceramics, or polymers to prevent leaking and protect
the structure of the vessel from the contained medium. This liner may also carry a significant portion of
the pressure load.
Pressure Vessels may also be constructed from concrete (PCV) or other materials which are weak in
tension. Cabling, wrapped around the vessel or within the wall or the vessel itself, provides the necessary
tension to resist the internal pressure. A "leakproof steel thin membrane" lines the internal wall of the
vessel. Such vessels can be assembled from modular pieces and so have "no inherent size
limitations".There is also a high order of redundancy thanks to the large number of individual cables
resisting the internal pressure.
Safety features
Leak before burst

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Leak before burst describes a pressure vessel designed such that a crack in the vessel will grow through
the wall, allowing the contained fluid to escape and reducing the pressure, prior to growing so large as to
cause fracture at the operating pressure.
Many pressure vessel standards, including the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code[citation needed]
and the AIAA metallic pressure vessel standard, either require pressure vessel designs to be leak before
burst, or require pressure vessels to meet more stringent requirements for fatigue and fracture if they are
not shown to be leak before burst.
Safety valves

Example of a valve used for gas cylinders.

As the pressure vessel is designed to a pressure, there is typically a safety valve or relief valve to ensure
that this pressure is not exceeded in operation.
Maintenance features
Pressure vessel closures
Pressure vessel closures are pressure retaining structures designed to provide quick access to pipelines,
pressure vessels, pig traps, filters and filtration systems. Typically pressure vessel closures allow
maintenance personnel.
Uses
An LNG carrier ship with four pressure vessels for liquefied natural gas. Pressure vessels are used in a
variety of applications in both industry and the private sector. They appear in these sectors as industrial
compressed air receivers and domestic hot water storage tanks. Other examples of pressure vessels are
diving cylinders, recompression chambers, distillation towers, pressure reactors, autoclaves, and many
other vessels in mining operations, oil refineries and petrochemical plants, nuclear reactor vessels,
submarine and space ship habitats, pneumatic reservoirs, hydraulic reservoirs under pressure, rail vehicle
airbrake reservoirs, road vehicle airbrake reservoirs, and storage vessels for liquefied gases such as
ammonia, chlorine, and LPG (propane, butane). A unique application of a pressure vessel is the passenger
cabin of an airliner: the outer skin carries both the aircraft maneuvering loads and the cabin pressurization
loads.
Safety and Health Codes Board to formulate rules, regulations, etc.; cost of administration.
A. The Board is authorized to formulate definitions, rules, regulations and standards which shall be
designed for the protection of human life and property from the unsafe or dangerous construction,
installation, inspection, operation, maintenance and repair of boilers and pressure vessels in this
Commonwealth.
In promulgating such rules, regulations and standards, the Board shall consider any or all of the
following:
1. Standards, formulae and practices generally accepted by recognized engineering and safety authorities
and bodies.
2. Previous experiences based upon inspections, performance, maintenance and operation.
3. Location of the boiler or pressure vessel relative to persons.
4. Provisions for operational controls and safety devices.
5. Interrelation between other operations outside the scope of this chapter and those covered by this
chapter.
6. Level of competency required of persons installing, constructing, maintaining or operating any
equipment covered under this chapter or auxiliary equipment.
7. Federal laws, rules, regulations and standards.
Installations, repairs and alterations to conform to rules and regulations; existing installations:
(a) No boiler or pressure vessel which does not conform to the rules and regulations of the Board
governing new construction and installation and which has been certified by the Board shall be installed
or operated in this Commonwealth after twelve months from July 1, 1973. Prior to such date no boiler or
pressure vessel shall be installed and operated unless it is in conformity with the rules and regulations
established pursuant to this chapter which were in existence on July 1, 1972.

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(b) This chapter shall not be construed as in any way preventing the use, sale or reinstallation of a boiler
or pressure vessel constructed prior to July 1, 1972, provided it has been made to conform to the rules and
regulations of the Board governing existing installations prior to its reinstallation or operation.
(c) Repairs and alterations shall conform to the rules and regulations set forth by the Board.
Exemptions.
The provisions of this article shall not apply to any of the following:
1. Boilers or unfired pressure vessels owned or operated by the federal government or any agency thereof;
2. Boilers or fired or unfired pressure vessels used in or on the property of private residences or apartment
houses of less than four apartments;
3. Boilers of railroad companies maintained on railborne vehicles or those used to propel waterborne
vessels;
4. Hobby or model boilers as defined in
5. Hot water supply boilers, water heaters, and unfired pressure vessels used as hot water supply storage
tanks heated by steam or any other indirect means when the following limitations are not exceeded:
a. A heat input of 200,000 British thermal units per hour;
b. A water temperature of 210 degrees Fahrenheit;
c. A water-containing capacity of 120 gallons;
6. Unfired pressure vessels containing air only which are located on vehicles or vessels designed and used
primarily for transporting passengers or freight;
7. Unfired pressure vessels containing air only, installed on the right-of-way of railroads and used directly
in the operation of trains;
8. Unfired pressure vessels used for containing water under pressure when either of the following are not
exceeded:
a. A design pressure of 300 psi; or
b. A design temperature of 210 degrees Fahrenheit;
9. Unfired pressure vessels containing water in combination with air pressure, the compression of which
serves only as a cushion, that do not exceed:
a. A design pressure of 300 psi;
b. A design temperature of 210 degrees Fahrenheit; or
c. A water-containing capacity of 120 gallons;
10. Unfired pressure vessels containing air only, providing the volume does not exceed eight cubic feet
nor the operating pressure is not greater than 175 pounds;
11. Unfired pressure vessels having an operating pressure not exceeding fifteen pounds with no limitation
on size;
12. Pressure vessels that do not exceed:
a. Five cubic feet in volume and 250 pounds per square inch gauge pressure;
b. One and one-half cubic feet in volume and 600 pounds per square inch gauge pressure; and
c. An inside diameter of six inches with no limitations on gauge pressure;
13. Pressure vessels used for transportation or storage of compressed gases when constructed in
compliance with the specifications of the United States Department of Transportation and when charged
with gas marked, maintained, and periodically requalified for use, as required by appropriate regulations
of the United States Department of Transportation;
14. Stationary American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) LP-Gas containers used exclusively
in propane service with a capacity that does not exceed 2,000 gallons if the owner of the container or the
owner's servicing agent:
a. Conducts an inspection of the container not less frequently than every five years, in which all visible
parts of the container, including insulation or coating, structural attachments, and vessel connections, are
inspected for corrosion, distortion, cracking, evidence of leakage, fire damage, or other condition
indicating impairment;
b. Maintains a record of the most recent inspection of the container conducted in accordance with
subdivision a; and

