I.

FIRST WAVE OF FEMINISM

I. WHAT INFLUENCED THE FIRST WAVE FEMINISM?
The period of first wave of feminism was politically influenced from the French Revolution
of 17’9 in which demands for the rights of women were first made. The first feminist
treatise was also influenced by this event written by Mary Wollstonecraft titled “Vindication
of the Rights of Women" (1792).
It was a direct result of the change in the social structure by Industrialization.
Constitutional rights were being provided to the wider sections of the male which were
denied to females.

II. WHEN DID IT BEGIN AND WHAT WAS ITS PURPOSE?

● First wave feminism (in Britain and the USA) is most often dated as occurring between
1’’0s and the 1920s.
● Its principal concern was women’s attainment of equality with men by securing
legislative change.
● In USA it began with the Seneca falls Convention (1’4’) organized by Elizabeth Caddy
Stanton. It was the first woman's rights convention. The declaration of sentiments of
Seneca falls demanded;
○ Right to vote (also called Suffrage)
○ Right to own land
○He has made her, if married, in the eye of the law, properly dead.
○He has compelled her to submit to laws, in the formation of which she had no voice.
○ Right to education
○ Right to employment

III. WHAT ARE THE THREE STRANDS OF FIRST WAVE FEMINISM?

● The tradition of ‘equal rights’ feminism.
● ‘Evangelical’ feminism developed from religious evangelical movements.
Aimed to protect and morally reform those less fortunate people, such as
working class women, ‘fallen’ women, children and the poor.
● ‘Socialist feminism’. It was concerned with social and legal reform. It
questioned current forms of marriage and the family and advocated the
collectivization of child care and housework.
By the early twentieth century, the question of the suffrage was the most
important part of it.
IV. PROGRESSION OF FEMINIST THOUGHT:

● 1’40’s Feminist ideas were spread among the middle class

● 1’50’s It became an organized movement. Began with the Langham Place

group that demanded education rights, employment rights and improved
legal rights for married women.

● Mid - 1’60’s The suffrage movement began

V. SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT:

● Began in 1’60’s

● Early 20th century it was the predominant concern and public

campaigning focused on it. (Overwhelming support from all feminists as
believed to put equality of females on legislative agenda)

● Due to difference in tactics two societies were formed;

○ The National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies formed in 1’97, with

Millicent Fawcett as the President, consisting of mainly well-connected
middle-class women.

○ The Women’s Social and Political Union formed in 1903, by the Pankhurst
sisters. It employed more militant tactics. Resultantly thousands of
suffragettes were imprisoned; many went on hunger strike and were
subjected to force feeding.

● The outbreak of World War One in 1914 ended militant activities of the
suffragettes and diversified over whether to support war or be pacifists.

● The war itself broke down many traditionally held views about women.
Women joined the labour force as replacements for the absent men. So the
end of WWI led to expectations for change in many spheres of life.
● In 191’, the Representation of the People Act allowed the right to vote for
all men over 21 and women over 30 who were householders, or the wives of
householders or had been to university.
VI. WHO ELSE CONTRIBUTED TO THE MOVEMENT?
● The black Rights Movement (1’50 onwards) [The abolitionist movement
was at its peak in USA]
● The progressive era (1’90)
VII. Liberal feminists played an important role by writing articles,
holding conventions etc.
VIII. In 1900 women were given the right to vote in New Zealand and in
1’93 women were given right to vote in Australia.
IX. Affected the US constitution as 19th Amendment in 1920 gave
females the right to vote.
X. NOTABLE FEMINISTS:
1. Alice Paul: She campaigned for the 19th Amendment and introduced
militant tactics to the movement. She was the leader of National Woman’s
Party. Organised 1913 Woman Suffrage Procession. “I always feel the
movement is sort of a mosaic. Each of us puts in one little stone and in the
end you will get a giant mosaic”
2. Francis Harper: She was an African American Abolitionist and suffragist.
She campaigned for sexual and racial equality as well as the federal
government’s responsibility to protect rights, regulate morality and promote
social welfare. “No race can afford to neglect the enlightenment of it’s
mothers”
II. SECOND WAVE OF FEMINISM
I. It began in the late 1960’s. This is when the concept of waves of feminism
was introduced. As Mary Evans reflects, ‘if every generation has to re-invent
the wheel – or tends to believe that it has just invented the wheel – so
feminism in the West in the 1960s and 1970s took some time before it
recognized its history and the longevity of the struggle that it represented’
II. They lobbied for liberation from oppressive patriarchal society. As suffrage
did not lead to equality, the focus of second wave feminists was on the
representation of the female body, the meanings attached to it and the
biological difference between it and the male body Gender differences are
socially constructed so ideological opposition of women needs to be focused
on.
III. NOTABLE ADVOCATES AND THEIR WORKS:
A. Simone de Beauvoir:
The Second Sex is a 1949 book written by de Beauvoir. has two major
premises. Here are two important components of this book.
First, that man, considering himself as the essential being, or subject, has
treated women as the unessential being, or object.
The second is that much of woman’s psychological self is socially
constructed, with very few physiologically rooted feminine qualities or values.
De Beauvoir denies the existence of a feminine temperament or nature—to
her, all notions of femininity are artificial concepts
B. Betty Friedan:
She wrote ‘The Feminine Mystique’ published in 1963 according to which an
idealized image of domestic womanhood, which is the feminine mystique,
had created an identity crisis among American women. It was reinforced by
media, education and academic theories.
“The Feminine Mystique has succeeded in burying millions of American
women alive”
IV. Major works focused on how cultural and social marginalization of women
has been occurring throughout history. It also focused on enormous social
change making the existing social structures absurd due to their inherent
patriarchy. How the social change will take place was a bone of contention
and so it divided the feminists in to Marxists, liberal and radical feminists.
V. Major supporters were from the New Left and civil rights political
movement and they tried to raise consciousness through demonstrations
and direct actions making their movement more dominant in the public. They
raise issues of social and economic injustice such as the glass ceiling, wage
gap and commercialization of female bodies. It allied itself with the anti-
Vietnam war movement as well.
VI. Allowed the inclusion of LGBT groups as well as women of color and
working class women.
VII. OBJECTIVES:
A. Sexual Freedom (Reproductive rights and right to abortion)
B. Intersexualization (Legalizing and ensuring rights to LGBT community and
safety and equal opportunity to them)
C. Equality (Overcome gender based discrimination)
D. Empowerment of women
E. Integration of women into the workforce
F. Equal funding to women from banks.
VIII. IMPACTS:
A. Led to a mass realization of gender inequality. First World Conference on
Women held by UNO in Mexico City in 1975.
B. Global network of feminist ideology and feminists emerged after the
conference which was spread through the phenomenon of globalization.
C. First accredited Women’s Studies course was introduced in 1969 at
Cornell and in 1990’s the subject was widened to “Gender Studies”.
D. Led to campaigning for female rights in international forums.
III. THIRD WAVE OF FEMINISM
A. It is the feminism of a younger generation of women who acknowledge
the legacy of the second wave of feminism. However, it also identifies its
limitations such as the fact that it remained too white and middle class
oriented and that it made ordinary women feel guilty for enjoying self-
expression. They also believe that the conditions of second wave feminism
no longer exist so it does not resonate with today’s women. They are mainly
young and university educated women who are skeptical of the concepts of
sisterhood and identity.
B. It emerged in mid 1990s. Some adherents were actual daughters of the
second wavers. The Third Wave Foundation which supports “groups and
individuals working towards gender, racial, economic, and social justice”;
was founded by Rebecca Walker, along with others, who was the daughter
of Alice Walker. The term Third wave is also accredited to her when she
published her article “I am the Third Wave” in 1992.
C. “Feminism aims to end domination, to free us to be who we are- to live
lives where we love justice, where we can live in peace. Feminism is for
everybody.”-Alice Walker
D. This wave focuses on queer and non-white women. It believes that all
ideas and concepts are socially constructed including masculism and that
everyone should be treated equally. Culture is an important factor as well
and productions such as Vagina Monologues help change the course of
feminism. Race is also a social construction.
E. Riot girl was thought by some to be the beginning of third-wave feminism.
This was a movement based on hard core punk rock that talked about issues
like rape, patriarchy, sexuality, women empowerment, and other feminist
issues.
F. Third-wave feminists such as Elle Green often focus on "micro-politics",
and challenge the second wave's paradigm as to what is, or is not, good for
women.
G. Proponents of third-wave feminism claim that it allows women to define
feminism for themselves by incorporating their own identities into the belief
system of what feminism is and what it can become through one's own
perspective.
H. Reclaim derogatory terms such as bitch, spinster, slut etc. Bitch was
reclaimed in the 1999 book Bitch: In Praise of Difficult Women by Elizabeth
Wurtzel.
I. The utility of the reclamation strategy has been a hot topic among third-
wave feminists with the introduction of SlutWalks. The first SlutWalk took
place in Toronto on April 3, 2011 in response to Toronto police officer
Michael Sanguinetti's statement that "women should avoid dressing like sluts
in order not to be victimized." The belief is that if victimized women are sluts,
then all women must be sluts as well, since anyone can be victimized
regardless of what they are wearing.
IV. UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCES ON WOMEN
T he United Nations has organized four world conferences on women. These
took place in Mexico City in 1975, Copenhagen in 19’0, Nairobi in 19’5 and
Beijing in 1995, which was followed by a series of five-year reviews. 1975-
19’5 was termed as the women decade.
The 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing marked a
significant turning point for the global agenda for gender equality. The Beijing
Declaration and the Platform for Action, adopted unanimously by 1’9
countries, is an agenda for women’s empowerment and considered the key
global policy document on gender equality. It sets strategic objectives and
actions for the advancement of women and the achievement of gender
equality in 12 critical areas of concern:

