ACCESSORY SKIN STRUCTURES

● Accessory structures of the skin are attached to or

embedded into the skin. The accessory skin structures are hair,
glands, and nails.

HAIR
● In humans, hair is found everywhere on the skin, except on the
palms, the soles, the lips, the nipples, parts of the genitalia,
and the distal segments of the fingers and toes.
● Each hair arises from a hair follicle, an invagination of the
epidermis that extends deep into the dermis (figure 5.6a). A helpful
analogy for the structure of the hair follicle and hair is a single
flower in a vase. The vase is like the hair follicle and the flower
stem is like the hair. The shaft of the hair protrudes above the
surface of the skin, whereas the root is below the surface. The hair
bulb is the expanded base of the root.

Hair shaft - above skin surface; flower stem

Hair root - below skin surface
Hair bulb - expanded base of the root; vase

**(invagination - the action or process of being

turned inside out or folded back on itself to form
a cavity or pouch.)

ACNE
- Most common skin condition in the United States affecting both
Adolescents and adults.
- inflammation of the hair follicles and sebaceous glands.
- Lesions of acne are caused by the overproduction of epidermal
cells in the hair follicle.
**(Lesions - a region in an organ or tissue which has suffered
damage through injury or disease, such as a wound ulcer, abscess,
or tumor.)

- These excess cells are shed from the hair follicle wall and
mix with sebum secreted by sebaceous glands of the hair follicle.
- The combination of sebum and dead cells forms a blockage in the
hair follicle forming “whitehead”.
- A “blackhead” develops when the accumulating mass of cells and
sebum push through the hair follicle opening.
- If the wall of the hair follicle ruptures, bacteria can enter the
tissue, causing an infection and inflammation. This results in the
formation of a pimple.

4 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR ACNE:

● Hormones
● Sebum
● Abnormal production of cells
● Bacterium Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes)

● A hair has a hard cortex, which surrounds a softer center, the

medulla.
● The cortex is covered by the cuticle, a single layer of overlapping
cells that hold the hair in the hair follicle.
● Because the hair follicle is composed of epithelial tissue, hair
follicles can play an important role in repair of the skin. If the
surface epidermis is damaged, the epithelial cells within the hair
follicle can divide and serve as a source of new epithelial cells.
● Hair is produced in the hair bulb, which rests on the hair papilla
● The hair papilla is an extension of the dermis that protrudes into
the hair bulb.
** (Protrude - extend beyond or above a surface.)

● Blood vessels within the papilla supply the hair bulb

with the nourishment needed to produce the hair.
● Hair is produced in cycles of growth and rest. During
the growth stage, a hair is formed by epithelial cells
within the hair bulb.
● like the cells of the stratum basale in the skin,these cells also
divides and undergo keratinization
● The hair grows longer as these cells are added to the base of
the hair within the hair bulb. Thus, the hair root and shaft
consist of columns of dead keratinized epithelial cells. (it’s
because they’re being pushed upward and cornification occurs)
● During the resting stage, growth stops and the hair is held in
the hair follicle. When the next growth stage begins, a new hair is
formed and the old hair falls out.
● Eyelashes grow for about 30 days and rest for 105 days.
● scalp hairs grow for 3 years and rest for 1–2 years.
● Loss of hair = replacement of new hair
● Hair color is determined by varying amounts and types of melanin.
● Arrector pili - responsible for goosebumps

GLANDS

● The major glands of the skin are the sebaceous glands and the0
sweat glands
● Most are connected by a duct to the superficial part of a hair
follicle.
● Sebaceous glands are simple, branched acinar glands. They produce
sebum, an oily, white substance rich in lipids.
● The sebum is released by holocrine secretion and lubricates the
hair
and the surface of the skin, which prevents drying and protects
against some bacteria.
● Two kinds of sweat glands: eccrine and apocrine.
Eccrine sweat glands:
● are simple, coiled, tubular glands
● release sweat by merocrine secretion.
● Located in almost every part of the skin but most numerous in
the palms and soles.
● have ducts that open onto the surface of the skin through sweat
pores.

● When the body temperature starts to rise above normal levels,

the sweat glands produce sweat, which evaporates and cools the body.
Emotional sweating can also occur in the palms, soles, armpits, and
other places.

Apocrine sweat glands:

● are simple, coiled, tubular glands that produce a thick secretion
rich in organic substances.
● These substances are released primarily by merocrine secretion,
though some glands demonstrate holocrine secretion.
● They open into hair follicles, but only in the armpits
and genitals.
● become active at puberty because of the influence of
reproductive hormones.
● The organic secretion, which is essentially
odorless when released, is quickly broken down by bacteria into
substances responsible for what is commonly known as body odor.

