1

Modular Course in Skill Development

BASIC TRAINING MODULE

FOR
HHP & AV

Credit- 4
Semiconductor And Transisitors

DEVELOPMENT COMMISSIONER
MICRO, SMALL & MEDIUM ENTERPRISES
GOVT. OF INDIA
NIRMAN BHAWAN, NEW DELHI – 110108

2
Credit-4 Semiconductors And Transistor [30 Hours]
This credit consists of 6 units. Unit 1 explains Semiconductor Physics. Unit 2 explains about
Semiconductor and Special purpose diodes. Unit 3 explains about the Filters. Unit 4 explains
about Transistor and its types. Unit 5 explains about Oscillator and voltage regulator. Unit 6
Assignment and practical assignments.

TOPICS:-

Unit-1 Semiconductor Physics

Unit-2 Semiconductor and Special purpose diodes
Unit-3 Filters
Unit-4 Transistor and its types
Unit-5 Oscillator and voltage regulator
Unit-6 Assignments and Practical exercises

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 Unit-1 Semiconductor Physics
OBJECTIVE:

Skill:

At the end of the training you should learn about semiconductors.

Knowledge:

At the end of this unit trainee should be able to:

• Explain what semiconductors are.

• Explain about types of semiconductors.

• Explain about energy bands.

• Explain about effect of temperature.

Structure:

1.1 Semiconductor
1.2 Energy Bands
1.3 Energy bands in insulator, conductor, semiconductor
1.4 Effect of temperature on semiconductor
1.5Types of semiconductor
1.6Classification of extrinsic semiconductor
1.7Assignments

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1.1 Semiconductor
• Semiconductors are materials whose electrical property lies between that of
Conductors and Insulators.
• Because of this fact, these materials are termed as semiconductors.
• In conductors the valence electrons are always free.
• In an insulator the valence electrons are always bound.
• Whereas in a semiconductor the valence electrons are normally bound but can be
set free by supplying a small amount of energy.
• Several electronic devices are made using semiconductor materials.

 One such device is known as Diode.

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• Basic semiconductor materials like other materials have crystal structure.
• The atoms of this structure are bonded to each other as shown in Fig 1. This bonding
is known as covalent bonding.
1.2 Energy Bands
 Energy band is the energy levels of the electrons in the material.

1.2.1 Valence Band

• The range of energy possess by valence electrons is valence band.

• Valence electron is the outermost electron shell of atoms.

• Valence band is the highest electronic energy band which is filled with electrons.
1.2.2 Conduction Band
• The range of energy possess by conduction electrons is conduction band.
• Due to conduction electrons, current conduction takes place.

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 • Here the electron  generally in the outermost orbit of an atom in which the
electrons are free enough to move and thereby carry an electric current. 
1.2.3 Forbidden Energy Gap
 The gap between valence band and conduction band is forbidden energy gap.
1.3 Energy Band In Insulator, Conductor And Semiconductor

1.4 Effect Of Temperature On Semiconductor

• At 0 k, electrons do not have sufficient energy to jump from valence band to

conduction band and therefore it acts as an insulator.

• As the temperature increases, some of the covalent bond breaks.
• Due to which electrons get energy to pass from valence band to conduction band
making it to conduct.
• At that temperature semiconductor behaves like a conductor.

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 • The stage between insulator and conductor is semiconductor.
• In semiconductor if we increase the temperature its resistance decreases.
• So semiconductor has the negative temperature co-efficient of resistance.
1.5 Types Of Semiconductors
• There are two types of semiconductors materials:
• Intrinsic semiconductors
• Extrinsic semiconductors
1.5.1 Intrinsic semiconductors
• Semiconductors in their pure form, known as intrinsic semiconductors, behave as
insulators.
• Valence electrons are the electrons present in the outermost orbit of an atom.
• However, the valence electrons of a semiconductor can be made free by applying
external energy (heat).
• This energy will break the bonds of electrons from their bond and make them
available as free electrons.

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• Mostly Germanium and Silicon are used as a semiconductor.
• The intrinsic type of the semiconductor materials are Silicon (Si) and Germanium
(Ge).
• Both these semiconductor materials have four valence electrons per atom as shown
in Fig1.
• These valence electrons, unlike in conductors, are not normally free to move.
• The higher the temperature to which the semiconductor is heated, more the bound
electrons becoming free and will be able to conduct electric current.
• This type of conduction in an intrinsic semiconductor (pure semi-conductor) as a
result of heating is called intrinsic conduction.
* Note: Semiconductors are temperature-sensitive materials.

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1.5.2 Extrinsic semiconductor
• The process of adding impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor material is known as
Doping.

