1.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY
REDOX REACTION
Oxidation-Reduction Reaction Electrochemical Cells
o Electron transfer reaction and a coupled o devices that make use of the inter-conversion of
reaction (oxidation and reduction) electrical and chemical energy.
1. Galvanic or Voltaic Cells
LEORA
o generate electricity from spontaneous reactions
(Loss of Electron - Oxidation - Reducing Agent)
(chemical energy ⟶ electrical energy)
2. Electrolytic Cells
GEROA o use electric current from non-spontaneous
(Gain of Electron - Reduction - Oxidizing Agent) reaction for certain chemical reactions to
occur (electric energy ⟶ chemical energy)
GALVANIC/VOLTAIC CELLS
Parts of a Galvanic Cell Electromotive Force (emf)
o Anode – negative electrode and where electrons o cell voltage or cell potential
produced accumulate o tendency of the cell reaction to occur
o Cathode – positive electrode o measured using the voltmeter
o Anolyte – electrolyte solution where anode is
Standard Electrode Potential
immersed
o Ionic Concentration – 1.0 M
o Catholyte – electrolyte solution where cathode is
o Gases – 1.0 atm pressure
immersed
o Temperature – 25°C or 298.15 K
o Anions - flow towards the anolyte to neutralize
o summarized in the standard reduction
the charge of cation that accumulates after
potential table
oxidation
o Cations – flow towards the catholyte to Standard Reduction Potential Table
neutralize the anion
o Internal Circuit – consists of electrolyte in the
salt bridge to maintain electrical neutrality
o Voltmeter – measures the cell potential

o written as reduction half reactions

o reverse to get the oxidation half reaction and
change the sign of the potential
o multiplying the reaction will not change the value
Redox Process of the potential
o Oxidation – occurs at the anode (loss of
Computation
electron)
o balance the number of electrons by multiplying
o Electrons – moves from anode to cathode
o add the oxidation potential and reduction
through the external wire
potential to get the overall cell potential
o Reduction – occurs at the cathode (gain of
electron)
 ELECTROLYTIC CELLS
Electrolysis – process where electric current passes **There is no potential given to non-aqueous solution.
through a solution to produce a chemical change
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
Electrolytic cell – current source that serves as an o Water could be oxidized or reduced
electron pump that pushes electrons from anode to o Use experimental observations as basis to know
the cathode what reaction will be oxidized or reduced
o In absence of experimental observations, the
Anode – positively charged, saps the electrons, and
reaction with higher potential will occur
where oxidation occurs (attracts negative ions)
Cathode – negatively charged, where electrons
accumulate, and where reduction occurs (attracts
positive ions)

SUMMARY OF GALVANIC AND ELECTROLYTIC CELLS

 CHEMISTRY OF BATTERIES
Battery – electrochemical cell that provides electric energy from a chemical reaction (galvanic cell)
Development of Batteries
1. Baghdad’s Battery (1938) – Director of the 8. Georges Leclanche – invented the Leclanche
Baghdad Museum found what is now referred to cell
as the Baghdad Battery in the basement of the 9. Carl Gassner (1887) – invented the first dry cell
museum. Analysis dated it at around 250BC and battery
of Mesopotamian origin. 10. Waldmar Jungner (1899) – invented the nickel
2. Benjamin Franklin (1749) – coin the term cadmium battery along with nickel-iron battery in
battery. This is the term he used to describe 1899. The Nickel-Cadmium battery was not
linked capacitors. widely available for consumer use until 1947.
3. Alessandro Volta - Fabricated the first 11. Thomas Edison (1903) – patented a slightly
functional battery (the voltaic pile) modified design of Jungner’s nickel-iron battery.
4. John Frederic Daniell (1836) – invented 12. Lewis “Lew” Urry (1949) - introduced the
Daniell cell to overcome some challenges in the common alkaline battery at the Eveready Battery
voltaic pile. company.
5. William Robert Grove – invented the Grove 13. M. Stanley Whittingham (1970) – proposed the
cell Lithium-ion battery while working for Exxon. In
6. Gaston Plante (1859) - invented the first 1991, Sony and Asahi Kasei released the first
rechargeable battery, the lead acid battery. commercial lithium-ion battery.
7. Callaud (1860s) – created the Gravity cell