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c. Makes the records required to be maintained in accordance with subdivision b available for inspection
by the Commissioner;
15. Unfired pressure vessels used in and as a part of electric substations owned or operated by an electric
utility, provided such electric substation is enclosed, locked, and inaccessible to the public; or
16. Coil type hot water boilers without any steam space where water flashes into steam when released
through a manually operated nozzle, unless steam is generated within the coil or unless one of the
following limitations is exceeded:
a. Three-fourths inch diameter tubing or pipe size with no drums or headers attached;
b. Nominal water containing capacity not exceeding six gallons; and
c. Water temperature not exceeding 350 degrees Fahrenheit.
Employment and appointment of inspectors and other personnel; inspections; reports.
The Commissioner is authorized to employ persons to enforce the provisions of this chapter and the
regulations of the Board. He shall be authorized to require examinations or other information which he
deems necessary to aid him in determining the fitness, competency, and professional or technical
expertise of any applicant to perform the duties and tasks to be assigned.
The Commissioner is authorized to appoint a Chief Inspector and to certify special inspectors who shall
meet all qualifications set forth by the Commissioner and the Board. Special inspectors shall be
authorized to inspect specified premises and without cost or expense to the Commonwealth. Reports of all
violations of the regulations or of this chapter shall be immediately made to the Commissioner. Other
reports shall be made as required by the Commissioner.
Examination of inspectors; certificate of competency required.
A. All applicants for the position of inspector authorized by § 40.1-51.9 shall be required to have
successfully completed an examination monitored by the Examining Board and to have received a
certificate of competency from the Commissioner prior to commencing their duties. A fee as set under
subsection A of shall be charged each applicant taking the inspector's examination.
B. Each inspector holding a valid certificate of competency and who conducts inspections, as provided by
this chapter, shall be required to obtain an identification card biennially, not later than June 30 of the year
in which the identification card is required. Application for the identification card shall be made on forms
furnished by the Department upon request. Each application shall be submitted to the Department,
accompanied by a post-office money order or check drawn to the order of the Treasurer of Virginia in the
amount as set under subsection A
Financial responsibility requirements for contract fee inspectors.
A. Contract fee inspectors inspecting or certifying regulated boilers or pressure vessels in the
Commonwealth shall maintain evidence of their financial responsibility, including compensation to third
parties, for bodily injury and property damage resulting from, or directly relating to, an inspector's
negligent inspection or recommendation for certification of a boiler or pressure vessel.
B. Documentation of financial responsibility, including documentation of insurance or bond, shall be
provided to the Chief Inspector within thirty days after certification of the inspector. The Chief Inspector
may revoke an inspector's certification for failure to provide documentation of financial responsibility in a
timely fashion.
C. The Safety and Health Codes Board is authorized to promulgate regulations requiring contract fee
inspectors, as a condition of their doing business in the Commonwealth, to demonstrate financial
responsibility sufficient to comply with the requirements of this chapter. Regulations governing the
amount of any financial responsibility required by the contract fee inspector shall take into consideration
the type, capacity and number of boilers or pressure vessels inspected or certified.
D. Financial responsibility may be demonstrated by self-insurance, insurance, guaranty or surety, or any
other method approved by the Board, or any combination thereof, under the terms the Board may
prescribe. A contract fee inspector whose financial responsibility is accepted by the Board under this
subsection shall notify the Chief Inspector at least thirty days before the effective date of the change,
expiration, or cancellation of any instrument of insurance, guaranty or surety.

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E. Acceptance of proof of financial responsibility shall expire on the effective date of any change in the
inspector's instrument of insurance, guaranty or surety, or the expiration date of the inspector's
certification. Application for renewal of acceptance of proof of financial responsibility shall be filed thirty
days before the date of expiration.
F. The Chief Inspector, after notice and opportunity for hearing, may revoke his acceptance of evidence
of financial responsibility if he determines that acceptance has been procured by fraud or
misrepresentation, or a change in circumstances has occurred that would warrant denial of acceptance of
evidence of financial responsibility under this section or the requirements established by the Board
pursuant to this section.
G. It is not a defense to any action brought for failure to comply with the requirement to provide
acceptable evidence of financial responsibility that the person charged believed in good faith that the
owner or operator of an inspected boiler or pressure vessel possessed evidence of financial responsibility
accepted by the Chief Inspector or the Board.

Right of access to premises; certification and recertification; inspection requirements.

A. The Commissioner, his agents or special inspectors shall have free access, during reasonable hours to
any premises in the Commonwealth where a boiler or pressure vessel is being constructed, operated or
maintained, or is being installed to conduct a variance review, an owner-user inspection agency audit, an
emergency repair review, an accident investigation, a violation follow-up, and a secondhand or used
boiler review for the purpose of ascertaining whether such boiler or pressure vessel is being constructed,
operated or maintained in accordance with this chapter.
B. On and after January 1, 1973, no boiler or pressure vessel used or proposed to be used within this
Commonwealth, except boilers or pressure vessels exempted by this chapter, shall be installed, operated
or maintained unless it has been inspected by the Commissioner, his agents or special inspectors as to
construction, installation and condition and shall be certified. A fee as set under subsection A of § 40.1-
51.15 shall be charged for each inspection certificate issued. In lieu of such fees both for certification and
recertification, an authorized owner-user inspection agency shall be charged annual filing fees as set
under subsection A of § 40.1-51.15.
C. Recertification shall be required as follows:
1. Power boilers and high pressure, high temperature water boilers shall receive a certificate inspection
annually and shall also be externally inspected annually while under pressure if possible;
2. Heating boilers shall receive a certificate inspection biennially;
3. Pressure vessels subject to internal corrosion shall receive a certificate inspection biennially;
4. Pressure vessels not subject to internal corrosion shall receive a certificate inspection at intervals set by
the Board, but internal inspection shall not be required of pressure vessels, the content of which are
known to be noncorrosive to the material of which the shell, heads or fittings are constructed, either from
the chemical composition of the contents or from evidence that the contents are adequately treated with a
corrosion inhibitor, provided that such vessels are constructed in accordance with the rules and
regulations of the Board;
5. Nuclear vessels within the scope of this chapter shall be inspected and reported in such form and with
such appropriate information as the Board shall designate;
6. A grace period of two months beyond the periods specified in subdivisions 1, 2, 3 and 4 of this
subsection may elapse between certificate inspections. The Chief Inspector may extend a certificate for up
to three additional months beyond such grace period subject to a satisfactory external inspection of the
object and receipt of a fee as set under subsection A of § 40.1-51.15 for each month of inspection beyond
the grace period.
D. Inspection requirements for operating equipment shall be in accordance with generally accepted
practice and compatible with the actual service conditions and shall include but not be limited to the
following criteria:
1. Previous experience, based on records of inspection, performance and maintenance;

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2. Location, with respect to personnel hazard;
3. Qualifications and competency of inspection and operating personnel;
4. Provision for related safe operation controls; and
5. Interrelation with other operations outside of the scope of this chapter.
E. Based upon documentation of such actual service conditions by the owner or user of the operating
equipment, the Board may, in its discretion, permit variations in the inspection requirements as provided
in this section.
F. If, at the discretion of the Commissioner, a hydrostatic test shall be deemed necessary, it shall be made
by the owner or user of the boiler or pressure vessel.
G. All boilers, other than cast iron sectional boilers, and pressure vessels to be installed in this
Commonwealth after the six-month period from the date upon which the rules and regulations of the
Board shall become effective shall be inspected during construction as required by the applicable rules
and regulations of the Board.
H. Ninety-one days after expiration of a certificate for any boiler or pressure vessel subject to this section,
the Commissioner may assign an agent or special inspector to inspect such boiler or pressure vessel, and
its owner or operator shall be assessed a fee for such inspection. The fee shall be established in
accordance with subsection A of § 40.1-51.15.
Issuance of certificates; charges:
The Commissioner may designate special inspectors and contract fee inspectors to issue inspection
certificates for boilers and pressure vessels they have inspected. If no defects are found or when the boiler
or pressure vessel has been corrected in accordance with regulations, the designated special inspector or
contract fee inspector shall issue a certificate on forms furnished by the Department. The designated
special inspector or contract fee inspector shall collect the inspection certificate fee required under § 40.1-
51.10 at the time of the issuance of the certificate and forward the fee and a duplicate of the certificate to
the chief inspector immediately.
Each designated special inspector or contract fee inspector may charge a fee as set under subsection A of
§ 40.1-51.15 for each certificate issued, but the charge shall not be mandatory. No charge shall be made
unless the inspector has previously contracted therefor.
Suspension of inspection certificate; injunctive relief.
A. The Commissioner or his authorized representative may at any time suspend an inspection certificate
when, in his opinion, the boiler or pressure vessel for which it was issued, cannot be operated without
menace to the public safety, or when the boiler or pressure vessel is found not to comply with the rules
and regulations herein provided. Each suspension of an inspection certificate shall continue in effect until
such boiler or pressure vessel shall have been made to conform to the rules and regulations of the Board,
and until such inspection certificate shall have been reinstated. No boiler or pressure vessel shall be
operated during the period of suspension.
B. Notwithstanding any other provision of this chapter to the contrary, in the event of violation of any
provision of this chapter or the regulations promulgated thereunder, the Board or the Commissioner may
petition any appropriate court of record for relief by injunction, without being compelled to allege or
prove that an adequate remedy at law does not exist.
Owner-user inspection agencies.
Any person, firm, partnership or corporation operating pressure vessels in this Commonwealth may seek
approval and registration as an owner-user inspection agency by filing an application with the chief
inspector on forms prescribed and available from the Department, and request approval by the Board.
Each application shall be accompanied by a fee as set under subsection A of § 40.1-51.15 and a bond in
the penal sum of $5,000 which shall continue to be valid during the time the approval and registration of
the company as an owner-user inspection agency is in effect. Applicants meeting the requirements of the
rules and regulations for approval as owner-user inspection agencies will be approved and registered by
the Board. The Board shall withdraw the approval and registration as an owner-user inspection agency of
any person, firm, partnership or corporation which fails to comply with all rules and regulations
applicable to owner-user inspection agencies. Each owner-user inspection agency shall file an annual

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statement as required by the rules and regulations, accompanied by a filing fee as set under subsection A
of § 40.1-51.15.
Violation for operating boiler or pressure vessel without inspection certificate; civil penalty.
A. After twelve months following July 1, 1972, it shall be unlawful for any person, firm, partnership or
corporation to operate in this Commonwealth a boiler or pressure vessel without a valid inspection
certificate. Any owner, user, operator or agent of any such person who actually operates or is responsible
for operating such boiler or pressure vessel thereof who operates a boiler or pressure vessel without such
inspection certificate, or at a pressure exceeding that specified in such inspection certificate shall be in
violation of this section and subject to a civil penalty not to exceed $100. Each day of such violation shall
be deemed a separate offense.
B. All procedural rights guaranteed to employers pursuant to § 40.1-49.4 shall apply to penalties under
this section.
C. Investigation and enforcement for violations of this section shall be carried out by the Department of
Labor and Industry. Civil penalties imposed for violations of this section shall be paid into the general
fund.