• Since the doped semiconductor materials are no longer pure, they are called impure
or extrinsic semiconductors.
• It is found experimentally that, when a small quantity of some other materials such
as Arsenic, Indium, Gallium etc. is added to pure conductor material, more number
of electrons become free in the mixed material.
• This enables the semiconductor to have higher conductivity.
• These foreign materials (Arsenic, Indium, Gallium) added to the pure
semiconductor are referred to as impurity materials.
• The number of free electrons set free by heating a pure semiconductor is
comparatively small to be used for any useful electronics purpose.
1.6 Classification of Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Depending upon the type of impurity used, extrinsic semiconductors can be
classified into two types:
1.6.1 N-type semiconductors
• When a pentavalent material like Arsenic (As) is added to a pure Germanium or pure
Silicon crystal, one free electron results per bond.
• As every arsenic atom donates one free electron, arsenic is called the donor
impurity.
• Since a free electron is available and since the electron is of a Negative charge, the
material so formed by mixing is known as N type material.

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• When a N-type material is connected across a battery, current flows due to the
availability of free electrons.
• As this current is due to the flow of free electrons, the current is called electron
current.

1.6.2 P-Type Semiconductors

• When a trivalent material like Gallium (Ga) is added to a pure Germanium or pure
Silicon crystal, one vacancy of electron results per bond.

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• As every gallium atom creates one absence of electron, the material is ready to
accept electrons when supplied. Hence gallium is called acceptor impurity.
• Since vacancy for an electron which is called as hole, is available, the material so
formed is known as P-type material.
• When a P-type material is connected across a battery, current flows due to the
availability of free holes.
• As this current is due to flow of holes, the current is called hole current.

1.7Assignments
• What is a semiconductor?
• What is a conduction band?
• What is intrinsic semiconductor?
• Write an example of pentavalent material.
• What is a p-type semiconductor?

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 Unit-2 Semiconductor Diodes
OBJECTIVE:

Skill:

At the end of the training you should learn about different types of diodes.

Knowledge:

At the end of this unit trainee should be able to

• Explain what semiconductors diodes are.

• Explain about types of diodes.

• Test a diode.

• Explain about uses of diodes.

• What are

Structure:

2.1 P-N junction diode

2.2Classification of diodes
2.3Testing of diodes
2.4 V-I characteristic of a diode
2.5 Important terms in diode
2.6 Diode as a rectifier
2.8 Zener diode
2.9 LED
2.10 Photo diode
2.11 Varactor diode
2.12 Assignments

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2.1 P-N Junction Diode
• A P-N junction is known as a semi-conductor or crystal diode.

• If arrowhead of diode symbol is positive w.r.t. bar of the symbol, the diode is
forward biased.
• If the arrowhead of diode symbol is negative w.r.t. bar, the diode is reverse biased.
• When a P-type and a N-type semiconductors are joined, a contact surface between
the two materials called PN-junction is formed.

• This junction has the ability to pass current in one direction and stop current flow in
the other direction.
• To make use of this unique property of the PN junction, two terminals one on the P
side and the other on the N side are attached. Such a PN junction with terminals
attached is called a Diode.
• The typical symbol of a PN-junction diode is shown below.

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• When a P and N material is put together, at the junction of P and N materials, some
electrons from the N-material jump across the boundary.
• Also recombines with the hole near the boundary of the P-material. This process is
called diffusion.

• This recombination makes atoms near the junction of the P-material gaining
electrons and become negative ions, and the atoms near the junction of the N-
material, after losing electrons, become positive ions.
• The layers of negative and positive ions so formed behave like a small battery.
• This layer is called the depletion layer because there are neither free electrons nor
holes present (depleted of free carriers).
• This depletion region prevents further movement of electrons from the N-material
to the P material, and thus equilibrium is reached.

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• The internal voltage set up due to +ve and -ve ions at the junction is called barrier
potential.
• If any more electrons have to go over from the N side to the P side, they have to
overcome this barrier potential.
• This means, only when the electrons on the N side are supplied with energy to over-
come the barrier potential, they can go over to the P side.

• In terms of voltage applied across the terminals of the PN junction diode, a potential
difference is required across the terminals in order to cancel off the barrier potential
and cross over the barrier .
• Potential difference is 0.7V in the case of silicon diode and 0.3V in the case of
Germanium diode.
• Once the barrier potential gets canceled due to external voltage application, current
flows through the junction freely. In this condition the diode is said to be forward
biased.

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• In forward bias P type should connected to positive terminal and N type should
connected to negative terminal of the battery.
• When the P type is connected to negative terminal and N type is connected to
positive terminal, no current will flow through the junction.
• In this condition the diode is said to be reverse biased.

• Since current flows through a PN junction diode when it is forward biased and does
not when reverse biased, the diode can be thought of to be a unidirectional current
switch.

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2.2 Classification of Diodes
2.2.1 Based On Their Current Carrying Capacity/Power Handling Capacity
• Low power diodes can handle power of the order of several milli watts only
• Medium power diodes can handle power of the order of several watts only
• High power diodes can handle power of the order of several 100's of watts.
2.2.2Based On Their Principal Application
• Signal Diodes
Low power diodes used in communication circuits such as radio receiver etc. for
signal detection and mixing.

• Switching Diodes
• Low power diodes used in switching circuits such as digital electronics etc. for fast
switching ON/ OFF of circuits.

