9/3/2020

BASIC CONCEPTS & IMPORTANCE OF

MEASUREMENTS
• Aim of measurement
• Methods of measurement
• Generalized measurement systems
• Instruments & its classifications
• Performance characteristics of instruments
• Statistic & dynamic characteristics
• Errors in measurements
• Analysis of experimental data
• Regression analysis
• Correlation
• Estimation of uncertainty and presentation of data
• Design of experiments

Aim of measurement
• The main aim of Measurement is to collect proper data
for analysis by which one can derive fruitful
outcomes, establish theories as well as laws in the
world of science and do required modifications to
obtained desired outcomes if any.
• To imparts knowledge of laboratory techniques and
skills and train person to think critically about
experimental data (and other numerical information)
and their precision.
• To develop an understanding of the fundamentals of
statistical analysis of data, and especially the
importance of experimental errors in person’s mind.
• Persons can learn to estimate and compound
experimental errors (uncertainty), and demonstrate an
understanding of their importance in the interpretation
of results.

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Methods of measurement
These are the methods of comparison used in measurement
process. In precision measurement various methods of
measurement are adopted depending upon the accuracy
required and the amount of permissible error.
The methods of measurement can be classified as:
l. Direct method
2. Indirect method
3. Absolute or Fundamental method
4. Comparative method
5. Transposition method
6. Coincidence method
7. Deflection method
8. Complementary method
9. Contact method
10. Contact less method

The Generalised Measurement System

Most measurement
systems may be
divided into 3 stages:
1. A detector-transducer
stage
2. Some intermediate
stage
3. A final or terminating
stage

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Schematic of the generalized measurement

system with control feedback function.

Instruments & its classifications

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Performance characteristics of instruments

1. Static Characteristics (Parameters of interest is not varying or varying very slowly with time)
• Accuracy and measurement Uncertainty
• Precision
• Range or Span
• Readability
• Sensitivity
• Linearity
• Threshold
• Resolution
• Static Error
• Sensitivity to Disturbance (Drift)
• Hysteresis Effects
• Dead Zone
• Static calibration
2. Dynamic Characteristics (Parameters of interest is varying with time)
• Speed of Response
• Dynamic Error
• Fidelity
• Lag

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For dead zone the x-axis represents time instead of input quantity.

Performance characteristics of instruments

1. Static Characteristics (Parameters of interest is not varying or varying very slowly with time)
• Accuracy and measurement Uncertainty
• Precision
• Range or Span
• Readability
• Sensitivity
• Linearity
• Threshold
• Resolution
• Static Error
• Sensitivity to Disturbance (Drift)
• Hysteresis Effects
• Dead Zone
• Static calibration
2. Dynamic Characteristics (Parameters of interest is varying with time)
• Speed of Response
• Dynamic Error
• Fidelity
• Lag

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Dynamic Response:
The behavior of the system when inputs vary with
time & so does the output is called dynamic response.
Two types of Input:
1. Steady state periodic 2. Transient
Response of a time varying input
1. Steady state response 2. Transient response
Total response = IoT + Ios

Dynamic Analysis of Measurement System

1. Time domain analysis:
This examines amplitude vs. time characteristic of
measuring signal.
• Step input
• Ramp input
• Parabolic input
• Impulse input
2. Frequency domain analysis:
This replaces the measured signal with a group of
sinusoids which when added together, produce a
waveform equivalent to the original. The relative
amplitudes, frequencies and phases of the sinusoids
are examined.

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Representation of General Measuring

Systems by differential equation:

Where;
a & b = constant depending upon the physical parameters of the system
d/dt = derivative of the order m & n
qo = Output/ information out of the measurement system
qi = The input information

Based on value of the power of n, the measurement system may be

of :
1. Zero-Order Instrument
2. First-Order Instrument
3. Second-Order Instrument

1. Zero-Order System:
n= 0; i.e. a0 qo  bo qi
bo S= sensitivity of system
 qo  qi  sqi
a0
2. First-Order System
n= 1; i.e.
d
(a1 q0  a0 qo )  bo qi
dt
 (a1D  a0 )qo  bo qi
a  b a
  1 D  1qo  o qi  sqi ,let   1  Time const.
 a0  a0 a0
s
 qo  q
1  D  i