● Women and poverty

● Education and training of women
● Women and health
● Violence against women
● Women and armed conflict
● Women and the economy
● Women in power and decision-making
● Institutional mechanism for the advancement of women
● Human rights of women
● Women and the media
● Women and the environment
● The girl-child
The Beijing conference built on political agreements reached at the three
previous global conferences on women, and consolidated five decades of
legal advances aimed at securing the equality of women with men in law and
in practice. More than 17,000 participants attended, including 6,000
government delegates at the negotiations, along with more than 4,000
accredited NGO representatives, a host of international civil servants and
around 4,000 media representatives. A parallel NGO Forum held in Huairou
near Beijing also drew some 30,000 participants.
V. FEMINIST MOVEMENTS IN PAKISTAN
1. MODERN ISLAMIC FEMINISTS IN PAKISTAN:
They seek to further women’s rights by redefining Islamic values and
focusing on female centric laws. This school of thought appeals to the upper
and lower middle classes which consider religion as the key to their answers.
They re-interpret Islamic injunctions as they believe they are taken out of
context.
a) Riffat Hussain
b) Amina Badood
c) Asma Barlas
2. Secular Feminists:

Feminism is an extension of basic Human Rights so they are not concerned

with religious connotations.
a) Fauzia Saeed
b) Shehnaz Roz
Timeline of feminist Movements in Pakistan
COLONIAL RULE:
Between the years 1’’6 to 1917, ideas regarding women’s roles and status in
society were transformed among Muslim communities in India. the first
women’s organization was born due to the efforts of Sir Muhammad Shafi.
In 190’, the Anjuman-e-Khawateen-e-Islam was founded in Lahore for the
promotion of the rights of women in Islam.
RISE OF ANTI-COLONIALISM :
In 1915, the first All-India Muslim Ladies conference was attended by a few
select women from among the elite. In the First Roundtable Conference in
1930-31 a memorandum was presented by Jahanara Shahnawaz,
demanding rights for all, irrespective of religion, caste, creed or sex . The
Government of India Act of 1935 enfranchised six million women and, for the
first time, reserved seats for women were allocated.
INDEPENDENCE:
The first legislature of Pakistan had two women representatives, Jahanara
Shahnawaz and Shaista Ikramullah.
The Prime Minister’s wife, Ra’ana Liaquat Ali, was the most outstanding
woman who formed a large number of women’s organizations and attended
to many different areas that affect women, especially welfare and legal
reform. In 194’, she started the Women’s Voluntary Service (WVS) and in
1949 with their guidance in Karachi the All-Pakistan Women’s Association
(APWA)
FIELD MARSHALL AYUB KHAN:
In 1961 The Muslim Family Laws Ordinance (MFLO) was passed. It gave
women a few rights with regard to marriage, the custody of children, divorce
and registration of marriages and divorces. It was passed as a result of
APWA’s efforts
ZULFIKAR ALI BHUTTO:
The 1973 Constitution gave more rights to women than in the past.
● Article 25 of rights declared that every citizen was equal before law.
● Article 25 (2) said there would be no discrimination based on sex alone.
● Article 27 of fundamental stated that there would be no discrimination on
the basis of race, religion, caste or sex for appointment in the service of
Pakistan.
● Article 32 of the Basic Principles of State Policy guaranteed reservation of
seats for women,
● Article 35 stipulated that the state shall protect marriage, family and mother
and child
The PPP set up a Women’s Wing under Nusrat Bhutto. 5% seats for women
in PA and 10% in NA.
ZIA-UL-HAQ:
Hudood Ordinance led to activism by women. In 19’1, a group of women met
in Shirkat Gah Karachi and formed the Women Action Forum (WAF). In 19’2
launched the Dopatta jalao movement in Lahore.
In 19’2 the Fehmida and Allah Bux case, filed under the Zina Ordinance (one
of the five Hudood Ordinances) motivated women to protect and preserve
the few rights they had achieved in the two previous decades. In this case
Allah Bux had married Fehmida against the wishes of her family and he was
punished with 100 lashes on the charge of adultery.
The Zina Ordinance of 1979 conflated adultery with rape and erased the
distinction between them. This law made it virtually impossible to prove rape
and, upon failure to prove it, the woman was transformed into the culprit while
the rapist went scot-free.
In 19’3 Pakistan Women Lawyer marched to High Court with WAF members
to protest the Law of Evidence and they were tear gassed and baton
charged. In a short span of time, there were chapters in Lahore, Islamabad
and Peshawar. For the next decade, WAF became the face of the women’s
movement in Pakistan. Kishwar Naheed’s Hum Gunahgar Aurtain (We Sinful
Women) and Fehmida Riaz’s poem Chaadar Aur Chaardivari (the veil and
four walls) became anthems for the movement.
In the 1990s there was a mushroom growth of NGOs working on various
issues. A large number of NGOs on women’s rights were created including
Rozan, Bedari, Aurat Foundation among others
BENAZIR ERA:
During Benazir Bhutto’s two stints in government (19’’-1990 and 1993-1996)
some women-friendly measures were taken such as the setting up of
Women’s Studies Centers in various public sector universities. Furthermore,
the First Women Bank was established.
Separate women’s police stations were set up.
In 1995 Benazir Bhutto represented Pakistan at the Fourth World
Conference on Women in Beijing which led to Pakistan acceding to the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(CEDAW). But she was hampered from bringing about meaningful change
by the patriarchy
MUSHARAFF ERA:
In the local government, female representation was a historic 33% while
17.5% seats were reserved for women in the provincial and national
assemblies.
The National Commission on the Status of Women was constituted as a
statutory body in 2000. In 2002-2003, the Gender Reform Action Plan
(GRAP) proposed a coherent gender reform to enable governments to
implement national and international promises on gender equality.
In 2006, the Women Protection Act was passed and the crime of rape was
taken out of Hadd (maximum) punishment and placed in Taazir in Pakistan’s
Criminal Procedure Code.
Rape would now be investigated in the manner done in other countries and
the conflationbetween rape and adultery would end.
The General, while referring to Mukhtaran Mai’s gang rape case, remarked
that Pakistani women get raped in order to go abroad and get millions of
dollars, this led to widespread criticism.
ZARDARI ERA :
In April 2009, a video of a 17-year-old girl, Chand Bibi, accused of illicit
relations with a neighbor, surfaced in which she was publicly flogged by the
Taliban for allegedly transgressing moral norms devised by them in the name
of religion. She was subsequently forcibly married off to the man who had
entered her house to fix an electrical problem.
In2012, Malala Yousafzai was shot in Swat for claiming her right to
education.
Zardari Introduced Anti-Acid Attacks law and Protection of women from
sexual harassment at the workplace Bill. Sharmeen Obaid Chinoy’s
documentary on Acid victims was animpetus in introducing the law against
Acid Attacks and her documentary “A Girl in the river” on Honor killing helped
close the lacuna in honor killing laws.
World Economic Forum’s report on Global Gender Gap highlighted four key
issues;
● Violence
● Access to Education
● Participation in Politics
● Availability of health facilities.
● Pakistan ranked 143/144 countries.
 CAPITALIST PERSPECTIVE OF GENDER

POSITIVE IMPACTS OF CAPITALISM:

1. Economic Empowerment: Capitalism can create economic
opportunities for women by promoting entrepreneurship and allowing
them to participate in the labor market. Studies have shown that in
capitalist economies, women's workforce participation and access to
income-generating opportunities have increased over time. (Source:
"The Role of Women in Economic Development" by Ester Boserup)

2. Entrepreneurship Opportunities: Capitalism can offer women

opportunities to become entrepreneurs and start their own businesses.
In a study by Leora Klapper and colleagues, they found that women
entrepreneurs have the potential to drive economic growth and
contribute positively to their communities.

3. Technological Advancements: Capitalism's drive for innovation and

competition has led to significant technological advancements that can
benefit women's lives. From improved healthcare services to labor-
saving devices, these advancements can positively impact women's
daily experiences.

4. Global Trade and Labor Mobility: Capitalism's global trade can

create employment opportunities for women in developing countries,
where labor-intensive industries provide jobs for women in sectors
such as textiles and garments. A report by the World Bank indicates
that global supply chains can enhance women's economic prospects.

5. Social Mobility: Capitalism can facilitate social mobility, allowing

women from disadvantaged backgrounds to improve their economic
status through education, skills development, and job opportunities.
Studies have shown that market-oriented economies can offer greater
social mobility, benefiting women seeking to overcome economic
barriers. (Source: "Equality, Education, and Physical Capital: A
 Framework for Understanding Gender Gaps in Earnings" by Francine
D. Blau and Lawrence M. Kahn)

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF CAPITALISM

1. Gender Wage Gap: Numerous studies have shown that women tend
to earn less than men for comparable work. The gender wage gap is a
persistent issue in capitalist societies, where women are often paid
less for performing the same tasks as men. This wage disparity can be
attributed to undervaluation of "feminine" job roles. Women only make
77 cents for every dollar earned by men and almost two-third of
minimum wage earners are women according UN studies.

2. Occupational Segregation: Capitalist economies often exhibit

occupational segregation, where certain industries or professions are
dominated by one gender. For instance, sectors like nursing and
teaching are predominantly female-dominated, while fields like
engineering and technology are male-dominated. This segregation can
limit opportunities for women to access higher-paying and more
influential positions.

3. Unpaid Care Work: Women often bear a disproportionate burden of

unpaid care work, such as caregiving for children, elderly family
members, and household responsibilities. This unpaid labor
contributes significantly to society's well-being and the functioning of
the capitalist economy but is undervalued and not recognized in
monetary terms.

4. Limited Leadership Positions: Women are underrepresented in

leadership and decision-making roles in the corporate world and other
institutions. Renowned studies have shown that there is a "glass
ceiling" effect, where women face barriers to advancing to higher
positions due to discriminatory practices and cultural norms.

5. Precarious Work and Informal Economy: Women are more likely to

be engaged in precarious work arrangements, such as part-time,
temporary, or informal employment, which often lack job security,
 benefits, and social protections. These work arrangements can lead to
financial vulnerability and exploitation.

6. The Superwoman Effect: The superwoman or supermom is

associated with a woman who can juggle traditional role expectations
associated with being a female and the role and expectations of career
advancement and upward social mobility. In her book ‘The Second
Stage’ (19’1), Betty Friedan describes the superwoman expectation as
the double enslavement of women by capitalism since it requires a
sacrifice, either at home or work, to be a superwoman.