• Rectifier Diodes
• Medium to high power used in power supplies for electronic circuits for converting
AC voltage to DC.

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2.2.3 Based On The Manufacturing Techniques
• Point Contact Diodes
• A metal needle connected with pressure on to a small germanium (Ge) or silicon (Si)
tip.

• Junction diodes
• Made by alloying or growing or diffusing P and N materials on a semiconductor
substrate.

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 2.3 Testing of Diodes Using Ohmmeter
• A simple ohmmeter can be used to quickly test the condition of diodes.
• In this testing method, the resistance of the diode in forward and reverse bias
conditions is checked to confirm its condition.

NOTE: If the polarity of the meter leads is not known at first, the polarity of the meter leads
can be determined using a voltmeter across the ohm meter terminals.

• If the positive lead of the ohmmeter, lead A in the Fig 10, is connected to the anode
of a diode, and the negative (lead B) to the cathode, the diode will be forward-
biased. Current will flow, and the meter will indicate low resistance.

• On the other hand, if the meter leads are reversed, the diode will be reverse-biased.

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• Very little current will flow because a good diode will have very high resistance when
reverse biased, and the meter will indicate a very high resistance.
• While doing the above test, if a diode shows a very low resistance in both the
forward and reverse biased conditions, then, the diode under test must have got
damaged or more specifically shorted.

• On the other hand, a diode is said to be open if the meter shows very high resistance
both in the forward and reverse biased conditions.
2.4 V-I Characteristics
 Before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device, we
need to firstly bias the junction.
 That is connecting a voltage potential across it.
 An external voltage which decreases the potential barrier is said to act in the
“Forward Bias” direction.
 An external voltage which increases the potential barrier is said to act in the
“Reverse Bias” direction.
 There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the
standard Junction Diode and these are:

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2.4.1 Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.

2.4.2 Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected. Negative(-ve) to the P-type
material and positive (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the
effect of Increasing the potential barrier.

2.4.3 Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected. Positive (+ve) to the P-type
material and negative (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the
effect of Decreasing the potential barrier.

2.5 Important Terms

2.5.1 Breakdown Voltage:

• It is the minimum reverse voltage at which PN junction breaks down with

sudden rise in reverse current.

2.5.2 Knee Voltage:

• It is the forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts to
increase rapidly.

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2.5.3 Forward Current:

• It is the current flowing through a forward biased diode.

2.5.4 Peak Inverse Voltage:

• It is the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without

destroying the junction.

• If the reverse voltage across a diode exceeds this value, the reverse current
increases sharply and breaks down the junction due to excessive heat.

2.5.5 Reverse Current Or Leakage Current.

• It is the current that flows through a reverse biased diode. This current is due to
the minority carriers.

2.5.6 Diode As A Switch

• The behaviour of a diode is like a switch.

• When the diode is forward biased, it behaves like a closed switch

• However, when the diode is reverse biased, it behaves like an open switch.
2.6 Diode as a RECTIFIER
• Rectifier is a device that converts an alternating current into a direct current.
• It allows a current to flow through it in one direction only.
• The electric power is usually an a.c. supply.
• The supply voltage varies sinusoidal and has a frequency of 50 Hz.
• It is used for lighting, heating and electric motors.
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 • But there are many applications (e.g. electronic circuits) where d.c. supply is
needed.
• When such a d.c. supply is required, the mains a.c. supply is rectified by using
crystal diodes.
• A rectifier can be divided into 2 types.
2.6.1 Halfwave Rectifier

• Generally, a.c. supply is given through a transformer.

• The transformer allows stepping up or stepping down the a.c. input voltage as the
situation demands.
• Also it isolates the rectifier circuit from power line and thus reduces the risk of
electric shock.
Operation:
• During the positive half-cycle of a.c. input voltage, the arrowhead becomes
positive w.r.t. bar.

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• Therefore, diode is forward biased and conducts current in the circuit.

• The result is that positive half cycle of input voltage appears across the load resistor.

• During the negative half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the diode becomes reverse
biased because now the arrowhead is negative w.r.t. bar.
• Therefore, diode does not conduct and no voltage appears across load.
• In this way, crystal diode has been able to do rectification i.e. change a.c. into d.c.,
where we should get only the positive voltage.
• So, finally we will get

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 • But the output across the load is pulsating d.c.
• These pulsations in the output are further smoothened with the help of filter
circuits discussed later.
Disadvantages :
• The main disadvantages of a half-wave rectifier are :
(i) The output current in the load contains alternating component whose basic frequency
is
equal to the supply frequency.
Therefore, an elaborate filtering is required to produce steady direct
current.

(ii) The a.c. supply delivers power only half the time.

Therefore, the output is low.

2.6.2 Fullwave rectifier

• In fullwave rectifier, the current flows in only one direction for both the cycles of
input a.c. voltage.
• 2 or more diodes are required.
• Two circuits are commonly used for rectification
• Center-tap fullwave rectifier
• fullwave Bridge rectifier

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• Centre-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier
• This power transformer has a center-tapped, high-voltage secondary winding that is
divided into two equal parts (W1 and W2).
• Here W1 is the source voltage for D1 and W2 is the source voltage for D2.