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3. Second-Order System
n= 2; i.e.   d 2
d 
a2   q0  a1 q0  a0 qo   bo qi
  dt  dt 
 
 (a2 D 2  a1 D  a0 )qo  bo qi
a a  b
  2 D 2  1 D  1qo  o qi  sqi ,
 0
a a 0  a 0

a
let n  2  undamped natural frequency ,rad / s
a0
a1
and ,   damping ratio 
2 a0 a 2
 D 2 2 
  2  D  1qo  sqi
 n n 
s
 qo  qi
 2 D2 
1  D  2 
 n n 


First order responses:

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Second order responses:

Errors in measurements
The study of error is important as a step in finding
ways to reducing them and also as means of
estimating the reliability of final results.
Types of errors:

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Sources of errors
Besides physical and mechanical nature errors and the
errors which results from the faulty calibration of a
measuring systems, the errors arise from the following
sources also:
1. Noise
2. Response time
3. Design limitations
4. Energy exchanged by interaction
5. Transmission
6. Deterioration of measuring system
7. Ambient influences on measuring systems
8. Errors of observation and interpretation.

Analysis of Experimental data:

• The analysis of experimental data is carried out by
statistical procedures.
• The object of the statistical methods based on laws
of chance which operates only on random errors
and not on systematic errors is to achieve precision
of value and not their accuracy.
• The experimental data is obtained in either Single
sample test (i.e. done under identical conditions
excepting for time) or Multi sample test ( i.e.
repeated measurement of given quantity taken
under different test conditions)

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Statistical Analysis:
1. Statistical averages:
– Mean value/ Arithmetic mean
– Geometric mean
– Median
– Mode
2. Dispersion from the mean:
– Deviation
– Average deviation
– Standard deviation
– Variance
3. Best value from the sample of readings
The arithmetic mean is the most probable value or the best value
which one can obtain from a set of scattered measurement data.
4. Normal or Gaussian curve of errors

Set of readings:
Temperature: 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205

Arithmetic Mean: 201

Median: 201
Mode: 201
Deviation: Xi – 201
Average deviation: Sum{Abs(di)}/n
Variance: (σ)^2
Best Value: A.M.
Probable Error: 0.6745 σ

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As per law of probability,

x2
1
P e 2
2

 2
1 h
Pmax   ;as x  0
 2 
Where, P= probability of occurrence of
deviation d
σ = Standard deviation
x = Magnitude of deviation from mean
h = Precision index = 1/ 2

Probable error,
r = 0.4769/h = 0.6745 σ;
for half deviations lies between x = +/-r.

Deviation Probability Odds

+/- 0.6745 σ 0.5 1 to 1
+/- σ 0.6826 2.15 to 1
+/-2σ 0.9546 21 to 1
+/-3σ 0.9974 369 to 1

Confidence interval
Confidence Confidence Values lying outside
level interval confidence interval
0.5 Mean+/-0.674 σ 1 in 2
0.8 Mean+/-1.282 σ 1 in 5
0.9 Mean+/-1.645 σ 1 in 10
0.95 Mean+/-1.960 σ 1 in 20
0.99 Mean+/-2.576 σ 1 in 100
0.999 Mean+/-3.291 σ 1 in 1000

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10 copper rods, selected at random were found

to have the following length in meters:

5.30, 5.73, 6.77.

5.26, 4.33, 5.45, 6.09, 5.64, 5.82, 5.75

Determine:
1. Arithmetic mean
2. Average deviation
3. Standard deviation
4. Variance
5. Probable error

Chauvenet’s criteria:
• It states that “An observed
reading may be rejected if the
probability of obtaining the
particular deviation from the
mean is less than 1/2n”
• For eg. n = 10 then 1/2n = 0.05 or 5%
• Thus, reading with 95% of probability are to be
accepted & less that that can be rejected.
P(y) = 0.95/2 = 0.475 (From probability table at
0.475; y = 1.96)
• Results based on such calculations for
different number of readings are as per
given table

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10 copper rods, selected at random were found

to have the following length in meters:

5.30, 5.73, 6.77.