7. Girlboss culture and choice feminism: As highlighted by Muskann

Arshad in her article ‘Girlboss, Gaslight, Gatekeep: Feminism in a
Capitalistic World’, the act of ‘girl-bossing’ is inherently capitalist and
drenched in choice feminism. The inherent nature of ‘girl-bossing’
focuses entirely on the individual: the individual often being a
conventionally attractive, heterosexual, middle-class, white
woman. It is very selective in the type of women it encourages. It fails
to address issues like racialised misogyny, class, and sexual identity
in the fight for equality, and so having a white woman in a powerful
position does little to improve gender inequality for all women and
instead cements patriarchal ideology as a pillar of capitalist society.

8. Exploitation of Female Labor: In some industries, women workers

face exploitation and unsafe working conditions. For example, in the
garment and textile industries, women may endure long hours, low
wages, and hazardous environments.

9. Capitalism and sexual exploitation of women: The desire for profit

in capitalist economy is limitless; to an extent, the profit motivation has
indulged them to view women as commodity. The industry like
prostitution and pornography are working under the aegis of capitalist
economy. Fashion industry projects women as an object to extinguish
male bodily attraction.
 World System Theory
Principles of theory:
Wallerstein’s theory has four underlying principles:
1. We now have a global economic system above the level of the nation
state, which should be our level of analysis.
2. The modern world system is organized into core, semi-periphery and
periphery nations.
3. Core nations exploit peripheral nations
4. Countries can be mobile, up or down the power structure in this system
Analyse the global system as a whole
One must look at the world system as a whole, rather than just at individual
countries. Dependency Theory tended to argue that countries are poor
because they used to be exploited by other countries. However, focusing on
countries (or governments/ nation states) is the wrong level of analysis.
Governments today have declined in power, whereas Corporations are more
powerful than ever. Global Corporations, and global capital, transcend
national boundaries, and nation states (even wealthy ones) are relatively
powerless to control them, thus in order to understand why countries are rich
or poor, we should be looking at global economic institutions and
corporations rather than countries.
The Modern World System
Global Economic Institutions form what Wallerstein called a Modern World
System (MWS), and all countries, rich and poor alike are caught up in it.
Wallerstein believed that the MWS is characterised by an international
division of labour consisting of a structured set of relations between three
types of capitalist zone:
 The core, or developed countries control world wages and monopolise
the production of manufactured goods.
 The semi-peripheral zone includes countries like South Africa or
Brazil which resemble the core in terms of their urban centres but also
 have areas of rural poverty which resemble the peripheral countries.
The core contracts work out to these countries.
 Finally, there are the peripheral countries at the bottom, mainly in
Africa, which provide the raw materials such as cash crops to the core
and semi periphery. These are also the emerging markets in which the
core attempts to market their manufactured goods.
Core countries exploit peripheral countries
 Unfair Trade Rules: World trade is not a level playing field – The best
example of this is in Agriculture – Agriculture is Africa’s biggest
economic sector. It has the capacity to produce a lot more food and
export to Europe and America but it can’t because the EU and America
spend billions every year subsidizing their farmers so imported African
products seem more expensive.
 Western Corporations sometimes use their economic power to
negotiate favourable tax deals in the developing world. A good case in
point here is the mining Company Glencore in Zambia – The company
recently arranged a long term contract to mine copper with the
Zambian government – it exports $6 billion a year in copper from
Zambia, but pays only $50m in tax, while as part of the deal the
Zambian government is contractually obliged to pay for all the
electricity costs of mining – a total of $150m a year.
 Land Grabs – These are currently happening all over Africa – Where
a western government or company buys up thousands of hectares of
land in Africa with the intention of planting it with food or biofule crops
for export back to western markets. In such cases the western
companies take advantage of the cheap land and gain much more than
the African nations selling the land in the long term. In some case
studies of land grabs thousands of indigenous peoples are displaced.
Countries can move up or down
Countries can be upwardly or downwardly mobile in the world system. This
is one of the key differences between World System’s Theory and Frank’s
Dependency Theory. Many countries, such as the BRIC nations have moved
up from being peripheral countries to semi-peripheral countries. However,
most countries do not move up and stay peripheral, and the ex-colonial
powers (the wealthy European countries) are very unlikely to slip down the
global order.
Feminist Analysis: This theory emphasizes the social structure of global
inequality. So the inequality that is present on a global level will inevitably be
replicated at a societal level with women being on the periphery and men or
the patriarchal system being at the core. A gender studies analysis of the
world system reveals the manner in which women’s labor is exploited within
a capitalist system controlled by men. Nash (19’’), in an analysis of the
Iranian carpet making industry has shown how carpet making households
led by men were located in a periphery relative to the core regions of the
developed world to which these carpets were exported. Within the household
however, much of the carpet-weaving work was carried out by women while
the men controlled the finances, replicating the core-periphery relationship,
this time within the household, and with a highly gendered aspect to it.
 Dependency Theory in Gender Studies
Definition
Dependency theory refers to the idea that ex-colonial powers retain wealth
at the expense of the impoverished former colonies due to the wide-ranging
effects of colonialism in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Resources are
extracted from the 'peripheral' underdeveloped ex-colonies to the 'core'
wealthy, advanced states.
Dependency theory: global capitalism
This global capitalist structure is organized so that the rich ‘core nations’ like
the USA and the UK are at one end, and the undeveloped or ‘peripheral
nations’ are at the other end. The core exploits the periphery through its
economic and military dominance. This then left the peripheral countries
poverty-stricken in the process. It argued that the developed nations kept the
developing countries in a state of underdevelopment to profit off their
economic weakness.
In poorer countries, raw materials are sold at lower prices, and workers are
forced to work for lower wages than in developed countries with higher living
standards.
Dependency theory: historical exploitation
Under colonialism, powerful nations took control of other territories for their
own benefit. The countries under colonial rule essentially became part of the
'mother country' and were not seen as independent entities. Colonialism is
fundamentally linked to the idea of 'empire building’ or imperialism.
Dependency theory: unequal and dependent relationship
There were several effective political and economic systems across borders
in the pre-colonial period, and economies were mostly based on subsistence
farming. This was all jeopardized through the unequal and dependent
relationships formed with colonizing nations.
 Dependency theory, colonialism and local economies
Colonialism knocked down independent local economies and replaced them
with mono-culture economies which geared themselves to export specific
products to the mother country.
 Dependency theory and Neo-colonialism
The majority of the colonies achieved independence from colonizing
powers by the 1960s. However, European countries continued to view
developing countries as sources of cheap labor and resources.

Principles of dependency theory and neo-colonialism

Terms of trade benefit Western interests
The terms of the trade keep benefiting Western interests and
development. After colonialism, many ex-colonies remained dependent
on their export revenue for basic products, e.g., tea and coffee crops.
These products have low value in raw material form, so they are bought
cheaply but are then processed profitably in the West.
The increasing dominance of transnational corporations
Frank brings attention to the increased dominance of Transnational
Corporations in exploiting labour and resources in developing countries.
As they are globally mobile, these corporations offer lower wages to take
advantage of poor countries and their workforces. Developing countries
often have no choice but to compete in a ‘race to the bottom’, which harms
their development.
Rich countries exploit developing countries
Frank further argues that wealthy countries send financial support to
developing nations in terms of loans with conditions attached, e.g.
opening up their markets to Western companies to continue exploiting
them and making them dependent.
Core Assumptions of Dependency Theory
The central assumptions of the theory include:
(a) Underdevelopment, which is different from un-development, deals with
the active extraction of resources from periphery countries for the benefit
of the core countries
(b) the world is polarized into two: the highly industrialized wealthy core
nations and less industrialized poor peripheries
(c) The periphery countries are poor because they are forcefully
integrated into the international division of labor where they functioned as
producers and suppliers of raw materials or repositories of cheap labor
(d) Resource diversion is maintained through active collaborations of local
elites and dominant states who share common interests
Feminist Perspective of Dependency Theory:
Exploitation of patriarchal values: Dependency theory and Marxist-
Feminists argue that Transnational Corporations exploit patriarchal
values in developing countries instead of promoting real equality.
Women's material subordination is exploited, and they endure worse
conditions due to limited alternatives.
Hazardous jobs for women: From a Dependency perspective, increased
participation in the work force also implies increased hazards for women.
Women’s jobs outside the home tend to be the lowest earning, least
secure, and most dangerous available in the economy, especially in
periods of recession that plague most developing countries.
Ineffective labor laws implementation promote exploitation and
strengthen women dependency: The dearth of labour laws, or
ignorance and lack of enforcement of the labour codes in practice, allow
for the exploitation of women. In Guatemala, women constitute ‘0 percent
of the textile factory sector, and thousands of mostly indigenous women
provide services as domestic servants.
Unfortunately, even the global nature of business does not confer
universal rights for these women. Many U.S.-based companies, such as
Target, The Limited, Wal-Mart, GEAR for Sports, Liz Claiborne, and Lee
Jeans, have contracts with Guatemalan factories and continue to honor
them even if the factories break explicit company policy, such as
physically examining women to determine if they are pregnant and
denying health care to employees.
Women and Dependency:
Women, especially in the Third world are exploited of their resources and
labour. They lack access and control of critical resources. Sustainability
of food and agriculture depend on access and control of land,
infrastructure, technologies, energy sources and other support services.
Their dependency and poverty are a result of the combination of unequal
capitalist relations and unequal power relations in a patriarchal society.
Marxist-feminists argue that both capitalism and patriarchy exploit
women’s’ labour and resources. The modern society is both capitalist and
patriarchal. In the Third world, women lack economic control. They do not
own land, the main resource base, cattle, labour, technology, time and
capital. Their access to these is shaped by gender determined power
relations that exist across a range of institutions. Impoverishing women in
patriarchal societies is a way of disempowering them. Cultural,
patriarchal, religious and capitalist ideologies are used to maintain
women’s subordination, poverty exploitation and dependency. Women
depend on males as bread winners, for finance and technology. For
success of their endeavors, they also depend on religious, cultural and
patriarchal support. Production and technical services are always headed
by males
Crux
Men depend on women for cheap labour, sexuality, household chores,
community work and socialisation of children. Men also benefit from
women s’ services like caring and nursing (Moser, 1993).Women perform
just as men if not more than men in productive roles, community roles and
reproductive roles in both rural and urban areas. Women like Third World
countries were made to be dependent on males materially, for example ,
means of production, productive forces, finance, technology, education,
skills so that their critical contribution to the survival of the men and his
family is invisible.
 Structural Functionalism
Structural functionalists posit that gender roles arise from the need to
establish a division of labor that will help maintain the smooth running of
the family and contribute to the stability of society. So, girls and boys are
taught different approaches to life. Two beliefs: – Women are inferior
outside the home. – Women are more valuable in the home. So it
discourages women from venturing in to the workplace and states that her
domain is the house.
Key points in gender analysis from a structural functionalism approach:
1. Division of Labor: Structural functionalism emphasizes the division
of labor based on gender roles. In many societies, men and women
are assigned specific roles and tasks that are considered functional
for the smooth functioning of the society. For example, men may be
seen as breadwinners and women as caregivers and homemakers.
2. Complementary Roles: According to this approach, gender roles are
seen as complementary to each other, where each gender's
contributions are believed to fulfill different societal needs. For
instance, men's roles in economic production are seen as essential
for providing resources, while women's roles in caregiving are
considered crucial for nurturing and socializing the next generation.
3. Social Stability: Structural functionalism argues that the adherence
to traditional gender roles contributes to social stability and order. By
following established gender norms, individuals are expected to know
their place in society, which helps maintain social cohesion and
reduces conflict.
4. Reproduction of Values: Gender roles are seen as a means of
transmitting and reproducing societal values from one generation to
another. Children learn about gender roles and expectations through
socialization in their families and communities, ensuring that societal
norms persist over time.
5. Social Control: The enforcement of gender roles is believed to
provide a form of social control, as individuals who deviate from these
roles may face social sanctions or disapproval. This control
mechanism helps maintain conformity to societal norms.
 GENDER APPROACHES TO DEVELOPMENT

WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT APPROACH (WID):

The term WID was first used by the Women’s Committee of the Washington,
DC in their efforts to bring the evidence brought by Boserup (in its 1970
documentation of the regressive impact of development on women’s lives)
to the attention of policy makers.
Crux:
It originated as a result of three factors. The first and second waves of
feminism3 and the publication of Ester Boserup’s book “Women’s Role in
Economic Development” in 1970. The book proved how specialised division
of labor along with development led to the neglect of women and the value
of their work especially in developing countries. In 1973, the US congress
implemented a bill, which required the USAID to include women in
development programs. The WID approach helped to ensure, the integration
of women into the workforce and increase their level of productivity in order
to improve their lives. However some have criticized this approach as being
very western. It fails to acknowledge the collective and cultural concerns of
women in the developing world.It fails to understand the dynamics of the
private sphere but focus solely on the public sphere.
Origin
The WID (Women in Development) approach emerged in the 1970s as a
result of the efforts of two distinct groups of women: the UN Commission on
the Status of Women and the US women's movement. While the UN
Commission focused on legal equality and improved access to education for
women, the US women activists advocated for equal employment
opportunities as a means to achieve equal status in society, considering
income and employment crucial factors. These groups converged during the
UN Decade for Women and began advocating for the integration of women
in development programs.
In the First Development Decade (1961-70), there was no specific mention
of women, but in the Second Development Decade (1970), the General
Assembly emphasized the importance of integrating women fully into
development efforts, hinting at a new consciousness. A pivotal moment for
the WID approach was the discovery of Boserup's book in 1974, which
legitimized the need for including women in development policies and
programs.
WID proponents utilized Boserup's findings, challenging the previous
assumption that economic benefits automatically trickled down to women.
This led to the influence of WID women on the policies of organizations like
the United Nations Agency for International Development (USAID). The
Percy Amendment in 1973 mandated gender-sensitive social impact studies
before development projects could proceed, aiming to effectively integrate
women into national economies.
The WID approach gained international attention during the Mexico
Conference in 1975, where the World Plan of Action set the agenda for the
United Nations Decade for Women. WID offices were established worldwide
to address development issues concerning women.

Features of WID
1. Integration of women:
WID approach enhances understanding of women's development needs. It
emphasizes the active integration of women in development for effective
outcomes. Women's exclusion from the market and limited control over
resources are seen as reasons for their subordination. WID proponents
advocate for women's active involvement in development, not just as passive
beneficiaries. WID approach does not bring about structural changes or
focus on women's voices for their development. WID primarily concentrates
on the productive aspects of women's lives.

2. Practical needs
One of the significant features of the WID is the focus on addressing
women’s practical needs through an enhancement of opportunities for paid
work. Various economic projects ensuring credit facilities, jobs etc. were
undertaken. Many welfare-oriented projects providing credit facilities,
technology transfers and jobs were the tools of the WID strategists and
practitioners. Also, WID focused on efforts at enhancing women’s household
management and family planning skills and methods.

3. Improved statistical measures and sex-disaggregated data:

WID called for improving statistical measures of women’s work so that a
better understanding of women’s development needs can be achieved. For
the first time, sex segregated data as made available on women’s work and
development needs under WID approach.

4. Policy Change
They tried to begin changes by encouraging development planners to plan
and rethink policies with keeping women in mind. Many different strands of
WID advocates have been concerned with certain primary objectives,
separately or collectively. Some of these which include: equality before law,
access to education; employment, empowerment and economic
development.

Major WID approaches for WID practitioners

1. Welfare approach
Women were targeted as mothers and wives and it was assumed that
macroeconomic growth will trickle down to have economic benefits for the
poor and economic prosperity of their husbands and fathers will positively
improve the status of women. Such approach consolidated women’s position
as traditional and backward. This approach viewed women as just mothers
and ignored women as economic actors. According to Moser (19’9), the
welfare approach originated in the notion of ‘social welfare’ of the 19th century
European Poor Laws. Thus, women were treated as being incapable of
improving themselves and needed residual welfare assistance.
 2. The efficiency approach
This approach focused on women as largely economic actors and producers
and ignored their reproductive lives. WID concern that programs should be
architecture in a way that integrates women’s participation in productive
sphere. This approach was criticized for focusing on women’s role in
development rather than development’s role for women.
3. The equity approach
This approach was popular among development advocates during the UN
Decade for Women (1976-’5) and advocated for feminist organizing calling
for gender equality. There was UN backing for such organizing for equal
rights and this had reasonable impact on social legislations. This resulted in
affirmation of women’s civil and political rights of women in many countries.
4. The anti-poverty approach
This approach was needed as women’s women only focus for equal rights in
the equity approach was meeting resistance and the interests of women had
to be located within the general direction of development. The focus of this
approach was meeting people’s basic needs. Women’s practical needs were
stressed while strategic needs were sidelined.
5. The empowerment approach
By mid 1990s, mainstream development agencies adopted the key word,
‘empowerment’. This approach was significant in the rise and popularization
of participatory approaches to development planning and intervention. It
called for working with women at grassroots level to exercise their agency in
deciding for their development.

6. Mainstreaming gender equality

Gender mainstreaming became the key term at the Beijing conference where
the participant countries acknowledged that gender equality and woman
empowerment are matters of human rights and social justice. In the context
of mainstream development, this approach claims to combine the strengths
of efficiency and empowerment approach. It calls for the integration of the
concerns and experiences of women and men in all stages of development
The Percy Amendment to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1973: US- first
to establish a policy initiative to reorganized women’s roles in the
development process. The Percy act - required US-to Providing assistance-
to ensure that foreign countries integrate women into national economies-
did a policy change by WID.
The WID policies of international development institutions The World
Bank
The WID approach has heavily influenced the policies of the World Bank.
The World Bank then called for government policy that realized women's
economic potential while being sensitive to the role of culture.
International Labour Office
The International Labour Office (ILO) has stated its commitment to equal
opportunity and treatment of women and men in all its activities, as part of
its mandate.
United Nations Development Fund for Women
UNIFEM has been a major advocate for women within the United Nations
system and throughout the South. UNIFEM provides direct support for
women's projects. and promotes women in the decision-making processes
of mainstream development programs. UNIFEM’s mission is to support
Southern women's efforts to achieve equality and their own economic- and
social-development objectives, and it believes that by doing so, it improves
the quality of life for all
 WID: Summary