• During positive half cycle D1 is in forward bias and D2 is in reverse bias.

• Therefore, diode D1 conducts while diode D2 does not.

• During negative half cycle D2 is in forward bias and D1 is in reverse bias.

• Therefore, diode D2 conducts while diode D1 does not.

Disadvantages

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 • It is difficult to locate the centre tap on the secondary winding.
• The d.c. output is small as each diode utilises only one-half of the transformer
secondary voltage.

Fullwave Bridge Rectifier

• It contains four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 connected to form bridge.

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 • During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D2 and D3 are forward biased
while diodes D1 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as
shown below.

• During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D4 are in forward biased,
but diodes D3 and D2 are now reverse biased.
• The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.

• So finally we will get the output like this:

2.7 Zener Diode

• This is a special diode which allows the current to pass in forward biased condition
but also permits in reverse biased condition after a certain (fixed) amount of reverse
voltage.

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 • That reverse voltage is called Zener volt or reverse break down voltage.

• In reverse condition further increase in i/p voltage only output current increases and
gives a fixed voltage.

2.7.1 Application
1) Its main application is voltage regulator.
2) Voltage level detector.
3) Voltage reference in shunt regulators.

Fig: symbol of Zener diode

Fig: Zener diode

2.8 LED
• It is a two lead semiconductor diode.

• When forward biased it emits frequency which lies in the visible spectrum or may
be in UV or IR spectrum.

• Thus we get light from this kind of diode. So it is called light emitting diode.

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2.8.1 Application

1) Very low power home lighting system.

2) Indicator light.

3) IR remote controlling.

4) Decoration lighting.

2.9 Photo Diode

 It is a special type of semiconductor diode that converts light in to current. When

light falls on the diode it converts the photon energy of light to current energy.

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2.9.1 Application

1) Light detector

2) In sensors

3) Automatic Street light

2.10 Varactor diode

These are the diode which acts as a variable capacitor. The variation of their capacitance is
done by changing the voltage.

2.10.1 Application

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1) The main two use is in tuning & switching circuit

2) These are highly used in amplifiers.

3) Frequency multiplier.

2.11 Assignments
• Draw symbol of diode.
• What is knee voltage?
• What is forward bias?
• What are the types of a rectifier?
• Design a fullwave bridge rectifier.
• What is led?
• What is varactor diode?

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 Unit-3 Filters in electronic circuit
OBJECTIVE:

Skill:

At the end of the training you should learn about filter and types of filter.

Knowledge:

At the end of this unit trainee should be able to understand

• Filter

• Different types of filter

• practical application.

Structure:

3.1 Filters
3.2 Types of filters
3.3 Applications
3.4 Assignments

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3.1 Filter
• A filter circuit is a device which removes the a.c. component of rectifier output but
allows the d.c. component to reach the load.
• The output of the rectifier pulsating in nature, it consists of a desired DC component
of voltage and unwanted ripple components.
• These ripple components are removed by placing filter circuit at the output of the
rectifier.

3.2 Types Of Filters

There are different types of filters used in electronics circuit they are

• Capacitor filters
• Inductor filters
• LC filters
• RC filters.
3.2.1 Capacitor Filters:
• A capacitor filter connected directly across the load .
• The property of a capacitor is that it allows ac component and blocks dc
component.
• The operation of the capacitor filter is to short the ripple to ground but leave the dc
to appear at output when it is connected across the pulsating dc voltage.

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3.2.2 Inductor filters:
• When the output of the rectifier passes through an inductor, it blocks the ac
component and allows only the dc component to reach the load.

• The larger value of the inductor can reduce the ripple and at the same time the
output dc voltage will be lowered as the inductor has a higher dc resistance.

3.2.3 LC Filters:

• The ripple factor is directly proportional to the load resistance R L in the inductor
filter and inversely proportional to RL in the capacitor filter. 
• Therefore if these two filters are combined as LC filter or L section filter as shown in
figure the ripple factor will be independent of RL.
• LC filters of following two types
1. Capacitance input filter 
2. inductance Input filter

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3.2.4 Capacitance Input Filter :
• The capacitor-input filter, also called the pi filter due to its shape that looks
like the Greek letter π, is a type of electronic filter. 

• A typical capacitor input filter consists of a filter or reservoir capacitor C1,

connected across the rectifier output, an inductor L, in series and another
filter or smoothing capacitor, C2, connected across the load, RL.
•  A filter of this sort is designed for use at a particular frequency, generally
fixed by the AC line frequency and rectifier configuration. 

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3.3.5 Inductance Input Filter:
• In inductor filter, the ripple factor is directly proportional to the load resistance.
• On the other hand in a capacitor filter, it is varying inversely with the load
resistance.
• Hence if we combine the inductor filter with the capacitor the ripple factor will
become almost independent of the load filter.
•  It is also known as inductor input filter, choke input filter, L input or LC-section.