5.26, 4.33, 5.45, 6.09, 5.64, 5.82, 5.75

Determine any reading that can be rejected by

applying Chauvenet’s criterion. The ratio of
maximum deviation to standard deviation should
not exceed 1.96

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Curve Fitting by Least square method:

Regression Analysis:
• Regression analysis is a well-known statistical learning technique
useful to infer the relationship between a dependent variable Y and p
independent variables X=[X1|…|Xp].
• The dependent variable Y is also known as response
variable or outcome, and the variables Xk (k=1,…,p)
as predictors, explanatory variables, or covariates.
• If Y depends on only one variable x (i.e., p=1), the regression is
said simple, otherwise (i.e., p>1), the regression is said multiple.
• In linear multiple regression, we look for a linear combination of the
predictors. In practice, regression models are estimated by least
squares using appropriate software.
• It helps in the process of validating whether the predictor variables
are good enough to help in predicting the dependent variable. A
regression analysis formula tries to find the best fit line for the
dependent variable with the help of the independent variables.

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Curve Fitting by Least square method:

• The method of least square or linear regression
enables us to calculate a line Y= mX+c through the
data.
• The method identifies the slope m & constant c that
minimize the sum of the square deviation of the
data from the fitted line.
• This method addresses only the precision error in
y, poor results are obtained if Xi also includes large
precision errors as it assumes that the experimental
Xi are error free.

   Y  mX
n n
S   Yi  Y p  c 
2 2
i i
i 1 i 1

As we wishto min . the function S ,

S S
 0and  0;
m c
which gives;
n n

 Yi  m Xi  nc.....................1)
i 1 i 1
n n n

XY
i 1
i i  m Xi 2  c  Xi..........2)
i 1 i 1

By solving aboveeq.1)& 2)
n X iYi   X i  Yi
m
n Xi 2   X i 
2

 Y  X   X  X Y 
i i
2
i i i
c
n Xi   X  2 2
i

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Numerical:
No. Xi Yi
1 1 1.2
2 1.6 2
3 3.4 2.4
4 4 3.15
5 5.2 3.5
4
3.5
Yi
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Yi

No. Xi Yi Xi2 XiYi

1 1 1.2 1 1.2
2 1.6 2 2.56 3.2
3 3.4 2.4 11.56 8.16
4 4 3.15 16 12.6
5 5.2 3.5 27.04 18.2
Sum 15.2 12.25 58.16 43.36
From equation of least square: m= 0.512 & c = 0.893
Therefore, Yp = 0.512Xi + 0.893
4
R² = 1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Yi
Linear fitting line by least square method
Linear (Linear fitting line by least square method)

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Correlation coefficient:
• To know how good the curve fitting either by least
square or any graphical method, the parameter
correlation coefficient is used. It is denoted by r.
1
  y2, x  2
r  1  2 
  y 
where,
1
 n
 y , x  
Yi  Yp 
 2 2


 i 1 n  2 
r= 0 when; σy,x = σy and r=1 when σy,x = 0
For a good fit r has to be near 0.9

di= Yi- dix,y =

No. Xi Yi Ym di2 Yp Yi-Yp dix,y2

1 1 1.2 -1.25 1.5625 1.405 -0.205 0.0422

2 1.6 2 -0.45 0.2025 1.713 0.287 0.0826
3 3.4 2.4 -0.05 0.0025 2.634 -0.234 0.0549
4 4 3.15 0.7 0.49 2.942 0.208 0.0434
5 5.2 3.5 1.05 1.1025 3.556 -0.056 0.0031

SUM 12.25 3.36 0.2263

Y mean 2.45
σy Std. deviation 0.9165
σx,y 0.2746
Correlation coefficient, r 0.9541
r2 0.910

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Estimation of uncertainty and presentation

of data:
• The uncertainty in final results are depend upon
uncertainties in primary measurements.
• It can be find out by
– Applying analysis based on common Sense
– Find out limiting error
– More precise method like Kline & McClintock
• In case of Kline & McClintock method, uncertainty Δa can
be estimate for result parameter a = f(x, y, z) by the
following equation,
1
  a  
2
 a  
2
 a  
2 2
a     x   
 
 y     z  
 x   y   z  
     

Numerical: The power measurement across a resistor is measured with

the use of equation P= EI. Where, E = 100V +/- 2V and I = 10A+/-0.2A
Find the uncertainty by different ways and compare obtain values with
each other.
Method 1: To find out result error by maximum error
in independent parameter.