Posting of certificate.
Certificates shall be posted in the room containing the boiler or pressure vessel inspected. If the boiler or
pressure vessel is not located within the building the certificate shall be posted in a location convenient to
the boiler or pressure vessel inspected, or in any place where it will be accessible to interested parties.
When inspection certificate for insured boiler or pressure vessel invalid.
No inspection certificate issued for an insured boiler or pressure vessel based upon a report of a special
inspector shall be valid after the boiler or pressure vessel for which it was issued shall cease to be insured
by a company duly authorized to issue policies of insurance in this Commonwealth.
Operations and maintenance.
A. A hobby or model boiler must be attended by a person reasonably competent to operate such boiler
when in operation. For the purposes of this section, a hobby or model boiler may be considered as not
being in operation when all of the following conditions exist:
1. The water level is at least one-third of the water gauge glass;
2. The fire is banked and the draft doors closed or the fire is extinguished; and
3. The boiler pressure is at least twenty pounds per square inch below the lowest safety valve set pressure.
B. All welding performed on hobby or model boilers shall be done by an "R" stamp holder in accordance
with the inspection code of the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors.
C. Repairs to longitudinal riveted joints are prohibited.
Variances: Upon application pursuant to the provisions of subdivision 9 of § 40.1-6, the Commissioner
may allow variances from a specific statutory requirement of this article provided the applicant proves by
clear and convincing evidence his hobby or model boiler meets substantially equivalent construction and
operating criteria and standards.
Civil penalty: A. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm, partnership or corporation to operate in the
Commonwealth a hobby or model boiler without a valid certificate. Any such person shall be subject to a
civil penalty as provided by § 40.1-51.12.
B. Any owner or user who leaves or causes to leave a hobby or model boiler unattended while in
operation at an event to which members of the general public are invited shall be in violation of this
article and subject to a civil penalty not to exceed $5,000. Each instance of such violation shall be deemed
a separate offense.The chapters of the acts of assembly referenced in the historical citation at the end of
these sections may not constitute a comprehensive list of such chapters and may exclude chapters whose
provisions have expired.
The Virginia General Assembly is offering access to the Code of Virginia on the Internet as a service to
the public. We are unable to neither assist users of this service with legal questions nor respond to

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requests for legal advice or the application of the law to specific facts. Therefore, to understand and
protect your legal rights, you should consult an attorney.
The Code of Virginia online database excludes material copyrighted by the publisher, Michie, a division
of Matthew Bender. Copyrighted material includes annotations and revisors' notes, which may be found
in the print version of the Code of Virginia. Annotated print copies of the Code of Virginia are available
in most Virginia public library systems, from LexisNexis (1-800-446-3410), and from West, a Thomson-
Reuters business (1-800-344-5008).
5.Maintenance and use in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions
Manufacturers and suppliers are required to specify servicing requirements to purchasers of machinery.
This would include service periods for conditions of “normal use”. To ensure safe use, all machinery used
in the work place, including pressure vessels must be serviced and maintained in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
The Department owning the vessel is responsible for establishing the equipment maintenance contract and
meeting the cost of maintenance.
The Local Estates Representative should be contacted when a maintenance contract is being established
or renewed – they may know of alternative suppliers offering more favourable terms or if a College-wide
contract is in place. In any case, the local Estates representative will need to be made aware of service
visits, as this can then be co-ordinated with insurance inspections when necessary, usually at time of
thorough examination.
Equipment may require more frequent and more stringent servicing as well as additional control measures
depending on its location and use. Advice should be sought from the manufacturer in this instance. See 8.
Information required by the Insurance Inspector
6. Requirement to inspect and examine
If a pressure vessel or part of a pressurised system fails, the consequences could be severe (explosion,
scalding etc). Therefore the User is responsible for ensuring that College-owned (including grant-funded)
pressure systems are maintained, operated safely, and precautions taken to prevent over-pressurisation.
In addition, the User must ensure that a competent person (the College Insurance Inspector) makes a
thorough annual inspection and regular examination of any College-owned pressure systems containing
steam or having a pressure x volume equal to 250 bar litres or more.
The scope and frequency of the examination is defined in a Written Scheme of Examination, drawn up by
the College Insurance Inspector. Usually a written scheme is produced as part of the commissioning
process, but in any case will be provided by the Insurance Inspector on the first examination. The
Decision Tree in Appendix 1 helps to determine the duty holders.

7. Written scheme of examination (WSE)

If the supplier has not provided documentary evidence on commissioning and testing, advice must be
obtained from the College Insurance Inspector(s) on whether a WSE should be drawn up before first use
of any relevant pressure equipment. The scope of the examination depends on the complexity of the
equipment and the harm resulting in the event of failure.
The User must determine the scope of the WSE – if for example the equipment is likely to be weakened
due to chemical or environmental conditions then pipe work should be included or if sudden failure of
pipe work would give rise to danger. In practice, the College Insurance Inspector would do this on the
User’s behalf provided he is supplied with certain information (see below).
The College Insurance Inspector sends the original WSE to the Estates Helpdesk, who in turn will send
copies to the local Estates representative. The Insurance Inspector will notify any subsequent
modifications to the WSE (after repair for example) to the Estates Helpdesk, who will notify to the local
Estates Contact by means of an amended hard copy and an electronic version, which is then circulated as
an update. Appendix 2 – Local Estates Contacts
8.Information required by the Insurance Inspector

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To determine the depth and frequency of an examination, the Inspector will need to be informed of the
use and environmental conditions that the equipment is subjected to, for example:
i)If environmental conditions are extreme, if corrosive chemicals such as acids or salts are used within the
vessel or are present in the external atmosphere, then physical degradation of the equipment components
is expected and the service frequency may need to be increased. Similar consideration must be given to
extremes of temperature, moisture, dust, etc.
ii)If domestic-type equipment is being used for research purposes (as this would not be considered to be
normal use by the manufacturer or supplier). Note that domestic pressure cookers must not be used for
laboratory-type work within the College.
The User should note under such circumstances, maintenance and servicing periods may need to be more
frequent then those specified by the manufacturer. See 5. Maintenance and use in accordance with
manufacturers’ instructions
9.Arranging an Insurance Inspection
This should coincide with annual maintenance, as the machine may need to be stripped down for the
Inspector to access its workings. To ensure that maintenance coincides with inspection, two actions are
necessary.
i)Your vessel(s) will need to be registered with the Estates Help Desk and the Dept/Divisional Safety
Officer.
ii)Your maintenance contractor’s details will need to be registered with the local Estates Contact who will
try to co-ordinate the visit of the Inspector with that of the service engineer.
The College currently meets the cost of the Insurance inspection.
Once the Inspector has visited he will issue a certificate. This will be issued as hard and electronic copy
to the Estates Helpdesk. The Estates Helpdesk will send hard copy to the local Estates representative and
to the Department Safety Officer.
If the Insurance Inspector identifies a safety problem he will inform the user and the local Estates
representative, who will be required to isolate and remove from service the piece of equipment pending
its repair by the department. See 15. Failing an inspection - actions to be taken
10. Procedures for registration with Estates
You must register existing, newly purchased and second-hand equipment by email to
estates_help@imperial.ac.uk. You will need to provide all the information required on the Estates form.
See Appendices Pressure Vessel Registration Form.
In addition, the supplier will provide commissioning and testing data. Pressure vessels may continue to
be used in departments for many years, and may even be moved between buildings, campuses etc. It is
important that original commissioning and testing data is not lost, so Users should send a copy of the
commissioning and testing data to the local estates contact, and give the original to the Department Safety
Coordinator.
On receipt of the completed form, the Estates Helpdesk will arrange for the Insurance Inspector to visit
the Department to make a WSE and inform the local Estates contact, maintenance provider, User,
Department Safety Coordinator and Divisional Safety Advisor that the Insurance Inspector has been
notified. Estates will add the item(s) to the College Register for subsequent annual inspections.
Newly purchased equipment must be registered in the same way, but the insurance inspection will only be
necessary 12 months after installation.
If registering newly installed second-hand pressure systems, unless the supplier has provided
commissioning and testing data, you will also need to ask the Helpdesk whether or not a WSE needs to be
drawn up before first use. Estates will contact the College Insurance Inspector to determine if this is
necessary and to arrange a visit.
The maintenance and inspection of fixed installations (those that form part of the building pressure
system) is organized by the Local Estates contact on some campuses. It remains the responsibility of the
department to check that maintenance and inspection is being done.
If vessels are already registered, they may have been marked with a unique identifier – such as a
consecutive number and a Building/campus code. The unique identifier will identify the equipment