Origin Theoretical Focus Contribution Features

base
Followed by the Modernisation To integrate Women’s Grounded in
publication of theory and women in issues modernization
Ester liberal economic became theory which
Boserup’s book feminism. systems visible in the assumed that
Women’s Role through arena of women were
in Economic legal and development not integrated
Development in administrati theory and in the process
1970s. The ve changes. practice. of
term WID was Emphasis development, it
articulated by on sought to work
productive within the
liberal feminists
role of existing social
of the US.
women. structures and
did not
challenge
them. It treated
women as a
homogenous
category.
Focused on
productive lives
and ignored
reproductive
lives of women.
 2. WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT APPROACH (WAD)
CRUX
The women and development (WAD) approach originated back in 1975 in
Mexico City, as it sorts to discuss women’s issues from a neo-Marxist and
dependency theory perspective. Its focus was to “explain the relationship
between women and the process of capitalist development in terms of
material conditions that contribute to their exploitation.” It focuses specifically
on the relation between patriarchy and capitalism and brings women-only
development programs. Some have criticized this approach. They believe
the women-only development projects would struggle, or ultimately fail, due
to their scale, and the marginalized status of these women. Furthermore, the
WAD perspective suffers from a tendency to view women as a class, and
pay little attention to the differences among women. WAD fails to fully
consider the relationships between patriarchy, modes of production, and the
marginalization of women. It also presumes that the position of women
around the world will improve when international conditions become more
equitable.
Nancy Barry, President of Women's World Banking, remarked, "What has
become very clear is that what women need is access, not subsidies. They
need opportunities, not paternalism"
The WAD paradigm stresses the distinctiveness of women's knowledge,
women's work, and women's goals and responsibilities. It argues for
recognition and acknowledgment of the special roles Play in the
development process.
Give credit where credit is due: For example, the WAD perspective gave
rise to a persistent call to recognize that women are the mainstay of
agricultural production in many areas of Africa, although - overlooked and
marginalized in national and donor development plans. This concern was
captured in the slogan "Give credit where credit is due." Campaigns
designed to change policies and place women's issues and concerns on
national and international agendas have been a key area of activity for
people working within this paradigm, both to making mainstream
bureaucracies more responsive to women's needs and to strengthening
bonds among women through active, autonomous local groups and
networks.
Origin:
Emerged from a critique of the modernization theory and the WID approach
in the second half of the 1970s
Theoretical base:
The WAD approach emerged in the late 1970s, drawing some theoretical
basis from dependency theory. It challenges modernization theory, which
considered the exclusion of women from earlier development strategies as
an oversight. Instead, WAD argues that women have always been part of
development processes and not a recent addition due to scholarly insights.
Focus:
Women have always been part of development process-therefore integrating
women in development is a myth. Focuses on relationship between women
and development process
WAD focuses on the relationship between women and development,
highlighting their integral role both within and outside the household. It views
women's integration into societies as a means to sustain existing
international structures of inequality. However, it lacks systematic analysis
of gender relations within classes and cross-gender alliances.
1. Emphasis on women’s power
WAD is distinctive in its emphasis on the power of women in society. It
recognizes and appreciates women’s knowledge, goals, work and
responsibilities that they have always contributed to the processes of
development. It points out that women have always been participating in
agriculture and other activities of development but their contribution has
always been overlooked and marginalized in development plans of their
countries.
2. Women-centric approach
Thus WAD approach is centered only on women. It suggests that there be
women-only development projects that project women’s interests and protect
them from patriarchal domination. Such projects are theorized to shield
women from the patriarchal hegemony that exist in the mainstream
development often spearheaded by men in a patriarchal culture.
The Women and Development (WAD) approach centers around the idea of
recognizing women's contributions and giving them credit for their roles and
needs. This approach involves two main strategies to achieve its goal.
3. “Give credit where its due”
Focusing on Changing Development Policies
The first prong of the WAD approach involves designing campaigns to
influence development policies by bringing women's concerns to the
forefront at national and international levels. This includes raising awareness
about women's roles and needs, with the aim of making bureaucracies more
responsive to these issues.
Strengthening Bonds through Autonomous Local Groups
The second prong of the WAD approach focuses on organizing women
through autonomous local groups. This helps to build stronger connections
among women and aims to address the problems encountered when
integrating women into mainstream development projects, which were often
dominated by patriarchal ideology and interests.
4. Predominant in NGO sector
Though not favored and unpopular in power centers of mainstream
development, this approach remains strong in NGO sector as women
continue to organize at the grassroots level. NGOs are playing the role of
building networks among such organizations and between these women and
other significant stakeholders. Now, they are being increasingly recognized
by the governments and their concerns are not being overtly and wholly
ignored. Much of the women’s movements in the Third World have been
taking place within this paradigm where women’s active groups have forced
governments to take notice of their concerns.
5. International Structures of Inequality
The WAD approach, departing from WID, points towards the significance of
international structures of inequality. It sees both women and men as being
left out of global economic structures because of the way wealth is
distributed. It recognizes that even men from relatively poor economic
classes live oppressed lives and are adversely affected by the international
structures of production. However, these issues of gender relations within
classes, cross gender alliances; and divisions within classes are not
systematically and analytically addressed, even within WAD. WAD stresses
that women’s status can’t be improved if international structures remain
inequitable but does not recognize the dominant role of patriarchy and
unequal social relations.
Contribution:
Accepts women as important economic actors in their societies. Women’s
work in the public and private domain is central to the maintenance of their
societal structures. Looks at the nature of integration of women in
development which sustains existing international structures of inequality.
 WAD: Summary
A Origin Theoretical Focus Contribution Criticism
base
Emerged The Women have Accepts women as Fails to analyse the
from a Dependenc always been important relationship between
critique of y Theory part of economic actors in patriarchy, differing
the development their societies. modes of production and
modernizati processes, women’s subordination.
Women’s work in
on theory so integrating
the public as well Discusses a strict
and the WID women in
as private domain analytical focus on the
approach in development
is central to the problems of women
the second is a myth.
maintenance of independent of those of
half of the
Focuses on their societal men since both sexes
1970s.
relationship structures. are seen to be
between disadvantaged with
Looks at the nature
women and oppressive global
of integration of
development structure based on class
women in
processes. and capital.
development which
sustains existing Singular preoccupation
international with women’s productive
structures of role at the expense of the
inequality. reproductive side of
women’s work and lives.
Assumes that once
international structures
become more equitable,
women’s position would
improve.
 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT (GAD):

1. Emergence of GAD/GID:
In response to the Women in Development (WID) approach, the
Gender and/in Development (GAD or GID) perspective emerged in the
late 19’0s. This approach aimed to address the shortcomings of WID
projects in bringing about lasting changes in women's social status.
2. Shifting the Focus:
The Gender and Development (GAD) approach directs attention to the
social, economic, political, and cultural forces that shape the
differential participation, benefits, and control of resources and
activities between men and women. It highlights the importance of
transforming gender relations to enable women's equal participation in
shaping their collective future.
3. Emphasis on Women's Strategic Needs:
GAD sharpens the gender focus of preparatory analysis by
emphasizing women's strategic needs. Despite promoting women's
collective organization for empowerment, the primary target groups are
still women.
4. Frameworks in GAD:
The GAD approach primarily focuses on the gender division of labor
and gender as a power relation embedded in institutions. Two key
frameworks, 'Gender roles' and 'social relations analysis,' are
employed to understand the social construction of identities within
households and expose hierarchical power relations in social
institutions that discriminate against women.
5. The Moser Framework:
Following the GAD approach, the Moser Framework emphasizes the
significance of gender relations. It collects quantitative empirical data
and delves into the reasons and processes leading to access and
control conventions. It includes various steps such as identifying
gender roles, assessing gender needs, disaggregating resource
control and decision-making in households, planning to balance
multiple roles, distinguishing intervention aims, and involving women
and gender-aware organizations in planning.
PRACTICAL GENDER NEEDS (PGN)
Practical gender needs are the needs women identify in their socially
accepted roles in society. PGNs do not challenge, although they arise out of
gender divisions of labor and women’s subordinate position in society. PGNs
are responses to immediate and perceived necessity, identified within a
specific context. They are practical in nature and often concern inadequacies
in living conditions such as water provision, health care and employment.

1. PGN in Productive Roles

The productive roles of women demand her economic contributions to the
family are employment opportunities, wages, and income. The inadequacies
in employment leads to poverty and subsequently to nutritional deficiencies
and anemia. Similarly, land alienation or promotion of technology in
agricultural production often neglect the women’s role in agricultural
production due to the lack of technical skills and moreover due to the division
of labor women’s entry is not easily welcomed in the areas of non-traditional
occupation.
2. PGN in Reproductive Roles
Women are tied up with their reproductive, productive and nurturing roles
and for performing these roles they do not have a conducive atmosphere.
The PGN in reproductive roles include favorable living conditions, the health
care, safe drinking water, nutritional supplement, childcare facilities,
sanitation, nutrition, transport, family planning facilities and fulfilling of other
related needs.
3. PGN in Community Roles:
A woman in their community management roles protects the environment
and enhances the capacity of land and soil. Women as mothers and care
takers protect and preserve the resources in the environment. The move to
alienate by the vested interest destroys the community resources and do not
address the PGNs. Therefore preserving community resources like water,
forest land and other common resources enable to meet the PGN of women
so welfare schemes with farsightedness are important.
Basically the aforesaid needs refer to “human survival needs” these needs
are considered throughout the world as “women’s needs” which has aroused
from the expected roles of women in a particular society. The responsibility
of women to address the PGN often is managing the day to day affairs
including taking care of her family, earning an income for the family and
managing the basic services. The above said deeds of women which are
perceived as their duties, benefit the patriarchy and make it difficult to
challenge the subordinate position of women’s experience.

INDICATORS OF PGN
 Good housing
 Safe drinking water
 Adequate water for domestic and other immediate consumption
 Maintenance of hygiene and sanitation
 Adequate lighting
 Wages
 Child care facilities
 Health care and insurance coverage for women
 Availability of nutritional supplement, food
 Transportation facilities
 Regular Employment
 Electricity
 Fuel for cooking
 Income
STRATEGIC GENDER NEEDS (SGN)
Strategic gender needs are the needs of women identified due to which they
have subordinate position in society. They vary according to particular
contexts, related to gender division of labor, power and control, and may
include issues such as legal rights, domestic violence, equal wages and
women’s control over their bodies. Meeting SGNs assists women to achieve
greater equality and change existing roles, thereby challenging women’s
subordinate position. They are more long term and less visible than practical
gender needs.
SGN in Productive Roles
In productive roles, the SGN are to provide training for women in non-
traditional entrepreneurship. Land in the name of women give her the choice
of decision making and women as agricultural pioneers increase the
agricultural production and evades poverty and hunger.
SGN Reproductive Role
Violence against women mostly takes place in the homes and therefore
women’s access to control over their lives and bodies could be the strategic
gender needs. Though the inequalities have been caused by the gender
discrimination, the attitudinal changes and positive approach on gender
relations can address the SGN of women. On the other hand, state policies
can address to promote SGN.
SGN in Community Role
The SGN needs of women in community roles are the space for collective
organization, freedom of expression, up-gradation of their skills, taking up
leadership roles for managing community resources. When state policies
address SGN in community, bestows the women with the role of leadership
at the community level and thus brings equality in political participation,
gender budgeting, credit for capital assets in the name of women.
The more the women are organized, the chances are more for empowerment
of women and justice in the society. And in long-term the equations for
women’s role in governance will also change positively when space is
created for women’s leadership.
INDICATORS OF SGN
Access to capital investment
 Land rights
 Ownership of assets
 Equality in Wages
 Political equality
 Sharing of domestic labour and child care by men
 Legislations to challenge the abuse of women
 Entry of women in non-traditional occupational sectors
 Reproductive rights
 Control over their bodies
 Equal status of women (constitutional provision)
 Gender Budgeting

