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 endocrine system is
made up of glands
that produce and
secrete
hormones,
chemical substances
produced in the
body that regulate
the activity of cells
or organs.
 Regulate human
vital function

 These hormones
regulate the
body's growth,
metabolism (the
physical and
chemical processes
of the body), and
sexual
development and
function.

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 The hormones are

released into the
bloodstream and
may affect only at
specific TARGET
CELLS (cells with
compatible
receptors on
surface of the
plasma membrane
or within the
cytoplasm or
nucleus.

 Hormones are effective in extremely small

amounts.
 Only few molecules of a hormone may be
enough to produce a dramatics response in
target cell.

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 major glands of the

endocrine system are the
a. hypothalamus,
b. pituitary,
c. thyroid,
d. parathyroids,
e. adrenals,
f. pineal body, and
g. reproductive organs
(ovaries and testes).

h. Pancreas ( hormone
production as well as in
digestion)

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 Hormones are either:-

A. Lipid soluble steroids
B. Water soluble protein (no steroids hormone, not enter the cell
but bind to plasma membrane receptors to, generating a chemical
signal)
C. Polypeptides-organic polymer consisting large number of amino-
acid , part of (or the whole of) a protein molecule
D. Prostaglandins-group of lipids made at sites of tissue damage or
infection that are involved in dealing with injury and illness. They
control processes such as inflammation, blood flow, the formation
of blood clots and the induction of labour
E. Amino acids derivative- hormones are relatively small molecules
that are derived (modification) to produce others hormone. For
examples to producing catecholamines such as dopamine and
adrenaline

 The endocrine system is made up

of glands & the hormones they
secrete.
 The vital function of this system is
the production & regulation of
hormones.
 Hormone is a mediator molecule
that is released in one part of the
body but regulates the activity of
cells in other part of the body.
 The nervous system works
closely with the endocrine system
in the maintenance of
homeostasis.
 Norepinephrin : Both
neurotrasmitters & hormones.

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A gland is an organ that produces &

releases a secretion. There are two
kinds of glands:
EXOCRINE GLANDS (ducted)
release secretions through ducts
directly to the organs that use them.
•Eg: Sudoriferous (sweat), sebaceous
(oil) & digestive glands
ENDOCRINE GLANDS (ductless)
release their secretions directly into the
bloodstream.
•Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal
& pineal glands
•Organs & tissues not exclusively
endocrine glands
•Hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries,
testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small
intestine, skin, heart, adipose tissue &
placenta
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM = All
endocrine glands + hormone secreting
cells
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Hypothalamus

Anterior Posterior Pituitary

pituitary pituitary gland

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i. The pituitary gland is a

pea-shaped structure
ii. pituitary gland is located
at the base of the brain
under the
hypothalamus and is no
larger than a pea. The
gland is divided into two
parts:
a. anterior pituitary –
adenohypophysis
b. posterior pituitary -
neurohypophysis

iii. considered the

most important
part of the
endocrine
system because
it produces
hormones that
control many
functions of
other endocrine
glands.

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iv. pituitary gland

regulate:-
a) Growth hormone
b) Thyroid-
stimulating
hormone (TSH
c) Adrenocorticotrop
in hormone
(ACTH
d) Luteinizing
hormone (LH)
and follicle-
stimulating
hormone (FSH
e) Prolactin

v. The anterior
pituitary @
adenohypophysis is
composed of cells
that secrete
hormones:-
 growth hormone,
 prolactin,
adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH),
 thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH)
 luteinising hormone
(LH)
 follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH).

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v. The posterior
pituitary @
neurohypophysis
 contains nerve
cell axons
reaching down
from the
hypothalamus
 release oxytocin
and vasopressin.
 Anti Diuretic
hormone

a. superior hypophyseal artery,

b. infundibular artery,
c. prechiasmal artery,
d. inferior hypophyseal artery,
e. capsular artery,
f. artery of the inferior
cavernous sinus

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i. located in the lower

central part of the
brain, middle of the
base of the brain,
and encapsulates the
ventral portion
(under the spinal cord)
of the third ventricle
ii. hypothalamus is the
part of the brain
attached to the
posterior pituitary

iii. makes hormones

that control &
stored in the
pituitary gland
iv. hypothalamus also
secretes a hormone
called somatostatin,
which causes the
pituitary gland to
stop the release of
growth hormon

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iv.hypothalamus
is a very small,
but extremely
important
part.

iv. Hypothalamus Functions

a. controls the release of 8 major
hormones by the hypophysis (term for
pituitary),
b. involved in temperature regulation
c. control of food and water intake
d. sexual behavior and reproduction
e. control of daily cycles in physiological
state and behavior, and
f. mediation of emotional responses.