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regardless of where it is located within the College. The unique identifier will appear on the Inspector’s
report, and on the College and Divisional database of pressure vessels. The serial number will act as the
unique identifier where this is not in evidence.
11. Entry of non-authorized personnel into laboratories
Insurance Inspectors, service engineers, Estates personnel etc may not enter biological Containment
Laboratories, plant rooms or other high-risk workplaces unless permit-to-work or equipment
decontamination procedures are followed accordingly (see College Guidance Note).
12.Rented and second-hand vessels
Mobile vessels are often on long-term hire. The owner of any pressure vessel is required to have it
maintained and tested (and examined where relevant). This applies to nitrogen pressure vessels owned by
nitrogen supply companies such as BOC. BOC are responsible for carrying out the annual maintenance
and testing on all of their vessels and would normally fix a label to the equipment showing when this was
next due. They usually provide a copy of the test certificate to the hirer (on Hammersmith Campus these
are kept by Stores), or a copy may be obtained directly from the BOC. The hirer is responsible for
checking that tests have been carried out, and for ensuring that vessels failing the test are removed from
service and either repaired or replaced by the supply company.
The purchase of second-hand pressure systems should be avoided to minimize risks. They may be in poor
condition and the maintenance history may be unknown. Before use of such equipment it is essential that
a full service visit (combined with an Insurance Inspection if over 250 bar litre) is arranged. See 10.
Procedures for registration with Estates
13. Laboratory equipment which is integral with the building
Some equipment is linked to a building steam generating plant, for example non-self generating
autoclaves. This type of machine will be examined in accordance with a WSE, as it forms part of a larger,
unseen steam system. Estates will arrange for the maintenance and testing of plant supplying the service
to the autoclave. However departments are responsible for ensuring that maintenance and examinations of
any attached autoclaves are carried out (as in 6-10). Other items such as gas generators and some
compressed gas supply lines may also be part of building-wide pressure system. The Estates Department
currently recharges user departments for the cost of maintaining this type of system. Pressure vessels
operating via a standard 13 Amp plug are unlikely to fall into this category. If you are uncertain, contact
the Estates Helpdesk for advice.
14. Procedures for inspection and re-inspection after repair or modification
On occasion, equipment will need to be repaired or modified. The Estates Helpdesk and the local Estates
contact must be informed immediately of any planned repairs or modifications so that these may be
notified to the Inspector, who may need to make an extra inspection, perhaps whilst the machine is still
stripped down by the service engineer.
Self-modifications made for example, as part of an experimental procedure must be subject to a full risk
assessment.
15.Failing an inspection - actions to be taken
 The Insurance Inspector will take the following actions if he considers there to be “imminent
danger” from a pressure vessel:
 Inform local laboratory staff, and advise that the machine is removed from use immediately.
 Issue a Site Defect Notice to the User or other responsible person (who must sign it), stating what
requirements are needed to make the machine safe (either repair or scrapping), and a time scale in
which to do it.
 Telephone the Estates Helpdesk and the local Estates Contact, who will complete a Dangerous
Occurrence Form.
 Inform the Health and Safety Executive (HSE).
The local Estates contact, once informed by the Insurance Inspector, will email the User, copying the
Department Safety Coordinator, their named deputy, the Head of Section/Department and the Divisional
Safety Advisor, advising that action is required.

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 Users are responsible for carrying out required actions (repair or disposal), but must not return a repaired
item to service until authorized to do so by Estates.
The DSC or deputy should check that the required action has been carried out, and send written
confirmation of this to the local Estates contact, to the Estates Helpdesk (who will inform the Inspector),
the Divisional Safety Advisor and the Head of Section/Department.
HSE may write or check personally whether the appropriate action has been taken; if action is not taken
by the specified deadline, HSE may serve an Improvement Notice or a Prohibition Notice depending on
the danger involved.
Pressure System Inspection Frequency

Equipment Inspection Type Inspection Frequency

Heating boiler External 3 years

Pressure vessel, corrosive service External and internal 2 years

Pressure vessel, non-corrosive

External 3 years
service
Vacuum vessel External 5 years

 Pressure system hazards and control:

General safety requirements for compressed air :

1. All pipes, hoses, and fittings must have a rating of the maximum pressure of the compressor.
Compressed air pipelines should be identified (psi) as to maximum working pressure.
2. Air supply shutoff valves should be located (as near as possible) at the point-of-operation.
3. Air hoses should be kept free of grease and oil to reduce the possibility of deterioration.
4. Hoses should not be strung across floors or aisles where they are liable to cause personnel to trip and
fall. When possible, air supply hoses should be suspended overhead, or otherwise located to afford
efficient access and protection against damage.
5. Hose ends must be secured to prevent whipping if an accidental cut or break occurs.
6. Pneumatic impact tools, such as riveting guns, should never be pointed at a person.
7. Before a pneumatic tool is disconnected (unless it has quick disconnect plugs), the air supply must be
turned off at the control valve and the tool bled.
8. Compressed air must not be used under any circumstances to clean dirt and dust from clothing or off
a person’s skin. Shop air used for cleaning should be regulated to 15 psi unless equipped with diffuser
nozzles to provide lessor pressure.
9. Goggles, face shields or other eye protection must be worn by personnel using compressed air for
cleaning equipment.
10. Static electricity can be generated through the use of pneumatic tools. This type of equipment must be
grounded or bonded if it is used where fuel, flammable vapors or explosive atmospheres are present.
 Safety Requirements for Operating & Maintaining Compressed Air Machinery:

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 All components of compressed air systems should be inspected regularly by qualified and trained
employees. Maintenance superintendents should check with state and/or insurance companies to
determine if they require their own inspection of this equipment.
Operators need to be aware of the following:

Air receivers:The maximum allowable working pressures of air receivers should never be exceeded
except when being tested. Only hydrostatically tested and approved tanks shall be used as air receivers.
1. Air tanks and receivers should be equipped with inspection openings, and tanks over 36 inches in
diameter should have a manhole. Pipelug openings should be provided on tanks with volumes of less
than five cubic feet.
2. The intake and exhaust pipes of small tanks, similar to those used in garages, should be made
removable for interior inspections.
3. No tank or receiver should be altered or modified by unauthorized persons.
4. Air receivers should be fitted with a drain cock that is located at the bottom Of the receiver.
5. Receivers should be drained frequently to prevent accumulation of liquid inside the unit. Receivers
having automatic drain systems are exempt from this Requirement.
6. Air tanks should be located so that the entire outside surfaces can be easily inspected. Air tanks
should not be buried or placed where they cannot be seen for frequent inspection.
7. Each air receiver shall be equipped with at least one pressure gauge and an ASME safety valve of the
proper design.
8. A safety (spring loaded) release valve shall be installed to prevent the receiver from
exceeding the maximum allowable working pressure.
9. Only qualified personnel should be permitted to repair air tanks, and all work must be done
according to established safety standards.
Air Distribution Lines:
1. Air lines should be made of high quality materials, fitted with secure connections.
2. Only standard fittings should be used on air lines.
3. Operators should avoid bending or kinking air hoses.
4. Air hoses should not be placed where they will create tripping hazards.
5. Hoses should be checked to make sure they are properly connected to pipe outlets before use.
6. Air lines should be inspected frequently for defects, and any defective equipment repaired or
replaced immediately.
7. Compressed air lines should be identified as to maximum working pressures (psi), by tagging
or marking pipeline outlets.
Pressure regulation Devices:
1. Only qualified personnel should be allowed to repair or adjust pressure regulating equipment.
2. Valves, gauges and other regulating devices should be installed on compressor equipment in
such a way that cannot be made inoperative.
3. Air tank safety valves should be set no less than 15 psi or 10 percent (whichever is greater)
above the operating pressure of the compressor but never higher than the maximum
allowable working pressure of the air receiver.
4. Air lines between the compressor and receiver should usually not be equipped with stop
valves. Where stop valves are necessary and authorized, ASME safety valves should be
installed between the stop valves and the compressor.
5. The Safety valves should be set to blow at pressures slightly above those necessary to pop the
receiver safety valves.