EFFECTS OF STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT POLICIES ON WOMEN

Affect Employment Ratio: Women are the soft target for the employer
when it comes to downsizing. SAP leads to decline in business activity due
austerity measures that ultimately ends up in decreasing women
employment ratio in the country.
 GLOBALISATION AND GENDER
Gender Disparities in Education, Employment, and Income
Discrepancies between men and women exist in terms of access to
education, employment patterns, income generation, and political and
economic power. Women's limited educational opportunities and skill
training contribute to their engagement in low-paying, unskilled jobs,
perpetuating salary gaps between men and women. In rural areas, women's
labor often goes unrecognized and unpaid, as it is categorized as farm work
or income-generating activities within the household. This reinforcement of
existing gender relations occurs as women's insertion into the global market
production system fails to challenge the traditional division of labor or gender
relations in society.
ECONOMIC GLOBALISATION
1. Neoliberal Ideals and Transnational Corporations (TNCs):
Economic globalisation is a dimension of globalisation that adheres to
neoliberal ideals, promoting an unregulated capitalist economy focused on
economic efficiency, growth, and technological advancement. Transnational
Corporations (TNCs) from western countries have relocated factories to
developing countries, seeking cheap labor and lower production costs in
industries like textiles and garments, predominantly employing married,
older, and uneducated women.
2. Gendered Employment Effects of Export Processing Zones (EPZs):
Export Processing Zones (EPZs) in developing countries have provided
women with access to the labor market due to cheap adult labor. However,
TNCs have not prioritized the welfare of women within these countries,
leading to an extension of female household roles and reinforcing the sexual
division of labor, disadvantaging women in the labor market.
3. Impact on Women in Agriculture and Fishing:
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and trade liberalization policies have
adversely affected women engaged in farming and fishing in developing
countries. Increased globalization of agricultural trade has made it
challenging for farmers to compete with external markets. Additionally, the
establishment of fish processing factories by TNCs has resulted in women
losing ownership and control over indigenous resources.
4. Women in the Informal Sector:
Women constitute the majority in the informal sector, characterized by low
wages, uncertain employment, and poor working conditions. The informal
economy includes small-scale enterprises such as home-based work and
street vending. Income levels in the informal sector are lower, and the gender
gap in income is higher compared to the formal sector.
5. Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) and Gender Inequalities
Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) in developing countries have led to
reduced public expenditure in health, education, and social services. This
has disproportionately affected women and girls, who bear the burden of
caring for vulnerable family members due to the privatization of social
services.
6. Impact on Women's Rights and Labor Protection
Economic globalization has weakened states' capacity to protect their
citizens, favoring capital over labor. This has made women vulnerable to
trade liberalization and informalization trends. Lack of international solidarity
and inadequate economic and labor policies further exacerbate the poor
working conditions of women, especially in the informal sector, against
foreign-owned businesses.
POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION:
I. Political Globalization and Transnational Feminist Networks
Political Globalization involves a shift in power from nation-states to global
governance institutions, resulting in the rise of transnational feminist
networks exercising political influence both from above and below.
II. Transnational Feminist Networks' Advocacy
Transnational feminist networks have been active in advancing women's
rights by lobbying and advocating within global governance institutions such
as the EU, UN, ASEAN, and SADC, leading to the transformation of regional
and national policies through interactive processes.
III. International Organizations and Gender Equality
International organizations play a crucial role in promoting gender equality
by extending national functions to facilitate international agreements on
gender norms and issues that require global attention.
IV. Challenges in Engaging with International Organizations
Transnational feminist movements face challenges in resisting hegemonic
formations and addressing gender inequalities due to power and hierarchies
within international organizations.
V. Marginalization of Indigenous Women Movements
The use of technical expertise has privileged elite transnational feminists,
marginalizing indigenous women movements in the Global South, despite
their leadership in community activism.
CULTURAL GLOBALISATION
1. De-Territorialisation and Migration Cultural:
Globalization has caused de-territorialisation, encouraging people to seek
better living conditions and opportunities beyond their nation-states.
Women from developing countries are increasingly migrating to
developed countries in search of better economic prospects due to wage
discrimination by transnational corporations (TNCs) in their home
countries.
2. Inequality, Poverty, and Human Trafficking:
Inequality and poverty play a significant role in increasing human
trafficking, as traffickers target vulnerable women with low income and
social deprivation.
3. Lack of Effective International Regulatory Frameworks:
Globalization has led to gender-differentiated consequences due to the
absence of robust international regulatory frameworks protecting the
rights of labor moving across borders.
 GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE (GBV) AGAINST WOMEN

DEFINITION OF GENDER BASED VIOLENCE:

UN General Assembly, defines violence against women as “any act of
gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual
or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts,
coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in
private life.”
KEY FINDINGS:
1. Intimate Partner Violence (IPV):
 On average, 30% of women worldwide have experienced
physical and/or sexual violence by their intimate partner. (World
Health Organization - WHO, 2017)
 In some countries, the percentage of women who have
experienced IPV can be as high as 70%. (WHO, 2017)
2. Sexual Violence:
 Approximately 35% of women worldwide have experienced
some form of sexual violence, either by a non-partner or by their
intimate partner. (WHO, 2013)
3. Human Trafficking:
 Women and girls constitute 71% of all trafficking victims globally.
(United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime - UNODC, 2018)
 Almost 75% of women and girls trafficked are for the purpose of
sexual exploitation. (UNODC, 2018)
4. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM):
 More than 200 million girls and women alive today have
undergone FGM in 30 countries with representative data.
(UNICEF, 2020)
 The prevalence of FGM varies widely across countries, with
some nations reporting rates as high as 87%. (UNICEF, 2020)
5. Honor Killings:
 It is estimated that around 5,000 women and girls are victims of
honor killings worldwide each year. (United Nations, 2020)
6. Rape and Sexual Assault:
  Only 52% of women who experience sexual violence report it or
seek help. (WHO, 2013)
 Out of 87,000 recorded rapes globally in 2017, 66,000 were
perpetrated against women. (UNODC, 2019)

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS FOR WOMEN IN PAKISTAN

Article 8-28: provides rights to women equal to men and restricts any sort
of discrimination based on gender…
Article 263 of the constitution of Pakistan 1973 clearly states words which
suggest masculine gender shall be taken to include females too, this purports
that every right in the constitution is as same for the woman as is of man.
There is not any place of gender bias or discrimination.
Article 4 talks about the rights of individuals that every individual shall be
dealt with in accordance with the law. We can interpret that no one is above
the law. There is not any gender liable to enjoy clandestine favours.
Article 8 maintains there shall be not any law which is inconsistent with
fundamental rights. If there will be any law, custom, or anything that shall be
declared/considered as null and void.
Article 9 states that every person has a right to security which means
irrespective of gender everyone has the right to enjoy life and liberty saved
in accordance with the law.
Article 25A Exclusively asserts equal rights on citizens. This helps us to
understand there is not any place of discrimination in our constitution.
Article 26 condemns discrimination with respect to access to any public
place on the ground of race, religion, sex etc.
Article 27 guarantees safeguard against discrimination in services. We can
also imply that people on merit shall hold positions instead of gender
inclination.
PRINCIPLES OF POLICY AND GENDER
Article 34 suggests full participation of women in national life which means
no one can stop to do them so.
Article 37 emphasizes the promotion of social justice and the eradication of
social evils. Having said that, Discrimination or gender bias leads to society
towards social evil.
TYPES OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE (EU CONVENTION):
Basic category of violence
1- Domestic Violence
2- Sexual Harrasment
The Council of Europe Istanbul Convention mentions the following types of
violence:
 Psychological Violence
 Stalking
 Physical Violence
 Forced Marriages
 Sexual Violence, Including Rape
 Female Genital Mutilation
 Forced Abortion and Forced Sterilisation
 Sexual Harassment
 Unacceptable Justifications For Crimes, Including Crimes Committed
In The Name Of So-Called Honor.