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GH

Note: The pancreas is

controlled differently.

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The pineal
gland
develops from
the roof of the
diencephalon,
a section of
the brain.

The diencephalon, along with the cerebrum comprise the two major
divisions of forebrain. Main structures of the diencephalon include
the hypothalamus,thalamus, epithalamus (including the pineal gland),
and subthalamus. Diencephalon relays sensory information between
brain regions and controls many autonomic functions of
the peripheral nervous system.

Directionally, the pineal gland is situated

between the cerebral hemispheres, attached
to the third ventricle.

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The pineal gland

releases melatonin,
which is involved in
rhythmic activities,
such as daily sleep-
wake cycles.
Secretes serotonin –
neurotransmitter.

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i. The thyroid gland,

butterfly-
shaped, located
just inferior to the
larynx (voice box),
composed of right
& left lateral lobes
wraps around the
upper part of the
trachea

• thyroid lies below

your Adam’s apple,
along the front of the
windpipe
• Brownish-red in color,
the thyroid is rich
with blood vessels.
Nerves important for
voice quality also
pass through the
thyroid.

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ii. Located in the

neck, ANTERIOR
to the trachea.
iii. Consists 2 lobes.
One : on each
side to the
junction between
the larynx and
trachea.

iv. Lobes are

connected across
the second and
third trachea
rings by a bridge
of thyroid tissue
call an isthmus

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• Thyroid secretes several hormones, collectively called thyroid

hormones. The main hormone is thyroxine, also called T4.
Thyroid hormones act throughout the body, influencing
metabolism, growth and development, body temperature.
During infancy and childhood, adequate thyroid hormone is
critically for brain development.

v. Follicular
cells produce
the actual
thyroid hormone
(aka T3 and T4).
iodine

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vi. Parafollicular
cells (para mean-
ing next to) are
going to
produce calcitonin
which is related
to calcium.
• This lowers the
calcium levels in
your body by
acting on the
kidneys.

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i. Parathyroid glands have a

distinct, encapsulated,
smooth surface that differs
from the thyroid gland,
which is has a more lobular
surface, and lymph nodes,
which are more pitted in
appearance.
ii. There are usually four
parathyroids and they lie
on the posterior surface
(the back) of the thyroid
gland.
iii. They are small (20-40 mg)
and
1 have a beanlike shape

iv.Normally they are

symmetrically arranged
with the two superior
(higher) parathyroids
lying about 1cm above
the point where the
inferior thyroid artery
enters the thyroid. The
two inferior (lower)
parathyroids lie 1cm
below this point.

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v. 4 glands produce parathyroid

hormone (PTH), which helps
to maintain calcium
homeostasis by acting on the
renal tubule as well as
calcium stores in the skeletal
system and by acting
indirectly on the
gastrointestinal tract through
the activation of vitamin D

vi. color of the

parathyroid glands
is typically light
brown to tan,
which relates to
their fat content,
vascularity, and
percentage of
Oxyphil Cells
within the glands.

NOTE: OC: a cell of the parathyroid glands that takes up acidic stains and
has a dark nucleus and fine, granular cytoplasm. Such cells occur singly
or in1 small groups and increase in number with age

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vii. superior parathyroid

glands are most commonly
located in the posterolateral
aspect of the superior pole
of the thyroid gland at the
cricothyroidal cartilage
junction.
viii. inferior parathyroid
glands are more variable in
location and are most
commonly found near the
lower thyroid pole of the
1thyroid.

ix.inferior parathyroid
gland is supplied by
the inferior thyroid
artery
x. superior thyroid
artery supplies the
inferior parathyroid
1
gland

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xi.parathyroids are
supplied by thyroid
branches of the
cervical sympathetic
ganglia with a mainly
sensory function,
detecting stretch
within the glands
that gives rise to the
sensation of pain in
some disorders.