• In this circuit a choke is connected in series with the load.

•  It offers high resistances to the AC components and allows DC component to
flow through the load.
• The capacitor across the load is connected in parallel which filter out any AC
component flowing through the choke.

3.2.6 RC Filters:

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 • A resistor–capacitor circuit (RC circuit), or RC filter or RC network, is an electric
circuit composed of resistors and capacitors driven by a voltage or current source.
• RC circuits can be used to filter a signal by blocking certain frequencies and passing
others.

3.3 Application Of Filters

• Tone Detection (Communications, FAXs, Modems, Biomedical Instrumentation,
Acoustical Instrumentation, ATE, etc.)

• Noise Rejection (Line-Frequency Notches for Biomedical Instrumentation and ATE,

Low-Pass Noise Filtering for General Instrumentation, Anti-Alias Filtering for Data Ac-
quisition Systems, etc.)

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• Controllable, Variable Frequency Filtering (Spectrum Analysis, Multiple-Function
Filters, Software-Controlled Signal Processors, etc.)

• Audio Signal Processing (Tone Controls and Other Equalization, All-Pass Filtering,
Active Crossover Net- works, etc.)

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3.4 Assignments
• What is the working of a filter circuit?
• What are the types of filters?
• Design a LC filter.
• Design a capacitor filter.
• What are the applications of a filter?

UNIT-4 Transistor and Its Types

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Objectives:

Skill:

At the end of the training you should learn about transistor and its application.

Knowledge:

At the end of this unit trainee should be able to

• Explain the transistor

• State the different types of transistors
• Explain about BJT and FET
• identify terminals of transistor
• explain about amplifier and its types

Structure:

4.1 Transistor
4.2 Types of transistor
4.3 how to Identify transistor terminals
4.4 Applications
4.5 Amplifier
4.6 Vacuum tube
4.7 Types of amplifier
4.8 Power amplifier
4.9 Transistor amplifier
4.10 Assignments

4.1 Transistor:

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 • Transistor is a three terminal active device.

• It is made from different semiconductor materials that can act as either an insulator
or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage.

• It can also be defined as a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch

electronic signals and electrical power.

• It is like two diode sandwiched together, where either the two N or two P terminal of
the diodes are joined together.

4.2 Type of Transistors:

Transistors are basically two types:

1. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

2. Field Effect Transistors (FETs)

4.2.1 Bipolar Junction Transistors:-

• A BJT consists of two PN-junctions producing three connecting terminals.

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44
 a) Construction

• These three terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter (E), the Base (B) and
the Collector (C) respectively.

• Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current
flowing through them.

• The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the

same the only difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply
for each type.

• The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are
given above.

• The arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of “conventional
current flow” between the base terminal and its emitter terminal.

• The direction of the arrow always points from the positive P-type region to the
negative N-type region for both transistor types, exactly the same as for the
standard diode symbol.

b) Biasing Rule Of Transistor

• Emitter base junction must be forward biased and collector base junction must be
reversed biased.

c) Bipolar Transistor Configurations

• As the BJT is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to
connect it.

• Common Base Configuration   –   has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

• Common Emitter Configuration   –   has both Current and Voltage Gain.

• Common Collector Configuration   –   has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

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d) Common Base (CB) Configuration

• The common base terminology is derived from the fact that the base is common to
both the input and output sides of the configuration. The base is usually the terminal
closest to, or at, ground potential.

• The figure below showing the notation and symbol used for NPN transistor.

• In CB configuration, the base is common to both input (emitter) and output

(collector).

• For normal operation, the E-B junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse
biased.

• In CB configuration, IE is +ve, IC is –ve and IB is –ve. So,

• With an increasing the reverse collector voltage, the space-charge width at the
output junction increases and the effective base width ‘W’ decreases. This
phenomenon is known as “Early effect”.

• Then, there will be less chance for recombination within the base region.

• With increase of charge gradient within the base region, the current of minority
carriers injected across the emitter junction increases.

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 • The common-base amplifier can provide a reasonable level of voltage gain but
suffers from low input impedance and a current gain of less than one.

• However, this circuit is used extensively for high-frequency applications because its
terminal characteristics at high frequencies are better than those of a common-
emitter configuration using the same transistor.

• application: in microphone

e) Common collector (CB) configuration

• It is called the common-collector configuration because (ignoring the power supply

battery) both the signal source and the load share the collector lead as a common
connection.

• It should be apparent that the load resistor in the common-collector amplifier circuit
receives both the base and collector currents, being placed in series with the
emitter.

• the current gain for a common-collector amplifier is quite large, larger than any
other transistor amplifier configuration.

• application: voltage buffer

f) Common Emitter(CE) Configuration

• It is called the common-emitter configuration because (ignoring the power supply

battery) both the signal source and the load share the emitter lead as a common
connection point.