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6. Blowoff valves should be located on the equipment and shielded so sudden blowoffs will not
cause personnel injuries or equipment damage.
7. Case iron seat or disk safety valves should be ASME approved and stamped for intended
service application.
8. If the design of a safety or a relief valve is such that liquid can collect on the discharge side
of the disk, the valve should be equipped with a drain at the lowest point where liquid can
collect.
9. Safety valves exposed to freezing temperatures should be located so water cannot collect in
the valves. Frozen valves must be thawed and drained before operating the compressor.
Air Compressor Operation:
1. Air compressor equipment should be operated only by authorized and trained personnel.
2. The air intake should be from a clean, outside, fresh air source. Screens or filters can be used
to clean the air.
3. Air compressors should Never be operated at speeds faster than the manufacturers
recommendation.
4. Equipment should not become overheated.
5. Moving parts, such as compressor flywheels, pulleys, and belts that could be hazardous
should be effectively guarded.
Compressed Air Equipment Maintenance:
1. Only authorized and trained personnel should service and maintain air compressor
equipment.
2. Exposed, Noncurrent-carrying, metal parts of compressor should be effectively grounded.
3. Low flash point lubricants should not be used on compressors because of its high operating
temperatures that could cause a fire or explosion.
4. Equipment should not be over lubricated.
5. Gasoline or diesel fuel powered compressors shall not be used indoors.
6. Equipment placed outside but near buildings should have the exhausts directed away from
doors, windows and fresh air intakes.
7. Soapy water of lye solutions can be used to clean compressor parts of carbon deposits, but
kerosene or other flammable substances should not be used. Frequent cleaning is necessary to
keep compressors in good working condition.
8. The air systems should be completely purged after each cleaning.
9. During maintenance work, the switches of electrically operated compressors should be
locked open and tagged to prevent accidental starting.
10. Portable electric compressors should be disconnected from the power supply before
performing maintenance.

Pressure Measurement: Principles:

How Is Pressure Measured?
As with most measure and pressure measurement methods have varying suitability for different
applications. Measurement engineers need to be familiar with several techniques in order to select
the one that is most appropriate for their specific requirements.

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Deadweight Tester:
The most fundamental pressure measurement technique, and favored as well for primary
calibration of pressure sensors, is the deadweight tester, or piston gauge (see Figure 1). This device
uses calibrated weights (masses) that exert pressure on a fluid (usually a liquid) through a piston.
Deadweight testers can be used as primary standards because the factors influencing accuracy are
traceable to standards of mass, length, and time. The piston gauge is simple to operate; pressure is
generated by turning a jackscrew that reduces the fluid volume inside the tester, resulting in
increased pressure. When the pressure generated by the reduced volume is slightly higher than that
generated by the weights on the piston, the piston will rise until it reaches a point of equilibrium
where the pressures at the gauge and at the bottom of the piston are exactly equal.
The pressure in the system will be:Various pressure ranges can be achieved by varying the area
of the piston and the size of the weights. For extremely accurate and precise pressure calibrations,
many corrections must be made, exact areas and weights must be known, and great care must be
taken in the procedure. Obviously, this is not a practicable method for day-to-day pressure
measurements.
Fluid Head—Manometers: The height of a column of liquid, or the difference between the
heights of two liquid columns, is used to measure pressure head in devices called U-tube
manometers (see Figure 2). If a fluid is installed in an open U-shaped tube, the fluid level in each
side will be the same. When pressure is applied to one side, that level will go down and the level
on the other side will rise until the difference between the heights is equal to the pressure head.
The height difference is proportional to the pressure and to the density of the fluid. The U-tube
manometer is a primary standard for pressure measurement.
Although many manometers are simply a piece of glass tubing formed into a U shape with a
reference scale for measuring heights, there are many variations in terms of size, shape, and
material (see Figure 3). If the left side is connected to the measurement point, and the right is left
open to atmosphere, the manometer will indicate gauge pressure, positive or negative (vacuum).
Differential pressure can bemeasured by connecting each of the legs to one of the measurement
points. Absolute pressure can be measured by evacuating the reference side. A mercury barometer
is such an absolute pressure measuring manometer indicating atmospheric pressure.In some
versions, the two legs of the U are of different diameters. Some types incorporate a large-diameter
"well" on one side. In others, one tube is inclined in order to provide better resolution of the
reading. But they all operate on the same principle. Because of the many constraints on geometry
of installation and observation, and their limited range, manometers are not practical or effective
for most pressure measurements.

Force-Summing Devices:Mechanical pressure gauges and electromechanical pressure sensors

incorporate an elastic element called a force-summing device that changes shape when pressure is
applied to it.
The shape change is then converted to a displacement. Of the wide variety of force-summing
devices, the most common are Bourdon tubes and diaphragms. Bourdon tubes provide fairly large
displacement motion that is useful in mechanical pressure gauges; the lesser motion of diaphragms
is better in electromechanical sensors.The motion of the force-summing device can be linked to a
linear variable differential transformer, which acts as the electromechanical transduction element.
Alternatively, it can be linked, usually through a motion amplifying mechanism, to the wiper of a
potentiometer. To reduce acceleration error, a balancing mass may be provided.

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Mechanical Pressure Gauges.: In mechanical gauges, the motion generated by the force-
summing device is converted by mechanical linkage into dial or pointer movement. The better
gauges provide adjustments for zero, span, linearity, and (sometimes) temperature compensation
for mechanical calibration. High-accuracy mechanical gauges take advantage of special materials,
balanced movements, compensation techniques, mirror scales, knife-edge pointers, and expanded
scales to improve the precision and accuracy of readings. The most accurate mechanical gauges,
test gauges, are used as transfer standards for pressure calibration, but for applications requiring
remote sensing, monitoring, or recording they are impractical. Their mechanical linkages also limit
their frequency response for dynamic pressure measurements.

ElectromechanicalPressureSensors: Electromechanical pressure sensors, or pressure transducers,

convert motion generated by a force-summing device into an electrical signal. These sensors are
much more useful and adaptable than mechanical gauges, especially when applied in data
acquisition and control systems. In well-designed transducers, the electrical output is directly
proportional to the applied pressure over a wide pressure range. For rapidly changing—dynamic—
pressure measurement, frequency characteristics of the transducer are an important consideration.

Types of Pressure Sensors

Pressure sensors are available with a variety of reference pressure options: gauge (psig), absolute
(psia), differential (psid), and sealed (psis). All use a force-summing device to convert the pressure
to a displacement, but that displacement is then converted to an electrical output by any of several
transduction methods. The most common are strain gauges, variable capacitance, and piezoelectric.
Strain Gauge Transducers: Strain gauge transducers are based on metal or silicon semiconductor
strain gauges. The gauges can be discrete units attached to the surface of the strained element or
unbonded gauges. The gauge material can be sputtered onto a diaphragm or diffused into a silicon
diaphragm structure. The most common force-summing device for strain gauge transducers is the
diaphragm, which may be flat or sculptured. Strain gauges are also used on Bourdon tubes and
bellows assemblies.
Strain gauges are made of materials that exhibit significant resistance change when strained. This
change is the sum of three effects. First, when the length of a conductor is changed, it undergoes a
resistance change approximately proportional to change in length. Second, in accordance with the
Poisson effect a change in the length of a conductor causes a change in its cross-sectional area and
a resistance change that is approximately proportional to change in area. Third, the piezoresistive
effect, a characteristic of the material, is a change in the bulk resistivity of a material when it is
strained. All strain gauge materials exhibit these three properties, but the piezoresistive effect
varies widely for different materials. Metal strain gauges are networks of wire or patterns of thin
metal foil fabricated onto or into a backing material and covered with a protective film.Their
design permits the use of a large active length (= large R) in a small area. They are made of
specially formulated alloys with relatively large piezoresistive effects. Silicon strain gauges are
doped to resistivity levels that produce the optimum combination of piezoresistive and
thermoresistive effects. Strain gauge materials are characterized by their strain sensitivity, but
when fabricated into strain gauges they are characterized by their "gauge factor," defined as
relative resistance change divided by strain.