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PARATHYROID
GLANDS

Total of 4, partially embedded

in the posterior surface of
thyroid gland

ENDOCRINE HORMONE FUNCTION

GLAND
THYROID TRIIODOTHYRONINE  Regulate metabolic rate
(T3)  Regulate physical & mental
THYROXINE (T4)
growth & development

CALCITONIN  Effect on bone matrix:

Increases calcium and
phosphate deposition
 Effect on kidneys:
Increases excretion of calcium
and phosphate ions
PARA- PARATHYROID  Increase serum calcium by
HORMONE (PTH)
promoting bone decalcification
THYROID

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THYROID DISORDERS

HYPERTHYROIDISM
 the body produces too much thyroxine (T4).
 It is characterized by elevated temperature & metabolic rate,
increased blood pressure (BP) & weight loss.

HYPOTHYROIDISM
 the body produces too little thyroxine (T4).
It is characterized by lower temperature & metabolic rate, lack of
energy & weight gain.

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THYROID DISORDERS
GOITER
 Enlargement of thyroid gland.
 Caused by an iodine deficiency.

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Thyroid
gland

Parathyroid
glands

The 4 parathyroid glands are found on the

back surface of the thyroid gland.

PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH)

1. Effect on kidneys: Causes kidneys to

conserve calcium & excrete phosphate
2. Effect on intestine: Stimulates calcium
absorption through vitamin D
3. Low blood calcium concentrations stimulate
secretion of PTH from the parathyroid gland

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i. Located behind
the sternum
between the
lungs
ii. made up of two
lobes that join in
front of the
trachea.
iii. Each lobe is
made of
lymphoid tissue,
consisting of
tightly packed
white blood cells
and fat.

i. The thymus
enlarges from
about the 12th
week of gestation
until puberty,
when it begins to
shrink.
ii. During childhood,
the thymus
releases
thymosin, which
stimulates T-cell
development &
proper immune
response.

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i. The thymus is of a pinkish-gray color, soft,

and lobulated on its surfaces. It is about 5
cm. in length, 4 cm. in breadth below, and
about 6 mm. in thickness.

i. At birth it weighs about 15 grams, at

puberty it weighs about 35 grams; after
this it gradually decreases to 25 grams at
twentyfive years, less than 15 grams at
sixty, and about 6 grams at seventy years.

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i. processes
lymphocytes, a
type of white blood
cell that fights
infections in the
body.
ii. This organ is part
of both the
lymphatic system,
which makes up a
major part of the
immune system,
and the endocrine
system,

i. thymus gland is a pink-grey organ.

ii. The arteries supplying the thymus are
derived from the internal mammary, and
from the superior and inferior thyroids.
The veins end in the left in nominate
vein, and in the thyroid veins.

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 The two adrenal

glands are located ,
located on top of
both kidneys,
beneath the
peritoneum.
 There are two parts
in the gland that
have different
embryological
origins and are
functionally
different endocrine
organs:
The Medulla and
the Cortex.

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 AG: also called suprarenal glands. Each

suprarenal gland is composed of 2 distinct
tissues: the suprarenal cortex and the
suprarenal medulla
 It a small pyramid@triangular-shaped
each about 2 inc long and 1 inc wide.

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 The suprarenal cortex serves as the outer

layer of the suprarenal gland, and the
suprarenal medulla serves as the inner layer.
These 2 major regions are encapsulated by
connective tissue known as the capsule

 suprarenal
cortex is the
largest part of
the gland and
is composed of
3 zones:
 zona
glomerulosa
(outer zone),
 zona fasciculata
(middle zone),
 zona reticularis
(inner zone).

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i. The adrenal
glands are
pyramid-shaped
structures

 The adrenal cortex

produces over 24
steroid hormones.
 The hormone
aldosterone
regulates
reabsorption of
sodium ions & the
excretion of
potassium ions by
the kidneys.
 The hormone
cortisol controls the
rate of metabolism
of carbohydrates,
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fats & proteins.

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ENDOCRINE HORMONES FUNCTION

GLAND
ADRENAL Aldosterone a. Fluid & electrolyte
CORTEX balance
b. Natrium ion
reabsorption
c. Potassium ion excretion
Cortisol a) Glycogenolysis
b) Gluconeogenesis
c) Natrium ion & water
reabsorption
d) Anti-inflammatory
e) Stress hormone
Sex Hormones a) Slightly significant

 The release of
hormones from the
adrenal medulla
prepares the body for
energy-intense
activities.
 The two hormones
released by the
adrenal medulla are
epinephrine &
norepinephrine.
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 increase heart rate, blood pressure (BP) & blood

flow to the muscles.
 cause air passageways to open wider, allowing for
an increased intake of oxygen.
 stimulate the release of extra glucose into the
blood to help produce a sudden burst of energy.