Different Types of Batteries

Energy Generated from a Battery

o Alkaline batteries – 1.5 V
o Capacity – ability to sustain the flow of
electrons longer because they contain more
material (in the units of mAh or milliampere
hour)
o Larger cells have greater capacity but voltage
remains the same
2. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
It is a study of radioactive substances and deals with changes in matter originating in the nucleus of an atom.
Nucleus – comprised of 2 nucleons, protons (p+) and
neutrons (n0)
Isotopes – atoms of the same element but different
number of neutrons
Computation of NBE per nucleon
1. Determine the number of protons and neutrons
I-127 has 53 protons and 74 neutrons.
2. Get the total mass of free nucleons
3. Calculate the mass defect in kg.
RADIOACTIVITY
o Antoine Henry Becquerel – first person to
discover radioactivity
o Radioactivity involves spontaneous emission of
particles by unstable nuclei.
o Unstable nuclei – radionuclides that tends to
decay into a more stable different nuclide.
Nuclear vs Chemical Reaction
Nuclear Binding Energy
o powerful short-range force that holds the p+ and
n0 together in a very small volume
o the higher the NBE per nucleon, the more stable
the nucleus
o mass defect – some mass of p+ and n0 that is
converted into energy
4. Calculate the energy in J/mol.
5. Calculate the NBE per nucleon
Types of Radioactive Decay
o Alpha Emission – emission of an α-particle
o Beta Emission – emission of a β-particle
o Positron Emission – emission of a positron
o Electron Capture – addition of electron to a
proton in the nucleus
o Gamma Emission – emission of γ-ray
 o Nuclear Stability – neutrons play a key role
stabilizing the nucleus, so the ration of proton and
neutron is an important factor.
o Nuclear Fission – splitting of a nucleus into
smaller part. It is induced by bombarding a nuclide
with a n, e, or other sub-atomic particles.
o Nuclear Fusion – two or more elements fuse
together to form one larger element

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

harnessing energy from fission reaction for power generation.
o Commonly used isotopes:
235
U (Uranium-235), from Uranium ore
233
U (Uranium-233)
239
Pu (Plutonium-239)
o Uranium-235 Fission
235U + neutron ⟶ fission products + energy + 2.43 neutrons