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Bonded Strain Gauges: Discrete metal or silicon strain gauges are usually bonded (glued) to the
surface where strain is to be measured, and provide an output proportional to the average strain in
their active area (see Figure 6). The typical gauge factor is around 2; a strain of 1 µin./in. would
produce a resistance change of 2 µ/. Unstrained resistance ranges from 120 to several hundred
ohms. Because a significant length of wire or foil is necessary to provide high unstrained
resistance, metal strain gauges cannot be made extremely small.

Unbonded Strain Gauges: Unbonded strain gauge transducers use relatively long strands of strain
gauge wire stretched around posts attached to a linkage mechanism (see Figure 7). The linkage is
designed such that when pressure increases, half of the wire isfarther stretched and the other half is
less so. The primary advantage of unbonded over bonded is a higher gauge factor, on the order of
3. Because no adhesives are required, they can also be designed and fabricated for use at higher
temperatures. Unbonded strain gauge transducers tend to be large.
Sputtered Strain Gauges: Strain gauge material may be sputtered onto a nonconductive
diaphragm to create the strain gauges (see Figure 8). Location and orientation are controlled by
masking, and the molecular bond created by the sputtering process eliminates any problems with
adhesive bonding. Gauge factors are similar to those of unbonded gauges. Surface preparation and
other process controls are quite critical. The fabrication process offers some of the advantages of a
silicon diaphragm, such as good linearity and highnatural frequency, as well as the good
temperature characteristics of metal gauges.
Semiconductor Strain Gauges: These devices are made of semiconducting silicon. Their gauge
factor is dependent on the doping level—more lightly doped, higher resistivity material has a
higher gauge factor. However, it also has greater thermal sensitivity, causing both resistance and
gauge factor to change significantly with temperature. Most silicon gauges are doped to provide a
gauge factor of 100?200, which gives acceptable temperature characteristics. Discrete silicon strain
gauges are used just as are metal gauges, glued to the strained surface in the desired orientation to
provide maximum sensitivity for pressure measurement. In addition to their higher gauge factor
(which provides higher sensitivity), they are also smaller, allowing more miniaturization.
Bonded Discrete Silicon Strain Gauges: Early silicon strain gauge transducers used discrete
silicon strain gauges bonded with adhesives to the surface of a strained element. These devices
were similar to bonded metal strain gauges, except that the silicon typesprovided much higher
output and had greater temperature errors. Furthermore, the silicon gauges were smaller than metal
gauges, so the sensors could be made smaller.
Diffused Diaphragm Sensors: Discrete strain gauges, metal or silicon, require tedious micro
assembly for installation, but diffused diaphragm sensors (see Figure 9) can be fabricated using
semiconductor masking and processing techniques. This approach provides precision location and
orientation of the gauges for optimum linearity and sensitivity, allows extreme miniaturization, and
reduces assembly costs. It also removes the variability of the adhesive and its application.
Sculptured-Diaphragm Sensors: Early diffused silicon diaphragm pressure transducers used a
simple, flat silicon diaphragm of uniform thickness. Silicon micro fabrication techniques (MEMS)
allow great flexibility in the mechanical design of the diaphragm.
Anisotropic etching provides precise control of etching directions in the silicon crystal. Extremely
small yet complex shapes can be fabricated, permitting the diaphragms to be shaped for optimum
combinations of linearity, sensitivity, and frequency response characteristics.

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Variable Capacitance Transducers: When one plate of a capacitor is displaced relative to the
other, the capacitance between the two plates changes. If one of the plates is the diaphragm of a
pressure sensor, the capacitance can be correlated to the pressure applied to it (see Figure 10). This
change of capacitance is either used to vary the frequency of an oscillator or is detected by a bridge
circuit. If the dielectric material is maintained constant, this mechanism provides a very repeatable
transducer. The primary advantages are low hysteresis; good linearity, stability, and repeatability;
static pressure measurement capability; and a quasi-digital output. However, complicated
electronics are required.
Piezoelectric Transducers: Piezoelectric (PE) pressure transducers (see Figure 11) use stacks of
piezoelectric crystal or ceramic elements to convert the motion of the force-summing device to an
electrical output. Quartz, tourmaline, and several other naturally occurring crystals generate an
electrical charge when strained. Specially formulated ceramics can be artificially polarized to be
piezoelectric, and they have higher sensitivities than natural crystals. Unlike strain gauge
transducers, PE devices require no external excitation. Because their output is very high impedance
and their signal levels low, they require special signal conditioning such as charge amplifiers and
noise-treated coaxial cable.
Some designs of PE transducers (ICP or voltage mode) therefore include an integral preamplifier
within the transducer's case. The output can then be an amplified (mill volt level) low output
impedance signal, greatly reducing cabling problems and simplifying signal conditioning. The
integral amplifier requires external power from a constant-current supply, using the same two
conductors as the signal circuit. The signal conditioner has a blocking capacitor to block the DC
power supply voltage and to transmit an AC signal.Because the PE transducers are self-generating,
dependent on changes of strain to generate electrical charge, they are not usable with DC or
steady-state conditions. They have an inherent low-frequency rolloff that is dependent on the
signal conditioning's low-frequency time constant.Their primary advantage is their ruggedness,
and, without integral electronics, their usefulness at high temperatures. If not properly
compensated, though, they are sensitive to shock and vibration and may exhibit large changes of
sensitivity with temperature variations.
Other Electromechanical Sensors. Virtually every technique for converting motion to an
electrical signal—variable reluctance, variable inductance, force balance, vibrating wires, vibrating
columns and tubes, piezoelectric film, and Hall effect—has been tried in pressure transducer
design. Several varieties of fiber-optic sensors have also recently become available. These make
use of variable reflectance, phase coherence, and microbend effects to convert the sensed pressure
into light variations that can be excited and caused to transmit signals via optical fibers. These
sensors may be advantageous in environments of high-amplitude electromagnetic fields or pulses.
Some "hybrid" systems use conventional transducers, then convert the electrical outputs to optical
signals for fiber-optic transmissions.
Scanners:Multichannel scanning pressure measurement systems are sometimes the best selection
when many measurement points are required. Two types are available: mechanical and electronic.
Mechanical scanners use only one sensor and mechanically route the pressure sequentially from
each measurement point to the sensor. Electronic scanners use many sensors in a common body,
and electrically time-multiplex the signals to data acquisition equipment. In both types, tubing
transmits the pressure from measurement points to one sensor.
Pressure-Scanning Valves: A pressure-scanning valve is a pneumatic switch capable of
sequentially multiplexing a number of pressures to a single transducer. The most common design
is based on a matched pair of lapped surfaces with one rotating relative to the other. The transducer

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is typically flush mounted very close to the valve in order to minimize the volume of gas subject to
the changes in pressure. The valve rotor is driven by a stepper motor, and the valve position is
indicated by a rotary encoder. A periodic recalibration can be incorporated into the system by
supplying accurately known pressures to one or more ports. The maximum scanning rate is
dependent on the accuracy required. If the dwell time at each measurement position is long enough
for the pressure equilibrium to be achieved, the accuracy is that of the transducer. Equilibrium time
is a function of the traveling volume and the magnitude of the pressure change. The typical
scanning rate for aerodynamic or jet engine pressure measurements is 5?10 measurements/s.
Multiple scanners can be time sequenced to provide faster effective scanning rates.
Electronic Pressure Scanners:combining miniature semiconductor strain gauge transducers and
solid-state electronic multiplexing into an integrated measurement system provides much higher
rates than possible with mechanical scanners. A multiple transducer array, a low-level multiplexer,
and an instrumentation amplifier in a shared housing make up the typical system. Some systems
also include a pneumatic valve that can be automatically switched to subject each sensor to a
calibrated pressure at any time. The calibrated pressure is supplied by a calibration manifold.
Because there is no mechanical switching of pressurized passages, there is no need to delay
measurements while a traveling volume is stabilized. Each transducer is always measuring, and its
output is periodically sampled by the electronic multiplexer scanning. Scanning speeds can be
10,000 to 20,000 sps. Of course, the connecting tubing between the measurement point and the
sensor will still impose a physical low-pass filter.
A steam explosion is an explosion caused by violent boiling or flashing of water into steam,
occurring when water is either superheated, rapidly heated by fine hot debris produced within it, or
heated by the interaction of molten metal’s (as in a fuel–coolant interaction, or FCI, of molten
nuclear-reactor fuel rods with water in a nuclear reactor core following a core-meltdown). Pressure
vessels, such as pressurized water (nuclear) reactors, that operate above atmospheric pressure can
also provide the conditions for a steam explosion. The water changes from a liquid to a gas with
extreme speed, increasing dramatically in volume. A steam explosion sprays steam and boiling-hot
water and the hot medium that heated it in all directions (if not otherwise confined, e.g. by the
walls of a container), creating a danger of scalding and burning.