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Application: in radio

4.2.2 Field Effect Transistor (FET)

• The field effect transistor are those transistor which conducts the current depending
upon the electric field.

• So this kind of transistor is called the field effect transistor.

• The three terminal of this transistors are Source, drain & Gate.

• Current flows from source to drain and this path is known as the channel. The
controlling electric field is given through the gate terminal of the FET.

• Depending upon the channel there are two types of FET-

1. N-channel

2. P-channel

a) N-channel FET

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The conduction channel is formed by electrons in an n-type semiconductor and this is the N-
channel FET.

b) P-channel
The conduction channel is formed by holes in a p-type semiconductor and this is the P-
channel FET.

4.3 How to Identify Terminals of The Transistor

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4.4 Uses of Transistor

1) Transistor is mainly used as switch and amplifier.

2) It is used in radio/ tv circuit as an amplifier

3) It is used both in analogue and digital device as a switch.

4) All the digital electronics logic are possible only by using transistors.

5) Inside all the IC we use some thousand to million transistors. So it can be said without
transistor the modern electronics would not develop up to this level.

4.5 Amplifier

• In simple words the process of making a small thing larger is amplifying and the
device that is responsible doing so is called amplifier.

• Electronics mainly deals in signals. So the device that makes a weak signal to a
stronger (higher amplitude) is an amplifier in electronics.

4.6 Vacuum Tube

• Before the discovery of transistor (1947) we used vacuum tube (thermionic

valves) as an amplifier.

• The simplest valve was invented by John Ambrose Fleming .

• It has two electrode and was nothing but a diode.

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 • The diode conducted electricity in one direction only and was used as a radio
detector and a rectifier.

• In 1906 Lee De Forest added a third electrode and invented the first electronic

amplifying device, the triode, which he named the Audion.

Fig: signal Amplifier

Fig: Vacuum tube as amplifier block diagram.

4.7 Types of amplifier

1) Voltage amplifier.

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 2) Curent amplifier.

3) Transconductance amplifier.

4) Trans resistance amplifier.

4.7.1 Voltage Amplifier

Fig: Voltage amplifier

• This is the most common type of amplifier.

• An input voltage is amplified to a larger output voltage

4.7.2 Current Amplifier

• An input current is amplified to a larger output current in this types of amplifier.

4.7.3 Trans-conductance Amplifier

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 • This amplifier takes voltage as input signal and current as output signal.

4.7.4 Trans-resistance Amplifier

• This amplifier takes current signal as input and gives voltage signal as output.

• Above mention are the four basic types of amplifier.

• These classifications are made on the basis of input and output parameter of the
amplifier.

• However the voltage amplifier is the most commonly used one.

A Complete Simple Amplification Is Done Mainly In Two Steps

• The first stage is done with simple a simple common transistor and the final (second)
amplification is done in power amplifier step.

4.7.5 Small Signal Amplifier

• An amplifier, with or without negative feedback, the input with the least distortion.

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 • It is however the least efficient, here the power delivered to the load is only a small
percentage of the DC power used up in the amplification process.

4.8 Power Amplifier

• In the first or intermediate stages of an amplifier just amplifies the voltage level
(amplitude of the signal).

• However the last stage the amplifier is so arranged that it increases the overall
power of the signal.

• The maxim power gain happens in this stage only.

• So this stage is known as the power amplifier.

• There are three types of power amplifier.

• This classification is done on the mode of their operation.

1) Class A

2) Class B

3) Class C

4.8.1 Class A Power Amplifier

• If the collector current flows at all times during the full cycle of

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 • The signal, the power amplifier is known as class A power amplifier.

Fig: class A power amplifier.

4.8.2 Class B power amplifier

• If the collector current flows only during the positive half-cycle of the input signal, it
is called a class B power amplifier.

4.8.3 Class C Power Amplifier

• If the collector current flows for less than half-cycle of the inputSignal, it is called
class C power amplifier.

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4.9 Transistor Amplifier

• A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals

and electrical.

• For the amplification purpose we can use three basic configuration of a

transistor. They are common base, common emitter and common collector.

• Among this three the common emitter one is highly preferred. This is typically used
as a voltage amplifier.

• The amplification is given by “output voltage divided by input voltage”.

4.9.1 Application

1) Low power amplifier.

2) Radio amplifier.

3) Multistage high gain (maybe million time) low power amplifier.

4.10 Assignments

1) What is a transistor?
2) What are the types of transistors?
3) What is NPN transistor?

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 4) What is FET? What are the main types?
5) What is an amplifier?
6) What is an electronic amplifier?
7) What is a vacuum tube?
8) How many electrode are there in the world’s first electronic amplifier?
9) What are the four basic types of amplifier classified on the basis of input
parameter?
10) Which one out of the four basic amplifier is chosen as the highly?
11) What is a power amplifier?
12) Give the difference between a simple amplifier and a power amplifier.
13) True/ False chose the right one-
a) Class C amplifier gives the full wave output.
b) Using two class B amplifier we can get a full wave.
c) A current amplifier amplifies both voltage as well as current.
14) What is the need of power amplifier?