o Uranium-238 Fission - do not split on

absorbing a neutron, but undergoes spontaneous Parts of Nuclear Power Plant
decay to yield fissile isotopes o Nuclear Reactor - Devices that contain
fissionable material in sufficient quantity.
Arranged to be capable of maintaining a
controlled, self-sustaining nuclear fission chain
reaction.
▪ Burners – commonly use 235U and some type
of moderator, which slows down neutrons
o Thorium-232 Fission to maintain the chain reaction (e.g., helium
or water)
▪ Breeders – designed to produce more fuel
than being consumed and can run w/o
moderators
Uranium Ore ▪ Converters – use 238U to produce 239Pu and
o Primary raw material not designed to produce heat, but mostly for
o 99.27% 238U, 0.72% 235U military production units
o Control rods – contains neutron absorbers (e.g.,
Process of nuclear fuel fabrication (Uranium ore) boron, cadmium)
1. Mining – physical mining o Steam generators – use to convert water into
Product: uranium ore (2 kg U3O8 per ton) steam from heat produced in a nuclear reactor
2. Milling – extraction core
Product: yellow cake or o Steam Turbine – mechanical device that
impure triuranyloctoxide (U3O8) extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam,
3. Refining and Conversion – further processing of and converts it into useful mechanical energy
yellow cake from the mill to remove impurities o Coolant Pump – pressurizes the coolant to
Product: Uranium hexafluoride or pressures of the order of 155 bar.
Hex (UO3, UF6) o Condenser – use to condense vapor into liquid
4. Isotope Enrichment – increase concentration by o Feed Pump – recirculates the condensed steam
gas diffusion, gas centrifugation or molecular laser for the next cycle of operation
isotope separation o Cooling Tower – heat removal devices used to
Product: Enriched 235UF6 transfer process waste heat to the atmosphere.
5. Fuel Fabrication – ammonium diuranate process Water circulating through the condenser is taken
Product: Uranium dioxide (UO2) powder (U) to the cooling tower for cooling and reuse.
3. FOSSIL FUELS
FOSSIL FUELS
It is a general term for buried combustible geologic deposits of organic materials formed from decayed plants
and animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth’s crust.
o Ancient marine bodies first turn into kerogen
(complex waxy mixture of hydrocarbon
compounds that is the primary organic
component of oil shale) before becoming a fossil
fuel.
o Kerogen + pressure and heat ⟶ Fossil fuel
Types of Fossil Fuels o Sapropel (plankton, mud, anaerobic bacteria) is
o Coal – solid fossil fuel formed over millions of converted into kerogen through anaerobic
years by decay of land vegetation. Most abundant bacteria and chemical process
type of fossil fuels.
o Natural gas – gaseous fossil fuel that is versatile Carbon Content of Fossil Fuels
and relatively clean compared to coal and oil. It is
mainly consisted of methane (CH4)
▪ Components:
energy components – ethane, propane,
butane, isobutane, and pentane
non-energy components – carbon dioxide,
o Energy gained from burning fossil fuels is
nitrogen, hydrogen sulfate, and water
converted to electricity and heat in commercial
▪ Wet Natural Gas – contains hydrocarbons
power plants.
in addition to methane
o When fossil fuels are burned, carbon and
▪ Dry Natural Gas – gases other than
hydrogen react with oxygen in air to carbon
methane are removed
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)
o Oil – liquid fossil fuel formed from the remains
o Exothermic Process - Combustion
of marine microorganisms deposited on the sea
o Electricity is generated from mechanical energy
floor. It is the most widely used fossil fuel.
(heat) in a turbine or generator.
PETROLEUM CONSTITUENTS
Petra = rock ; oleum = oil (crude oil)
o Crude petroleum is made up of thousands of o Bitumen - semi-solid form petroleum
different chemicals including gases, liquids and o Asphalt - solid form
solids, ranging from methane to asphalt. It is o Hydrocarbons - makes up most of the
useless in its natural state constituents, but there are compounds containing
o Crude Oil - dark and sticky liquid nitrogen (0 to 0.5%), sulfur(0 to 6%), and oxygen
o Condensate - clear and volatile; evaporates easily (0 to 3.5%).
high anti-knock properties = better performance of internal combustion engines
1. Aliphatic (Open chain hydrocarbons)
2. Ring Compounds
3. Lesser Components
o Sulfur (0 6%) – useless and undesirable, has bad odor and can cause corrosion in pipes
o Nitrogen (0-0.5%), Oxygen (0-3.5%), trace metals, salts
4. Natural Gas Liquids
o part of underground reservoir
o major feedstock of petrochemicals
PETROLEUM FRACTIONS
Fuel Gas/Natural Gas - Composed of hydrocarbons (such as methane, ethane, or propane), hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, oil vapors and other mixtures
1. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
– obtained from natural gas and from the
fractional distillation of petroleum. It can be
propane or butane, a flammable mixtures of
hydrocarbon gases.
2. Gasoline/Petrol
o mixture of paraffins (alkane), cycloalkanes
(naphthene), and olefins (alkene).
o Gasoline is primarily a mixture of two
volatile liquids, n-heptane and iso-octane.
o Other chemicals are also added to gasoline
to further stabilize it and improve its color
and smell.
o Gasoline has an octane rating which
compares the gasoline blend with the
performance of pure octane hydrocarbon
with eight carbon atoms.
o The octane rating is a measure of the
resistance of gasoline and other fuels to
detonation (engine knocking) in spark
ignition internal combustion engines.
o Knocking is caused by rapid combustion. It
is a sharp metallic noise cause by high
frequency pressure oscillations inside the
cylinder.
o Anti-Knock Agent is a chemical that raises
the octane value of a gasoline, making it
more efficient (e.g., tetraethyl lead and tetra
methyl lead (TEL/TML), benzole, methyl
tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)
o minimum octane rating is 87% iso-octane
and 13% n-heptane
3. Diesel Fuel
o composed of about 75% saturated
hydrocarbons (primarily paraffins including
n-, iso-, and cycloparaffins), and
25% aromatic hydrocarbons (including
naphthenes and alkylbenzenes)
o fuel detonation takes place without spark
o has a cetane (n-C16H34) number limit
which describes the ignition quality of the
fuel
o cetane number is the measure of a fuel’s
delay of ignition time (48-50 to operate well)
o minimum cetane rating is 40% n-hexadecane
and 60% 1-methylapthalene
4. Kerosene
o a thin, clear liquid formed from
hydrocarbons, with density of 0.78-
0.81g/cm3.
o obtained between 150°C and 275°C,
resulting in a mixture of carbon chains
containing 12 to 15 carbon atoms
5. Residues
o constituents that are not volatile enough
after distillation
o Asphalt - road paving material,
waterproofing structures, roofing material
 BIOFUELS
It is produced from living organisms or from metabolic by products (organic or food waste products)
and contains over 80% renewable materials.
Types of Biofuels Promise of Biofuels
1. Wood o in combination with carbon capture and
2. Liquid Biofuel storage, the process of producing and using
o Ethyl alcohol - produced from fermenting biofuels may be capable of removing carbon
starch or sugar dioxide from the atmosphere
o Biodiesel - made primarily from oily plants o biofuel crops would remove carbon dioxide
(such as the soybean or oil palm) and to a from the air as they grow, and energy facilities
lesser extent from other oily sources (such as would capture the carbon dioxide given off as
waste cooking fat from restaurant deep- biofuels are burned to generate power
frying). o captured carbon dioxide could be sequestered
3. Biogas (stored) in long term repositories such as
o includes methane gas and other gases which geologic formations beneath the land, in
can be derived from the decomposition of sediments of the deep ocean, or conceivably as
biomass in the absence of oxygen—and solids such as carbonates
methanol, butanol, and dimethyl ether—
which are in development.