Steam explosions are not normally chemical explosions, although a number of substances react
chemically with steam (for example, zirconium and superheated graphite react with steam and air
respectively to give off hydrogen, which burns violently in air) so that chemical explosions and
fires may follow. Some steam explosions appear to be special kinds of boiling liquid expanding
vapor explosion (BLEVE), and rely on the release of stored superheat. But many large-scale
events, including foundry accidents, show evidence of an energy-release front propagating through
the material (see description of FCI below), where the forces create fragments and mix the hot
phase into the cold volatile one; and the rapid heat transfer at the front sustains the propagation.
STEAM EXPLOSION:
If a steam explosion occurs in a confined tank of water due to rapid heating of the water, the
pressure wave and rapidly expanding steam can cause severe water hammer. This was the
mechanism that, in Idaho, USA, in 1961, caused the SL-1 nuclear reactor vessel to jump over 9
feet (2.7 m) in the air when it was destroyed by a criticality accident. In the case of SL-1, the fuel
and fuel elements vaporized from instantaneous overheating.
Events of this general type are also possible if the fuel and fuel elements of a liquid-cooled nuclear
reactor gradually melt. Such explosions are known as fuel–coolant interactions (FCI).[citation

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needed] In these events the passage of the pressure wave through the predispersed material creates
flow forces which further fragment the melt, resulting in rapid heat transfer, and thus sustaining the
wave. Much of the physical destruction in the Chernobyl disaster, a graphite-moderated, light-
water-cooled RBMK-1000 reactor, is thought to have been due to such a steam explosion.
In a nuclear meltdown, the most severe outcome of a steam explosion is early containment failure.
Two possibilities are the ejection at high pressure of molten fuel into the containment, causing
rapid heating; or an in-vessel steam explosion causing ejection of a missile (such as the upper
head) into, and through, the containment. Less dramatic but still significant is that the molten mass
of fuel and reactor core melts through the floor of the reactor building and reaches ground water; a
steam explosion might occur, but the debris would probably be contained, and would in fact, being
dispersed, probably be more easily cooled. See WASH-1400 for details.
Steam explosions are often encountered where hot lava meets sea water. Such an occurrence is
also called a littoral explosion. A dangerous steam explosion can also be created when liquid water
encounters hot, molten metal. As the water explodes into steam, it splashes the burning hot liquid
metal along with it, causing an extreme risk of severe burns to anyone located nearby and creating
a fire hazard.
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)
LPG is a mixture of commercial butane and commercial propane having both saturated
and unsaturated hydrocarbons. LPG marketed in India shall be governed by Indian
Standard Code IS-4576 (Refer Table 1.0) and the test methods by IS-1448.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS
DENSITY
LPG at atmospheric pressure and temperature is a gas which is 1.5 to 2.0 times heavierthan air. It
is readily liquefied under moderate pressures. The density of the liquid isapproximately half that of
water and ranges from 0.525 to 0.580 @ 15 deg. Cosine LPG vapour is heavier than air, it would
normally settle down at ground level/ lowlying places, and accumulate in depressions.
VAPOUR PRESSURE
The pressure inside a LPG storage vessel/ cylinder will be equal to the vapour
pressurecorresponding to the temperature of LPG in the storage vessel. The vapour pressure
isdependent on temperature as well as on the ratio of mixture of hydrocarbons. At liquidfull
condition any further expansion of the liquid, the cylinder pressure will rise byapprox. 14 to 15
kg./sq.cm. for each degree centigrade. This clearly explains thehazardous situation that could arise
due to verfilling of cylinders.
FLAMMABILITY
LPG has an explosive range of 1.8% to 9.5% volume of gas in air. This is considerablynarrower
than other common gaseous fuels. This gives an indication of hazard of LPGvapour accumulated
in low lying area in the eventuality of the leakage or spillage.The auto-ignition temperature of LPG
is around 410-580 deg. C and hence it will notignite on its own at normal temperature.Entrapped
air in the vapour is hazardous in an unpurged vessel/ cylinder during pumping/filling-in operation.
In view of this it is not advisable to use air pressure to unload LPGcargoes or tankers.
COMBUSTION
The combustion reaction of LPG increases the volume of products in addition to thegeneration of
heat. LPG requires up to 50 times its own volume of air for completecombustion . Thus it is
essential that adequate ventilation is provided when LPG is burntin enclosed spaces otherwise
asphyxiation due to depletion of oxygen apart from theformation of carbon-dioxide can occur.
ODOUR

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LPG has only a very faint smell, and consequently, it is necessary to add some odorant,so that any
escaping gas can easily be detected.Ethyl Herceptin is normally used as stanching agent for this
purpose. The amount to beadded should be sufficient to allow detection in atmosphere 1/5 of lower
limit offflammability or odor level 2 as per IS : 4576.
COLOUR
LPG is colorless both in liquid and vapor phase. During leakage the vaporization ofliquid cools the
atmosphere and condenses the water vapour contained in them to form awhitish fog which may
make it possible to see an escape of LPG.
TOXICITY
LPG even though slightly toxic, is not poisonous in vapor phase, but can, however,suffocate when
in large concentrations due to the fact that it displaces oxygen. In view ofthis the vapor possesses
mild anaesthetic properties.
SAFETY:
LPG is just as safe as any other fuel. In fact, it is safer than most fuels because neither LPG itself
nor the end products that are produced by burning LPG in a suitable appliance are poisonous to
inhale. Since LPG cannot burn without air, there can never be a ‘flashback’ into the cylinder.You
can feel safe with LPG as the most thorough precautions are taken to ensure your safety. All you
have to do is to handle it correctly while adhering to the simple instructions provided.
Location of LPG storage area
 Cylinders should be stored in a well-ventilated position in the open air on flat, suitable
hardstanding.
 Unless fire separation walls are provided, the cylinders should be kept at least 1 meter
awayfrom any boundary, building or source of ignition.
 LPG should not be kept, stored or displayed below ground level, such as in a cellar, pit
orbasement where escaping gas is likely to accumulate.
 There should be no opening into buildings, cellars or pits within 2 meters of the LPG
storagearea.
 If a drain or gully is unavoidably within 2 metres of the storage area the opening should
besecurely covered or fitted with a suitable water seal to prevent the entry of vapour.
 Electrical fittings within 1.5 metres vertically and 1 metre horizontally of any cylinder
containingLPG are required to be suitable for use in a Zone 2 area (BS EN 60079 -10-1:2015
Explosiveatmospheres. Classification of areas. Explosive gas atmospheres).
 A suitable notice should be displayed prominently to indicate: the presence of LPG;
thecontents are highly flammable; smoking and other sources of ignition are prohibited;
whatto do in the case of fire or leakage of LPG.
 The extent of the storage area, unless a fence or cage is provided, should be clearly marked.
 The storage of LPG should not obstruct means of access, egress, passageways oremergency
exits.
Security of LPG storage area
 For retail and temporary storage such as petrol station forecourts, cylinders may be kept
ina small lockable wire cage. A small mesh size should be selected to prevent any
unauthorized tampering with the cylinder valves from outside the cage.
 If a secure storage compound is used instead of a lockable cage, the compound must
besurrounded by a substantial fence constructed from industrial type mesh, for example
12 gauge 52mm x 52mm welded panels or 12 gauge link fencing, and at least 1.8 metre
high.