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ENDOCRINE HORMONE FUNCTION

GLAND
ADRENAL EPINEPHRINE Increase heart rate
NOREPINEPHRINE (HR) & blood pressure
MEDULLA (BP)
Bronchodilation
Glycogenolysis
Stress hormone

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PANCREAS

The pancreas produces

insulin & glucagon,
which regulate the level
of glucose in the blood.

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a. is a 12-15–cm long
J-shaped (like a
hockey stick) soft,
lobulated,
retroperitoneal organ
 (meaning:
Retroperitoneal organs
are found behind the
peritoneum, between
it and the abdominal
wall. These include the
kidneys, adrenals, and
pancreas)

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b) The right side of the organ (called

the head) is the widest part of the
organ and lies in the curve of the
duodenum (the first section of the small
intestine).
c) left side extends slightly upward
(called the body of the pancreas)

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 It lies transversely,
although a bit
obliquely, on the
posterior
abdominal wall
behind the
stomach, across
the lumbar (L1-2)
spine
 This gland
contains
both exocrine and
endocrine tissues

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d) head of the pancreas lies in the

duodenal C loop in front of the
inferior vena cava (IVC) and the left
renal vein

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 The pancreatic neck is the arbitrary

junction between the head and body
of the pancreas.
 Portal vein lies behind the neck of
the pancreas.

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 body and tail of the pancreas run

obliquely upward to the left in
front of the aorta and left kidney.

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 The narrow tip of the tail of the

pancreas reaches the splenic hilum
(is a location on the surface of the
spleen) in the splenorenal ligament.

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 The pancreas has

both exocrine &
endocrine
functions.
 It is a digestive
gland whose
secretions break
down food.
 It produces
insulin &
glucagon.
 Insulin &
glucagon help
to keep the level
of glucose in the
blood stable.

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 Insulin stimulates cells in the liver & muscles to remove

sugar from the blood and store it as glycogen or fat.
 Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen &
release glucose back into the blood.

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ENDOCRINE HORMONE FUNCTION

GLAND
PANCREAS INSULIN Decrease blood glucose by:
BETA Glucose diffusion across
cell membrane;
CELLS Converts glucose to
glycogen

ALPHA GLUCAGON Increase blood glucose by:

CELLS Gluconeogenesis
Glycogenolysis

PANCREAS
Somatostatin
secreted by δ cells (delta cells) of the islets of
Langerhans
similar to hypothalamic hormone
inhibits secretion of glucagon and insulin

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The testes produce

testosterone, which is
responsible for sperm
production & the
development of male
secondary sex
TESTIS characteristics.

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Release of FSH & LH
stimulates cells in the testes to
produce testosterone.
 FSH & testosterone stimulate
the development of sperm.
 The main function of the male
reproductive system is to
produce & deliver sperm.

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OVARY Ovaries produce estrogen

& progesterone.
Estrogen is required for
the development of
female secondary sex
characteristics & for the
development of eggs.
Progesterone prepares
the uterus for a fertilized
egg.

 The main function of the female reproductive system is

to produce eggs.
 In addition, the female reproductive system prepares the
female's body to nourish a developing embryo.
 Puberty in females starts when the hypothalamus
signals the pituitary gland to release FSH and LH.
 FSH stimulates cells within the ovaries to produce
estrogen.

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Progesterone stimulates growth & development

of the blood supply and surrounding tissue.
Within a few days of implantation, the uterus and
the growing embryo will release hormones that
keep the corpus luteum functioning for several
weeks.
This allows the lining of the uterus to nourish &
protect the developing embryo.

ENDOCRINE HORMONES FUNCTION

GLAND
OVARIES ESTROGEN & Development of secondary
PROGESTERONE sex characteristic in female
Maturation of sex organs
Sexual functioning
Maintenance of pregnancy
TESTES TESTOSTERONE Development of secondary
sex characteristic in male
Maturation of sex organs
Sexual functioning

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