UNIT-5 Oscillators And Voltage Regulator

Objectives:

Skill:

At the end of the training you should learn about oscillators

Knowledge:

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At the end of this unit trainee should be able to

• State the different types of oscillators

• Explain about applications
• Explain voltage regulator
• State electrical and electronics parameter symbols

Structure:

5.1 Oscillators
5.2 types
5.3 Applications
5.4 voltage regulator
5.5 types
5.6 voltage regulator ICs
2.7 parameter symbols
5.8 Assignments

5.1 Oscillators

• Anything which vibrates/oscillates in a fixed manner (may be random) is an

oscillator.
• An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic,
oscillating electronic signal, often a sine wave, saw tooth or triangular or a
square wave.
• Oscillators convert direct current (DC) from a power supply to an alternating
current signal.
• They are widely used in many electronic devices.

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5.2 Types of Oscillator Used In Electronics
• Two types of oscillators are used

1) LC tank circuit

2) Crystal oscillator

1.2.1 LC Tank Circuit

• An inductor-capacitor circuit (LC circuit) is an electric circuit composed of

inductors and capacitors.

• A second order LC circuit is composed of one inductor and one capacitor and is the
simplest type of LC circuit.

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• Charged capacitor will start discharging its charge through the inductor but inductor
resist change in current so eventually when the charge of the capacitor will vanish
capacitor will again start to charge but in opposite direction(by the force of the
magnetic field of inductor coil) and this will continue.

• Thus we will get a wave.

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5.2.2 Crystal Oscillator

• A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical

resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal
with a very precise frequency.
• “When we apply mechanical force in a piezoelectric material like Quartz Crystal it
gives electricity & vice versa”

Fig: A 16 MHz crystal oscillator

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Piezoelectric effect

Fig: Inside A Crystal Oscillator

• Crystal oscillators have the perfect quality of oscillation hence they are chosen in almost all
the modern digital electronics devices. Some complex modern oscillator circuits---

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5.3 Applications of Oscillators

• All the circuit where we deal with signals (except very low frequency dc on off signal)

• In most of the analogue circuit we use LC tank circuit. Like--Radio, TV, etc.

• All the digital electronics circuits uses crystal oscillator. Like—Computer, mobile
phone, microcontroller, microprocessor.

• The processing speed of a computer / mobile phone mainly depends upon the
frequency of a crystal oscillator.

5.4 Voltage Regulator

• It is a device or a set of process which regulates or gives a desired amount of voltage.

• We need a voltage regulator because an electronic/electric device will take the

amount of current it needed if the supply amount is more.

• But it cannot adjust the voltage.

• If we increase the voltage then the desired amount simply the device will burn out.

5.5 Types
1) AC voltage regulator (or stabilizer)
2) DC voltage regulator

5.5.1 AC Voltage Regulator

• It regulates the ac voltage in such a way that it performs both the step up and down
operation to adjust the voltage.

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They are mainly of two types—

a) Electromechanical voltage regulator

b) Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)

a) Electromechanical Voltage Regulator

• An electromechanical regulators, voltage regulation is easily accomplished by coiling

the sensing wire to make an electromagnet.

• The magnetic field produced by the current attracts a moving ferrous core held back
under spring tension or gravitational pull.

• As voltage increases, so does the current, strengthening the magnetic field produced
by the coil and pulling the core towards the field. 

• This magnet is mechanically connected with some switch and thus controls the
voltage

b) Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)

 This is an active system.
 While the basic principle is the same, the system itself is more complex.

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• An automatic voltage regulator (or AVR for short) consist of several components
such as diodes, capacitors, resistors and potentiometers or even microcontrollers /
microprocessors, all placed on a circuit board.

• This is then mounted in cabinet.

• Here switching is done by either relays or SCR.

• This devices are highly accurate.

• They do contain a digital volt meter to the measure of real time voltage and regulated
voltage.

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5.5.2 DC voltage regulator

• A circuit which gives out a constant DC voltage and which is AC ripple free is a DC
voltage regulator.

• These are the voltage regulator which are mainly used in modern digital electronics
circuits to give fixed dc voltage without ac swing.

• Digital electronics circuits are highly sensitive.

• The tolerance of a microelectronics device is very low.

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 • So the power supply here use should be free of ripple and should be in the desired
limit.

• In a modern dc voltage regulation method we use different ICs, Which consists of

some transistors and MOSFET.

• Here in this types of regulator we achieve a fixed amount of voltage till the input is
greater or equal to the output.

• A simple voltage regulator can be achieved by using a diode and a resistor.

• Where diode works as the voltage regulator and resistor acts as a current limiter.

• Zener diode is also used as a simple voltage regulator.

5.6 Voltage Regulator ICs

• There are mainly two types of voltage regulator.

• Negative type

• Positive type.

• The negative voltage regulator gives voltage out puts like -12V,-9V,-5V etc.

• Negative type voltage regulators are denoted as LM79XX series.