Using these as a basis, we shall distinguish five inter-related types of

violence:
 Physical Violence
 Verbal Violence (Including Hate Speech)
 Psychological Violence
 Sexual Violence
 Socio-Economic Violence.
 GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE IN PAKISTAN:
According to a Reuters survey, Pakistan ranked as the “sixth most
dangerous and fourth worst in terms of economic resources and
discrimination as well as the risks women face from cultural, religious and
traditional practices” in the world for women.
In 2021, 26,134 cases of violence against women, 19,271 of kidnapping of
women, 4,660 of rape, and 822 of domestic violence were reported only in
Punjab, Sindh and Islamabad.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN FAMILY
1. Domestic Violence in Pakistan
The Domestic Violence Act promulgated in 2012 in Pakistan defined
domestic violence as “all acts of gender based or other physical or
psychological abuse committed by a respondent against women, children,
or other vulnerable persons, with whom the respondent is or has been in a
domestic relationship”.
A research study done by an organization named Aware Girls explored the
public attitudes on domestic violence. It shows that majority of the
respondents (i.e. 52.17%) hold the perception that husband can beat his wife
if she disobeys. Another 26.09% respondents were agree with the opinion
that husband can beat his wife if she do not take care of him, and 21.4% of
the remaining respondents agree that husband can beat wife if she goes out
of home without his permission (Aware Girls, 2014).
2. Incest
The definition of this term available in dictionary refers to sex between people
who are very closely related to each other (e.g. brother and sister, or father
and daughter). It refers to sexual intercourse between people closely related
to each other and they are socially, religiously and legally forbidden to marry
or to have such a sexual relationship.
According to estimates from the United Nations, about 36 percent of girls
and 29 percent of boys in Pakistan have suffered child sexual abuse.
VIOLENCE THROUGH THE INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE
1. Endogamous Marriage
Endogamous Marriage is also known as consanguineous marriage or cousin
marriage. It is a common practice of marrying girls and boys within their own
ethnic, racial and caste based social group or biradri. According to Pakistan
Demographic and Health survey of 1990-1991 that approximately 60% of
marriages were consanguineous unions.
2. Forced Marriages
Forced marriage is defined as a “marriage without the valid consent of both
parties and where coercion or force is involved.” It is a form of violence
effecting women in Pakistani society. There is a variety of forced marriages
culturally practiced in Pakistan. The element of culture plays an important
role in persisting legitimization of these types of marriages in broader society.
More than 97% marriages in ex-fata are forced one.
3. Watta Satta: The Exchange Marriage
Watta Satta is an exchange marriage. It refers to “exchange of women in
marriage between two families”. It is a common practice of exchanging
women in marriage between families. It serves as a common practice to
maintain the ethnic, racial or caste based identity and culture of a group
through endogamous marriage. The practice is widespread in one of the
federally administered northern areas at 17.5 percent, followed by Punjab at
13.5 percent, Baluchistan at 12.5 percent.
4. Badl-e-Sulha, Swara, Wanni, Sung Chatti
The custom of Badla-e-sulha—a form of forced marriage—is recognised by
several names i.e. Wanni or Vani, Swara, and Sung Chatti depending on
where you are situated in the country. These types of marriages involve girls
being given as compensation to aggrieved parties as reparation for crimes
committed by their male relatives. The crimes can include murder,
kidnapping, fornication or adultery, and even the settlement of debts.
UNICEF estimates that one in five girls are married before the age of 18
while UNFPA believes that number stands as one in three in Pakistan.
 5. Bride Price or Sarpaisa
Bride price or sarpaisa, the groom (alone or with his family) pays
consideration to the bride’s family in any form such as livestock, money,
commodities, or other valuables. This wedding payment is not paid to the
bride but to her parents or family in exchange for the future labour inputs of
their daughter and her unborn children. Sarpaisa is considered a form of
trafficking and objectifies the bride through economic value, devoid of
emotions or feelings. The troubling aspect of this custom is that the bride can
actually be sold and resold for a higher price.
6. Ghag
The Pashto word, also written as ghagh or ghak, roughly means a call,
proclamation or announcement, either by words spoken or written or by
visible representation or by other means, made by a male member of the
community to invoke a marriage claim on young girls and women.[3] This is
usually done by open firing with a gun in the air but can also be done via
messengers.
The KP Provincial Assembly unanimously enacted the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Elimination of Custom of Ghag Act 2013 (Ghag Act) to criminalize the
custom.
7. Marriage with Quran
Another form of forced marriage is “Marriage with Quran”. It is also known
as Haq Bakshwan. In this evil social practice, the victim women are passed
through a ritual of getting married to Quran, the holy book, and considered
married to it for rest of their life, withdrawing their right to getting married to
a man. There is no religious or legal background supporting this practicing
of women’s marriage with Quran. But still it is considered a solemn and holy
customary practice rarely being practiced in feudal families. The main reason
or motif behind this practice is considered as to keep the family property
intact that may have a chance to be given off as share of the concerned
female family member in case of her marriage to a man.
8. Dowry
Besides force marriages, the most common custom or tradition of dowry is
also a source of trouble for women and girls and their parents. In Urdu
language it is called Jehez. Dowry is defined as the “[p]roperty or money
brought by a bride to her husband”. What items or assets Dowry involves a
payment, in goods or money, given by a bride’s family to the groom or his
family.
9. Marital Rape
Marital rape refers to a forced sexual intercourse in a married couple without
consent of victim. There is sufficient evidence available that marital rape
exists in Pakistani society. It has been used as a tactic to establish
hegemonic power and control over one of two person related in marriage by
the other one.
Women are mostly the victims of this violation. It may cause negative mental
and physical effects on the concerned woman. Besides this mental and
physical torture, she also suffers from inability to express to or make
understand of this dismal condition to anyone within family or society.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN PUBLIC AND WORKPLACE
1. SEXUAL HARASSMENT OF WOMEN IN PAKISTAN
unwanted sexual attention, requests for sexual favors or unwanted verbal,
non-verbal or physical behavior of sexual nature”. The main features which
make an act sexual harassment include:
1) The act must be unwelcome or unwanted
2) The reasonable response to these acts should arise that the victim felt
harassed, offended, humiliated, and/or intimidated.
Therefore, accordingly it does not include sexual interactions, flirtation,
attraction or friendship which is invited, mutual, consensual, and/or
reciprocated (Australian Human Rights Commission)
Social Policy and Development Centre (2014) in its report on sexual
harassment in public transport in Karachi has showed that the
phenomenon prevails widely on the streets of Karachi. It is reported that
49% students, 48% of working women, and 28% of homemakers have
reported to experienced harassment sometimes.
 2. GIRL CHILD ABUSE
Unwanted and inappropriate sexual solicitation of or indecent exposure to a
child by an older person; genital touching or fondling; or penetration in terms
of oral, anal or vaginal intercourse or attempted intercourse. It causes
psychological problems such as poor self-esteem, personality disorder,
behavioral problems, depression and anxiety.
HARMFUL SOCIAL AND CULTURAL PRACTICES IN PAKISTAN
1. Honour Killing: Karo Kari
The practice of killing men or women or both in the name of honour is often
known as Karo Kari in Sindh, Siyah kari in Baluchistan, Kala Kali in Southern
Punjab and Tor Tora in Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa. Women are rarely found
involved in committing honor killings as perpetrators. It is considered that
some women by violating the limits on their mobility and social contacts with
opposite gender has potentially or allegedly involved in disapproved sexual
activity, thus, have damaged the honor of their family men. According to
Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, 1000 women are killed every year
on the name of honor killing.
2. Jirga, Panchayat, Faislo: Informal Decision Making Councils
There are traditional and customary informal arrangements of settlement of
disputes without taking the matter to state’s established legal institutions. For
instance, the informal traditional and cultural courts or legal systems popular
in Pakhtoon and Baluch communities, mostly living in Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa
and Baluchistan provinces, are called “Jirga”. The similar village level
institutions established in the province of Punjab for informal settlements of
disputes are called “Panchayat”. The Sindh province has the prevalent
institution of “Faislo” for settling such disputes at local level among local
communities.
At neighborhood level a cahngo murs or respectable person can be the
heads of such institution, at the level of peasants the landlord is the decision
maker, at the level of tribes the Sardars are the patrons.. Women are not
only absent from the decision making heads but also from the audience of
these institutions observing and listening to the proceedings of these
institutions. Due to absence of women in decision making council, often it
results in the discriminatory and inhuman behaviours with and treatments of
women in both the offender’s and victim’s families. These informal justice
systems foster several socio-cultural practices that are harmful for women
such as Vani, Swara, Karo Kari, Peit likhi, etc. It has commonly been
observed that these local tribal councils legitimize the exchange of women
as property or commodity to settle the dispute among two parties. In this way,
it reinforces and preserves the patriarchal core of considering women as
subordinate to and property of men to be utilized for his interest. In frequent
occurrences, the jirga decisions allow the parties to give and receive their
respective women as the compensation from the offender men or family to
the victim men or family. There is no age limit for the women to be used to
settle matters in such a way. Not only the women ranging from the young girl
child to the old aged ones, but the unborn girls are also being promised to
be given in exchange before their birth as Peit Likhi. In such cases, these
tribal councils seem to be a war among men raged on the bodies of their
women.
ACID VIOLENCE
Acid Survivors Trust International (2016) on its website defined the acid
violence in following word: “Acid violence is the deliberate use of acid to
attack another human being. The victims of acid violence are usually women
and children, and attackers often target the head and face in order to maim,
disfigure and blind.”
According to Acid Survivors Foundation (ASF), between 2007 and 2018
there were 1485 reported cases of acid attacks in Pakistan.
Social Causes of Violence Against Women
1. Patriarchy
Patriarchal society with its distinct feature of men’s domination over women
allows establishing and maintaining such a control by every man over at least
some of the women. Different forms of abuse and majority of violent acts
against women are very effectively condoned in such patriarchal society.
2. Women’s lower socio-economic status
Pakistani women in the family are supposed to do long working hours for
domestic chores, having to work in fields and family businesses, eat less and
later than men in family, having no control on economic resources such as
money and property. They look after, feed, and milk the livestock but do not
have any control on their sale and purchase or the money earned from selling
milk and other dairy goods. Pakistani women are less educated as compared
to men. They are less represented in the paid work outside home. Their
participation in the fields of modern technology and knowledge are curtailed
due to lack of education among them and their compulsory and young marital
life that demands most of their time in bearing and rearing children inside
home. This situation also led to their less participation in and male
domination of all the social and political institution of the country.
3. Segregation in home and lack of mobility
Pakistani society is dichotomously divided into public and private sphere.
Public sphere with most of the social and economic resources lying there
has been assigned to men. Social opportunities of education, employment,
social networking, and exposure to practical life outside home are necessary
social capital for human development. But Pakistani women are mostly
spending their life in the private sphere of home. They rarely access the
public sphere where these opportunities are lying. Their only way to access
the public sphere is through their family men.
4. Lack of education and awareness
The lack of education and awareness among Pakistani women is also an
important factor that severely affects the long persisting forms of violence
against them in broader society. Majority of women in Pakistan, especially
those residing in rural areas, are least aware about their rights and legal
provisions to safeguard their rights in society. Uneducated women are not
aware of the legal procedures and the institutions to be contacted for support
and justice.
5. Low economic control
Pakistani women lack control on the personal and family related economic
resources. They, especially rural women, do not have decision making
power and say in controlling and utilizing the economic resources like
income, money, property, livestock, etc. Rural and urban women are working
as unpaid workers in the family agricultural fields and family business. The
money earned from these economic activities is mostly remained controlled
by men. Therefore, they are unable to utilize these resources for their benefit,
protection and access to justice in case of violence and crime against them.
CULTURAL CAUSES OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
1. Tribal and feudal culture
Their ruling status is defined through traditional, unwritten and informal
norms, laws and decision making procedures. The feudal and tribal system
of society runs on the basis of alliance between dominant and powerful men.
The powerful status of men is defined on the basis of their landholding,
control on how many men and women, and the ability to expend influence
and networks to how large geographical area, families, castes and biradri
ties. In this system women and children are considered, not only as
subordinate, but also as resource, property and commodity whose rights are
reserved to some male patriarch. Their weak position makes them fall prey
to violations and crime.
2. Socio-cultural practices
Male dominated society generates, fosters and preserves the values and
practices that are beneficial to them, even if they are not favourable to any
women in the society. Vani, swara, honour killing, etc. are to name a few.
Several such socio cultural practices prevailing in Pakistani society are
harmful for women and victimizing them. Although, now people have started
realizing them as anti-women practices but still these practices are largely
being exercised.
POLITICAL CAUSES OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
1. Women’s less representation in political institutions
Women’s absence from political system can be best observed in the gender
composition of parliament and assemblies. Pakistani women remained either
absent or marginally represented in formal political institutions. Pakistan has
witnessed a long period of women’s marginal representation in political
forums.
LEGAL CAUSES OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
1. Insufficient laws
As the results of the survey conducted on educated people’s perception
regarding the causes of crime and violence against women show that
majority of the respondents (i.e. 71.7%) consider that Pakistani laws are not
sufficient to abolish anti-women social attitudes and inequalities producing
violence against women. Pakistani law and law enforcing agencies lack
seriousness for women issues.
2. Gender insensitive laws
The existing laws and the law enforcing institutions lack the gender
sensitivity. There are several laws which give unequal worth to women and
men. The law of evidence assigns unequal worth to the evidence of women
and men in financial matters. Similarly, law of inheritance allows unequal
share to men and women in inheritance. The results of a survey conducted
by author show that 65.1% respondents are in agreement that Pakistani law
promotes gender inequality.
The difficult evidentiary requirements in the case of rape, most of the women
suffer in past by getting accused of adultery when they couldn’t present male
evidences to prove allegation of rape done against them.
3. Attitude of law enforcing agencies
The culturally unfavourable practices, social stigmas, attitudes and inequities
producing violence against women are also firmly rooted in Pakistani social
institutions. Women victims avoid reporting these crimes due to social
stigmas, shame, and fear of causing bad reputation for the family. Women
suffer the unfavourable attitudes, harassment, violence, and exploitation in
custody. The investigation of reported cases of violence against women is
further compounded by the inefficacy of the justice system in prosecuting
and punishing the criminals. The delay, long processes, and huge money
required to acquire justice from the legal courts in Pakistan is disappointing
for common people and curtailing their chances of consulting these
institutions to find justice for the crimes committed to them if necessary than
prefer to go to traditional settlements through jirgas.
STRUCTURAL AND DIRECT FORMS OF VIOLENCE
 Direct violence against women includes physical, sexual,
psychological, and economic violence. Direct violence against women
must be understood through the lens of unequal power relations
between women and men.
 Indirect violence can be understood as a type of structural violence,
characterized by norms, attitudes and stereotypes around gender in
general and violence against women in particular. Indirect violence
operates within a larger societal context; institutions, and the
individuals within and outside these institutions, are all engaged in the
production and reproduction of attitudes which normalise violence
against women (United Nations 1992).
STRATEGIES TO ELIMINATE VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
 Restriction on use of alcohol:
There should be prohibition of alcohol use in mass gatherings in
institutions, public places like trains and buses. The number of alcohol
outlets should be decreased. The age for purchasing alcohol may be
raised to 30 years. Special checks on festive occasions are
recommended with the help of breath analyzers. Involuntary treatment of
persons with alcohol dependence should be carried out.
 Control on media:
Sexual material should be censored. Good themes, which condemn
violence and glorify rehabilitation of the victim, should be projected. Ban
on pornography should be strictly implemented. The sites may be
blocked.
 Marriages:
Marriage of boys and girls should preferably be in early 20s, as soon as
possible, so that sexual needs could be satisfied in a socially
appropriate manner.
 Strengthening the institution of marriage:
Strong marital bond would act as a deterrent.
 Law enforcement:
Efficient and accountable law enforcement machinery at all levels
(administration, government, police and judiciary) is needed. ○ Code of
conduct: Code of conduct at work place, school and home, with respect
to interaction with persons of opposite sex should be outlined and
implemented.
 Gender sensitization:
Gender sensitization by parents and teachers is needed regarding the
sensitivities and boundaries of man-woman relationships.
 Education and employment:
Improvement in quality of education and employment opportunities for
youth.
 Recreation and talent:
Recreational avenues and opportunities for talent development in young
people.
 Moral and religious values:
Parents and teachers should strive to infuse good moral and religious
values in children and serve as role models
 STATUS OF WOMEN HEALTH IN PAKISTAN