Holocrine secretion involves the

release of entire glandular cells
as part of the secretory product,
while merocrine secretion involves
the release of only the secretory
product, leaving the glandular cells
intact.

Different types of glands in

the body may use either holocrine or
merocrine secretion mechanisms
depending on their function and the
nature of their secreted products.

NAILS

● A thin plate consisting of layers of dead stratum

corneum cells that contain a very hard type of keratin.
Nail bed - where the nail is attached, distal to nail matrix. The nail
matrix and bed are epithelial tissue with a stratum basale that gives
rise to the cells that form the nail.
Nail matrix - thicker than the nail bed, produces most of the nail.
Lunula - small part of the nail matrix, can be seen through the nail
body as a whitish, crescent-shaped area at the base of the nail.

Nail body - visible part of the nail

Nair root - part of the nail that is covered by skin, extends distally
from the nail matrix
Cuticle(eponychium) - is stratum corneum that extends onto the nail
body.

Cell production within the nail matrix causes the nail to grow. Unlike
hair, nails grow continuously and do not have a resting stage.
 THE SELF IN SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

SOCIOLOGY - The study of human behavior.

- Refers to social behavior, society, patterns of social
relationships,
Social interaction, and culture that surrounds everyday life.

● One of the pioneering contributors to sociological perspective

was Charley Cooley (1864-1929)
● He asserted that people’s self understanding is constructed, in
part, by their perception of how others view them – a process termed
“the looking glass self”(Cooley, 1902)

THE LOOKING GLASS SELF

1. We imagine how we appear on others

2. We interpret how others judge that appearance and then respond
to that interpretation through behavior
3. We experience feelings of pride or shame based on this imagined
appearance and judgment by others
4. We respond based on our interpretation

THEORY OF THE SELF

George Herbert Mead (1863 - 1931)

● Self – from experience as we learn to interpret situations by

“taking on the role of the other”

● Children learn to do that in:

- Imitation (gestures, words)
- Play (specific roles)
- Games (multiple roles)
- Generalized other (role of the group)
● The social aspect of self is an important distinction
Because other sociologists and psychologists felt that the self was
based on biological factors and inherited traits
● According to mead, the self is not there from birth, but it is
developed over time from social experiences and activities.

DEVELOPMENT OF SELF

● According to Mead, three activities developed self:

- Language develops self by allowing individuals to respond to each
other through symbols, gestures, words and sounds.
- Play develops self by allowing individuals to take on different
roles, pretend, and express expectations of others. It develops
one’s consciousness through role-playing.
- Games develop self by allowing individuals to understand and
adhere to the rules of the activity.
- Self is developed by understanding that there are rules in which one
must abide by in order to win the game.

TWO SIDES OF SELF: ME & I

● According to Mead’s theory, the self has two sides or phases:
● The “me” is considered the socialized aspect of the individual. The
“me” represents the learned behaviors, attitudes, and expectations
of others and the society.
● The “I” therefore, can be considered the present and future phase of
the self. The “I” represents the individual’s identity based on
response to the “me”

“The Me and the I have didactic relationship”

THE SOCIALIZATION PROCESS

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

● Family - the primarily function of a family is to reproduce society,

both biologically through procreation
And socially through socialization. Given these functions,
The individual’s experience of his or her family shifts over time.
● Mass Media - The mass media function as socialization agents for
children and adults in several ways
● Peer Group - The influence of the peer group typically peaks during
adolescence
- generally only affect short term interests unlike the family, which
has long term influence.
● Religion - children tend to develop the same religious beliefs as
their parents.
● Sports
● School - Teachers/other students as source of expectations that
encourage children to think and behave in particular ways

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

PSYCHOLOGY - is scientific study of behavior and mental processes

PERSPECTIVES

1. BIOLOGICAL - is the scientific study of the biological

bases of behavior and mental states, very closed related
to neuroscience
2. THE PSYCHOANALYTIC - originated with the work of sigmund freud
- Emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood
experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human
behavior and to treat people suffering from mental illness.
3. BEHAVIORAL - focuses on learned behaviors
- Still concerned with how behaviors are learned and reinforced
- John Watson founded behaviorism in the early 1900’s. He emphasized
the scientific study of observable behaviors rather than the study
of subjective mental processes.
4. HUMANISTIC - During the 1950’s a school of thought known as
humanistic psychology emerged. Influenced greatly by the work of
prominent humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
- Emphasizes the role of motivation on thought and behavior
5. COGNITIVE - During the 1960’s a new perspective known as cognitive
psychology began to take hold.
- Focuses on mental processes such as memory, thinking, problem
solving, language, and decision making.
6. SOCIAL CULTURAL - maintains that behavior and mental processes are
shaped not only by prior learning experiences (the behavioral
perspective) or intra-psychic forces (for instance, the
unconscious)But also by the social and cultural context.

HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
STRUCTURALISM was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking
down mental processes into the most basic components.
- Researchers tried to understand the basic elements of
consciousness using a method known as introspection.
- Wilhelm Wundt, founder of the first psychology lab. Advocate
of this position and is often considered as founder of
structuralism. Despite the fact that it was his student
Edward Titchener who first coined the term to describe this
school of thought.
FUNCTIONALISM is an early approach to psychology
- Concerned with the mind does–the functions of mental
activity and the role of behavior in allowing people to
adapt their environment
GESTALT is an school of thought that looks at the human mind
And behavior as a whole.
- Originating in the word of Max Wertheimer, gestalt psychology
formed partially as a response to the structuralism of Wilhem
Wundt.
- The development of this area of psychology was influenced
by a number of thinkers, including Immanuel Kant, Ernst Mach,
and Johann Wolfgang von goethe
PSYCHODYNAMIC MODEL the approach based on the belief that
behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the
individual has little control
 KEY FEATURES OF THE PSYCHODYNAMIC ARE:

– Our behaviors and feelings as adults are rooted in our childhood

experiences.
- Relationships(particullary parenting)are of primary importance in
determining how we feel and behave.
- Our behavior and feelings are powerfully affected
By the meaning of events to the unconscious mind
- Informations can be obtained from dreams, irrational
behavior and what patients in therapy say
- The personality is made up of three instinct structures:
Id, ego, and superego
- Defense mechanisms are used to protect ego, e.g repression
- Children develop through a series of fixed stages: oral,
Anal, and phallic

HUMINISTIC MODEL
- Developed by Rogers and Maslow in the 1950’s

ASSUMPTIONS:
- A healthy mental attitude is dependent on taking
Personal responsibility, recognising the existence
Of free will, and striving towards personal growth
And fulfillment.
- Individuals have a need for self actualisation
- People are naturally good, with the potential for personal growth if they
are provided with the appropriate circumstances
- Rogers (1959): if in early life children receive unconditional positive
regard they will develop satisfactorily. However, if they experience
conditions of worth, they are prevented from realizing their potential and
becoming self-actualised.
- People use distorted thinking to defend themselves, e.g., by
rationalization, that is distorting their real motives to fit in with their
self-concept.

BEHAVIORISM
The approach that suggests that observable behavior should be the focus
- This perspective views behavior (except for genetically
determined behavior) as the result of environmental
experience
- Environmental experience (also called learning) is the sum
total of all life experiences that the individual has been
subjected to in the past and to the new experiences that
will impinge on his or her behavior

COGNITIVE MODEL
- Studies mental processes including how people think, perceive,
remember and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this
branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including
neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.

FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY - a general title applied to a variety of

psychologists who are trained in designing and conducting research in
specific basic areas like learning, sensation and perception, human
performance, and motivation and emotion. A research oriented doctoral
degree (Ph.D.) is usually needed.

BIOPSYCHOLOGY - Take a comparative and ontogenetic perspective in the

experimental analysis of basic psychological processes as they relate to
the many ways in which animal species adapt, survive, reproduce and
evolve.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY - Concerned with growth and development from

conception till death. All aspects of the animal or human organism
(physiological, biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, social,
cultural) may be studied.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - study the ways in which the social context affects the
behavior of the individual and groups in the real world and the
laboratory. Social psychologists focus on topics such as social roles,
attitude formation and change, affiliation, interpersonal attraction and
interaction, conformity, and group processes.

INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGISTS - are concerned with the relation

between individuals and work. They are employed in business and industry,
in government, and in colleges and universities, and may perform a variety
of jobs. An industrial/organizational psychologist working in industry may
study how work is organized; suggest changes to improve the satisfaction
of employees, the quality of the organization's services, and
productivity; consult with management on the development of effective
training programs for employees; design programs for the early
identification of management potential; administer career counseling and
pre retirement counseling programs; develop affirmative action programs;
recommend changes in job definition; design a system of performance
evaluation.

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGISTS - are concerned with a range of activities from

initial design through development and evaluation of both materials and
procedures for education and training. Such positions exist in public
schools, in the military, in private research and development companies,
and in industrial concerns. They may deal with analyzing education and
training needs, with developing materials for instruction in various
media, with designing the best conditions for instruction, and with
evaluating the effectiveness of instructional programs.
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS - are concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of
psychological disturbances. After graduate preparation in an accredited
university or school of professional psychology, supervised postdoctoral
experience, and licensure or certification by the state, some clinical
psychologists enter independent practice/consulting roles. Others find
themselves responsible for a complete range of psychological services in
public settings. Their responsibilities range from administering and
scoring psychological tests, to engaging in therapy, to supervising the
training of graduate students in the delivery of mental health services,
to administering a community mental health program. Some clinical
psychologists obtain faculty positions in a college or university where
they perform research and train graduate students. Others serve as adjunct
(or parttime) faculty, while maintaining independent clinical practices.
Many serve as consultants.

COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGISTS - are concerned with counseling, teaching,

consulting research, and/or administration. In their work, they are
particularly concerned with the role of education and work in an
individual's functioning, and with the interaction between individuals and
the environments in which they live. Typically, counseling psychologists
work with normal or moderately maladjusted persons, individually or in
groups. This work includes use of traditional counseling interview
methods, interest, ability and personality tests, and educational and
occupational information.

CROSS CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY - Is a branch of psychology that looks at how

cultural factors influence human behavior.

FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY - It is defined as an intersection between psychology

and the criminal justice system. It is applied to the criminal justice
system to evaluate the psychology of the defendants.

ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY - is an interdisciplinary field focused on the

interplay between humans and their surroundings. The field defines the
term environment very broadly including all that is natural on the
planet as well as social settings, built environments, learning
environments and informational environments

PSYCHIATRY - is a medical specialty devoted to the treatment, study and

prevention of mental disorder. They can prescribe medicines. They are
MBBS Doctors.

PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN - This class explores the female experience within the
world. Many times people ask why there isn't a Psychology of Men class.
There are plenty of them, as most classes are designed with the male as
the baseline. This class looks at how women differ from the baseline
and how the female experience is also valid in its own right, not as just an
"other."
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY

CASE HISTORY - an in-depth study of one person. In a case study, nearly every
aspect of the subject’s life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and
causes for behavior. The hope is that learning gained from studying one
case can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend
to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize results to a
larger population.

NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION - is a method of observation, commonly used by

psychologists, behavioral scientists and social scientists, that involves
observing subjects in their natural habitats. Researchers take great care
in avoiding making inferences with the behavior they are observing by
using unobtrusive methods. Objectively, studying events as they occur
naturally, without intervention.

SURVEY METHOD - is a method of scientific investigation in which a large

sample of people answer questions about their attitudes or behavior.

TIPS
● DETERMINE WHAT U WANT TO STUDY
● DEFINE THE POPULATION TO BE STUDIED
● DESIGN, CONSTRUCT, PILOT, AND REFINE THE SURVEY INSTRUMENT
● SELECT A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE
● ADMINISTER THE SURVEY
● ANALYZE, INTERPRET, AND COMMUNICATE THE RESULTS

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD - The experimental method involves manipulating

one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in
another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random
assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis.

An experiment is a study of cause and effect. It differs from non-

experimental methods in that it involves the deliberate
manipulation of one variable, while trying to keep all other variables
constant.

PARTS OF A SIMPLE EXPERIMENT:

The experimental hypothesis: a statement that predicts that the treatment
will cause an effect. The experimental hypothesis will always be phrased as a
cause-and-effect statement.
The independent variable: the treatment variable that is manipulated by the
experimenter. (stimulus)
The dependent variable: the response that the experimenter is measuring.
(response)
The control group: made up of individuals who are randomly assigned to a
group but do not receive the treatment. The measures taken from the control
group are then compared to those in the experimental group to determine if
the treatment had an effect. The experimental group: made up of individuals
who are randomly assigned to the group and then receive the treatment. The
scores of these participants are compared to those in the control group to
determine if the treatment had an effect.

For example:

Hypothesis: an aspirin a day reduces the likelihood of a heart attack.

Independent variable: Aspirin
Dependent Variable: the number of heart attacks.
The experimental group: would take an aspirin each day
The control group: would take a placebo, such as a sugar pill, that resembles
an aspirin but has none of the effects attributed to aspirin.

After a few months or years of pill-taking, the number of heart attacks would
be measured as the dependent variable. If the aspirin-takers (experimental
group) had a significantly smaller number of heart attacks than the placebo-
takers (control group), then the research hypothesis (aspirin-taking reduces
heart attacks) would be supported.

CORRELATION: between variables. There are three possible results of a co

relational study: a positive correlation, a negative correlation, and no
correlation. The correlation coefficient is a measure of correlation strength
and can range from –1.00 to +1.00.

Positive Correlations: Both variables increase or decrease at the same time.

A correlation coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a strong positive
correlation.
Negative Correlations: Indicates that as the amount of one variable
increases, the other decreases (and vice versa). A correlation coefficient
close to -1.00 indicates a strong negative correlation.