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• Where the xx gives the output voltage.

• For example if it is written as LM7909 then the output voltage of the regulator is -9V.

• The positive type voltage regulator gives a positive type voltage like +12V, +9V, +5V etc.

• Positive type voltage regulators are denoted as LM78XX series.

• Here also the xx gives the voltage.

• For example it the written no on the IC is LM7805 then the output voltage will be +5V.

LM79xx series

Part Number LM79XX Output Voltage (V) Minimum Input Voltage (V)

LM7905 -5 7.3
LM7906 -6 8.3
LM7908 -8 10.3
LM7909 -9 11.3
LM7912 -12 14.3
LM7915 -15 17.3
LM7918 -18 20.3
LM7924 -24 26.3

LM78xx series

Part Number LM78XX Output Voltage (V) Minimum Input Voltage (V)

LM7805 5 7.3
LM7806 6 8.3
LM7808 8 10.3
LM7809 9 11.3
LM7812 12 14.3
LM7815 15 17.3
LM7818 18 20.3
LM7824 24 26.3

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*The input voltage should be more than the output voltage at least by 1.2 volt.

5.7 Electrical And Electronics Parameters Symbols

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 Ground (GND)

Earth Ground Zero reference

SYMBOL COMPONENT NOTE

Chassis Ground Body (Chassis) Ground

Connections

Common/ Digital
Cable Connection Connected wire (conductor)
Ground

Resistor Symbols
Connected Cable Connected

Resistor

Disconnected Cable Disconnected

Resistor

Resistor

PotentioMeter

Variable Resistor

PotentioMeter

Variable Resistor

Variable Resistor

Variable Resistor

Condensator/capacitor Symbols

Bipolar
Condensator

Condensator
Nonpolar
Condensator

70 Bipolar
Electrolytic Condensator (ELCO)
Condensator
5.8 Assignments

1. What is a voltage regulator?

2. What are the types of voltage regulators?

3. What is DC voltage regulator?

4. What are the types of AC voltage regulator?

5. What is an oscillator?

2) Pendulum is not an oscillator. (true/false)?

3) What is the need of an electronic oscillator?

UNIT-6 Practical Exercise and Assignments

Assignments:

Give all the answer of the following questions:

• What is valence band?

• What is forbidden energy gap?

• What are the types of semiconductor?

• What is extrinsic semiconductor?

• What is n-type semiconductor?

• Write an example of a trivalent material.

• What is barrier potential?

• What is reverse bias?

• What is breakdown voltage?

• What is reverse current?

• Design a capacitor filter.

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 • At 0 K, semiconductor behaves like a ____________. (conductor/insulator)
• Semiconductors are temperature___________ materials. (sensitive/insensitive)
• Potential difference of Si is________ and Ge is_________.

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Make a simple voltage regulator using a Zener diode and a resistor. Check the variation of the
voltage with different load. Loads- led, buzzer, dc motor.

****For getting perfect dc output we use capacitor as a filter in the output of the voltage regulator
IC which blocks ac ripple and allow dc****

Task---

1) Collect some transistor from an old radio or a radio/ TV repairing shop. Try to identify
them and note down the pin configuration.

2) Collect some transistor that is used in audio amplification as shown in figure. Now try to
open them to see the internal transistor diagram.

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73
Task

Make a simple three stage cascade transistor amplifier. Whose amplification is nearly
200x200x200 times?

Components you need—

a) Three BC 547 transistor.

b) Three resistor. 1MΩ, 100KΩ, 220Ω one piece each.

74
c) One led.

d) One 6 volt battery.

• In the 1st transistor (from left side) where the box is drawn, connect a thick copper
wire or an old radio antenna.

• This circuit can detect extremely weak signal and will amplify to 8000000 times. So
you can detect an AC current conducting wire also.

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Make an LC tank circuit.

Collect some 36SWG wire from a fan repairing shop. Take a pencil of diameter 8mm. Make a coil
with 50 turns on it.

Now take a capacitor of 1microF (16v).Connect this two and give the power supply (9v).

Now place a campus near the coil and watch the varying magnetic field.

EXERCISE-1: How to Make the Simplest Power Supply

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this exercise you shall be able to:

1. Make the Simplest Power Supply

2. Understand the working of Power Supply.

Requirements:

Tools/ Quantit
Instruments y
Diode 4 No.
Wires 20 to 30
feet
Step-down

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 transformer 1 (12-0-
12 v)
Electrolytic
1
capacitor
(1000m
F, 36v)
Bread board
1

PROCEDURE:

STEP 1:

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 Connect the four diode as shown in the figure.

STEP 2: Now you need to connect the +ve terminal of diode in the pin 1 and the negative
terminal in the pin 3 of the figure.

STEP 3:Now connect the transformers middle (black) terminal and any one of the blue wire
as shown in figure to the 3 and four terminal of the diode circuit.

Step 4: Now give 230 volt to the input terminal

(RED WIRE) of the transformer.

Conclusion :Your power supply circuit is ready .

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