Nominal value of P = EI = 100x10 = 1000 Watt

Pmax = Emax * Imax = 102x 10.2 = 1040.4 Watt
Uncertainty = +4.04%

Pmin = Emin * Imin = 98x 9.8 = 960.4 Watt

Uncertainty = -3.96%

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Numerical: The power measurement across a resistor is measured with

the use of equation P= EI. Where, E = 100V +/- 2V and I = 10A+/-0.2A
Find the uncertainty by different ways and compare obtain values with
each other.
Method 2: To find out result error by limiting error.
Nominal value of P = EI = 100x10 = 1000 Watt
Limiting error = δP;
δP/P = +/-[δE/E + δI/I] = +/-[2/100 + 0.2/10]
=+/-0.04
Therefore, δP = 0.04x1000= +/-40Watt

Result, P = 1000+/- 40Watt

Uncertainty = +/-4%

Numerical: The power measurement across a resistor is measured with

the use of equation P= EI. Where, E = 100V +/- 2V and I = 10A+/-0.2A
Find the uncertainty by different ways and compare obtain values with
each other.
Method 3: By Kline & McClintock method
1
 R   R
2
 
2 2
WP    WE     WI  
 E   I  

 
1
WP  I  WE   E  WI 
2 2 2

 10  2  
1
 100  0.2 
2 2 2
WP
WP  28.28Watt
WP
 0.0283   /  2.83% Uncertainty = +/-2.83%
P

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Design of experiments
• The importance of control in any experiment should
always be recognized. The physical principle, apparatus
or device under investigation will decide the variables
which must be controlled carefully.
• Provisions should be made to record data & all ideas
with observations concerned with experiment.
• This data sheet should be very carefully planned so that
it may subsequently be used, if desired, for data
reduction.
• A record book should be maintain to record sketches &
significant observations of an unusual character which
may occur during both the planning and the execution
stages of the experiment.

Design of experiments
1. Establish - need - budget, man power, time required
2. Begin detail planning for the experiment
3. Continue planning by performing the following steps:
 Establish the primary variables which must be measured.
 Determine, as nearly as possible, the accuracy required in primary
measurements and need of repeatability for proper data analysis.
 Setup data reduction calculations. Also make sure that adequate data are
being collected to meet objectives of the experiments.
 Analyze the possible errors in the anticipated results before conducting the
experiments so that modifications in accuracy may be changed if necessary.
4. Select instrumentation for the various measurements to match the anticipated
accuracy requirement. Modify the instruments to match budgetary limitations if
necessary.
5. Collect few data and conduct preliminary analysis
6. Modify the experiment apparatus &/ or procedure in accordance with the
findings in above step.
7. Collect the bunk of experiment data and analyze the results
8. Organize, discuss & publish the finding and results of the experiment being sure
to include information pertaining to all above items.

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Role of Uncertainty analysis in experimental

planning:
1. Selection of measurement methods
– P = EI or P=E2/R
– For R= 10𝞨+/- 1%; E = 100V +/-1%; I = 10A +/- 1%
then, uncertainty = 2.236% for P=E2/R and 1.414% for P = EI
2. Selection of instruments
– P= EI & E=IR; Total I= I1+I2
– I2 value depends on resistance of voltmeter in circuit; if Rm>>>R
then one can avoid dominancy of Rm in overall uncertainty.
3. Way to reduce uncertainty
– Identify independent parameter
– Find uncertainty in each independent parameter.
– To obtain more precise measurement, focus on major contribution of
independent variable of measuring quantity.

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