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  A single entrance to the compound is permitted provided that the escape travel distance
from any part of the storage area is less than 12 meters, measured around the containers.
 The gate should not be self-locking, must open outwards and be easily and
immediatelyoperable from the inside.
 The doors or gates to any storage facility must be kept locked when unattended.
Emergency measures
 There should be adequate firefighting equipment on the premises. Specific guidance on this
matter may be obtained from the States of Jersey Fire & Rescue Service. However,
forquantities of LPG less than 400 kg, it is advised that at least one 9 litre water
extinguisherand one 2 kg dry powder extinguisher be provided and kept ready for use.
 People on premises where LPG is stored should receive adequate instruction and trainingon
the actions to be taken in the event of fire or a leakage of LPG. These instructions shouldbe
repeated on a regular basis.
 Notices setting out the emergency procedures should be prominently displayed near theLPG
storage area.
 In the event of a leakage of gas being detected from an LPG cylinder, the Fire &
RescueService should be called immediately.
 PROVIDED IT IS SAFE TO DO SO, nearby sources of ignition should be extinguished,
thecylinder valve closed and any plug or cap securely replaced. If the leak cannot be stopped,
AND IT IS SAFE TO DO SO, the container should be removed to a well-ventilated
openspace which is well away from drains, buildings, sources of ignition and other LPG
cylinders.
General access to the leaking cylinder should be prevented, by barriers if necessary.
Notices advising of the presence of a leaking cylinder and prohibiting smoking and other naked
lights should be displayed. The supplier of the cylinder should then be informedimmediately. No
attempt should

 Corrosion, Erosion, Causes, Inspection and Prevention:

Reasons of Pressure Vessel Failure are many. Wrong selection of material of construction,
mechanical failure due to overpressure, overheating, external loading (e.g. platform, stairs,
ladders, supports, brackets etc.), excessive stress (uneven or over tightening), brittle fracture,
creep (due to fire or maloperation), mechanical fatigue and shock (due to pressure or flow
variations, vibrations, expansion effects), thermal fatigue and shock (due to temperature
difference and rate of change of temperature), hydrogen attack (blistering or embrittlement) and
corrosion failure are some of the reasons.
Corrosion is an electrochemical reaction between a metal and its environment. It results
in a loss of metal or weakening of it Corrosion reaches deeply, creates maintenance problems
and incurs cost of loss in lacs of rupees over the years.
Corrosion failure has also many reasons to occur. General, local and external corrosion,
galvanic, crevice, knife-line, intergranular and stress-related corrosion, scaling, exfoliation,
corrosion pitting and erosion are some common types of corrosion in process plants including
pressure vessels.

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 Corrosion due to oxidation at high temperature is called scaling, e.g. steam boilers.
Exfoliation is a type of scaling caused by oxidation in steam atmosphere e.g. feed water heaters.
General corrosion takes place due to a corrosive chemical or impurity over the exposed surface.
Inter granular corrosion occurs in stainless steels heated upto 500-800 °C and then
exposed to corrosive conditions.
Galvanic corrosion happens due to current flowing between tow dissimilar metals which
form a galvanic cell. It occurs when two such metals are joined together at a weld. A typical pair
is iron and copper.Corrosion pitting results from electrochemical potential set up by differences
of oxygen concentration inside and outside the pit. The oxygen-lean part acts as anode and the
metal surface as cathode.
Knife-line corrosion takes place between parent and weld metals, e.g. austenitic stainless
steels.Crevice or contact corrosion occurs at the point of contact of a metal and non-metallic
material, e.g. threaded joints.Erosion is a type of corrosion and is caused by flow restriction or
change of direction, e.g. elbows, tees, baffles, nozzles and valves and point opposite to inlet
nozzle. It is increased if the flow contains solid particles or by bubbles in liquids and by two
phase flow. Wet steam flow, air jet flashing flow and pump cavitation can cause severe
erosion.External corrosion occurs by material of insulation. Leaching of chloride salts from
insulation can corrode pipe work.
Underground piping can be corroded by soil due to electrochemical action and cathodic
protection is used to control it.
Stress corrosion cracking is the result of corrosion and static tensile stresses. Corrosion
fatigue is caused by corrosion and by alternating fatigue stresses. Chlorides are a common cause
of stress corrosion cracking. Stress may be internal or external. Stress corrosion cracking caused
by an alkaline solution is known as caustic embrittlement, which has been a frequent cause of
failure in boilers. Therefore treatment to boiler feed water (removal of caustic and chloride
content) is necessary. Control measures are elimination of corrodants, reduction of residual
stresses and vibrations etc.
In plants handling nitric acid and nitrates, "nitrate stress corrosion cracking" of mild steel
is possible. This was the reason of crack in the reactor at Flixborough resulting in removal of the
reactor and temporary installation of the 20" pipe which gave way and the disaster took place.
At high stresses and temperatures, traces of other metals like zinc can cause rapid and
severe zinc embrittlement of some types of steels. Wetting of the steel by molten zinc is a
favourable condition to zinc embrittlement. This may cause local fire and catastrophic failure. To
avoid this, zinc-coated items should not be placed in direct contact with stainless steel or in
positions where they can drip molten zinc on it. For example galvanized wire netting used in
insulation should not be in direct contact with stainless steel pipe. During welding and
fabrication, zinc contamination of stainless steel should be prevented. Special metallurgical
examination will reveal zinc embrittlement.
Corrosion Prevention is of high importance as it prevents accidents and reduces cost of
corroded materials. Substitution of non-corrosive or less corrosive material (e.g. SS instead of
MS) tolerated by the process technology and economy and selection of such material from the
design and erection stage avoids most of the corrosion problems. Then selection of powder
coated metal parts (sheets, structural members, machine parts, guards, covers etc.) instead of
painted, give long life. Mild steel parts of tanks structures piping, machines and vessels must be
regularly painted by anti-corrosive paints. Protection from rain and plant water, dripping and
leaking of corrosive chemicals, oxidation and contact of zinc and copper is necessary. Rapid

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cleaning of spillage, good housekeeping, cathodic protection, control of flow, fluctuations and
vibrations, water softening and removal of salts, checking of scale formation on plates and tubes,
thickness measurement and defect monitoring by NDT methods stated in foregoing Part 9.5.2
and latest instruments and equipment, scanning by computer methods, descaling, dechoking,
scrapping, timely repairing and preventive maintenance are also useful to avoid corrosion and
erosion.
Other methods to stop corrosion and erosion are as under:
1. Two compatible metal prevent or slow down the rate of corrosion.
2. A strategically placed gasket i.e.to provide insulating material between the two metals.
3. Cathodic protection and conversion coating.
4. Crevice corrosion can be avoided by choosing materials having corrosion resistance.
Stainless steels are prone to crevice corrosion and not recommended for such use.
5. Dezincificaiton (removal of zinc from brass) can be prevented by using alloys of brass
containing Sn, As, P or Sb.
6. Use of non-metallic material like plastic.
7. Applying monomolecular film (inhibitor) of grease, paint, synthetic organic coating or a
plastic sheet (liner) over the surface.
8. Use of oxygen scavengers (e.g. Sodium sulphite and hydrazine) to add into boiler water to
remove oxygen.
9. Inhibitors like phosphonates are used in cooling water for corrosion control.
10. Use of acid pickling as corrosion inhibitors.
11. Use of heavy oils or greases, waxes dissolved in solvents or sulphonate salts dissolved in
petroleum as a barrier between die environment and the metal surface.
However it should be verified that chemicals being selected as inhibitors should not be
carcinogenic.as they can cause cancer. For example p-t-butyl benzoic acid, sodium nitrite,
nitrosamines, thiourea etc. are carcinogenic and should not be used.
12. Non-metallic materials like plastic, rubber and synthetic elastomers can also be attached
by corrosion or cracking due to solvent, environmental stress or thermal effect. Corrosion
process in plastic takes place because of swelling, softening or loss of physical properties.
Polyurethane, polyethylene, polystyrene, ABS, acetal homopolymers and polyethersulfone are
the plastics having good resistance against corrosion.-Rubber lining (e.g. chloroprene, nitrile and
butyl rubber) on steel tank prohibits attack of strong acids.

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