WOMEN’S HEALTH CONDITIONS IN PAKISTAN

1. Fertility Rate among Pakistani Women
The term fertility refers to the ability to produce new offsprings. Fertility rate
is expressed as number of births per 1000 women. The statistics presented
in a report World Bank 2020 show that the total fertility rate per women is
3.5 children per women. The fertility rates are higher among rural women
as compared to the urban women in Pakistan. These statistics show that
women with better educational level may help in maintaining a lower level
of fertility rate at national level.
2. Use of Contraceptive among Pakistani Women
The rate of using contraceptive is low among Pakistani women. According
to Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey report 30% women use
contraception. Of these, 26% were using traditional methods and 74% were
using modern methods. The most common method of contraception was
condoms.
3. Women’s Access to Antenatal Care in Pakistan
Maternal health care provided during pregnancy and delivery of child is
also an important factor to influence a woman’s health conditions. It is not
universal in Pakistan to consult with a skilled provider for antenatal care
during pregnancy or child birth. According to Pakistan Demographic and
Health Survey 2012-13, 73% of Pakistani women consulted a skilled health
provider at least once for antenatal care for the most recent birth in last
five-year period
4. Women’s Access to Skilled Health Provider and Health Facility
According to Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2012-13, only 52%
of the total births in Pakistan are delivered by a skilled health provider,
including doctors, nurses, lady health visitor, and mid wife. It means, in
almost half of the cases (i.e. 48%) women found themselves forced to give
births to children without the presence and assistance of any skilled health
provider (i.e. doctor, nurse, midwife or lady health worker). A large number
of women giving birth in the presence of skilled health providers in Pakistan
are actually being attended by Traditional Birth Attendants
Maternal mortality:
Maternal mortality refers to the death of women during childbirth or due to
complications from pregnancy. Pakistan has one of the highest maternal
mortality rates in the world. According to the 2019 World Population Report,
178 women out of every 100,000 die while giving birth.
Depression:
Another health issue faced by women in Pakistan is depression. According
to the Pakistan Association of Mental Health, about 34 percent of women in
Pakistan are affected by depression. One of the most significant risks
associated with depression is suicide. According to the World Health
Organization (WHO), approximately 800,000 people die by suicide every
year, and depression is a significant risk factor for suicide. In Pakistan the
problem is depression in women is often associated with evil energy
making it even worst.
 HOW TO IMPROVE WOMEN HEALTH IN PAKISTAN
1. Engaging Male Community Members: A study published in the
Journal of Health Communication recommends involving male
community members in promoting women's health. Engaging men in
discussions about women's health issues and family planning can
lead to improved understanding and support for women's well-being.
2. Utilizing Mobile Health (mHealth) Technologies: Research in the
Journal of Medical Internet Research suggests using mobile health
technologies to deliver health information and services to women,
especially in remote areas. Mobile apps and SMS-based programs
can provide essential health education and connect women with
healthcare providers.
3. Empowering Women Through Microfinance: An article in the
Journal of Development Studies advocates for microfinance initiatives
targeted at women. Microfinance programs can empower women
economically, enabling them to access better healthcare and make
informed decisions about their health.
4. Introducing Female-Only Healthcare Spaces: A study published in
the Journal of Women's Health Care suggests establishing female-
only healthcare spaces in conservative areas. These spaces can
provide a safe environment for women to seek healthcare without
fear of social stigma.
5. Integrating Traditional and Modern Health Practices: Research in
the Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease emphasizes the
importance of integrating traditional health practices with modern
healthcare approaches. Acknowledging and incorporating traditional
healing methods can enhance women's access to healthcare.
6. Providing Reproductive Health Education in Schools: An article
in the International Journal of Health Sciences proposes incorporating
comprehensive reproductive health education in school curricula.
Educating girls about reproductive health from a young age can
improve their health knowledge and decision-making.
7. Addressing Mental Health Challenges: Research in the Journal of
Public Health suggests focusing on mental health interventions for
 women. Promoting mental health awareness, providing counseling
services, and reducing mental health stigma can improve women's
overall well-being.
8. Implementing Workplace Health Initiatives: An article in the
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
recommends workplace health initiatives that cater to women's
specific needs. This can include access to maternal healthcare,
breastfeeding support, and work-life balance policies.
 STATUS WOMEN EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
Facing the Challenges of Girls’ Education in Pakistan (WORLD BANK)
Challenge 1: 12 million girls out of school
About 2 million more girls than boys are out of school in Pakistan–or about
12 million girls in total—and account for most of the out-of-school population
in Pakistan.

Solutions. One solution includes using available data and targeting specific
programs to specific types of out-of-school children. For example, bringing
back young kids who may have dropped out of primary school is a targeted
intervention for young kids who were in school, but not for teenage children
who may have left the system years ago. Skill programs would be a more
targeted approach for this group.
Another solution is increasing school supply: Punjab has done it
successfully in primary education with public-private partnerships (PPPs).
Expanding PPPs to other levels of education and enhancing regulations can
deliver big returns. Expanding and better managing public schools in rural
areas is another solution, like the SELECT project in the Sindh Province.
Challenge 2: Girls are more likely to have never been to school
In 2018, 26 percent of girls and 19 percent of boys had never been to school,
a 7-percentage point difference.
Solutions. Expanding conditional cash transfers to incentivize parents to
send children to school, with a premium on girls, could be effective to
enhance early enrollment and reduce gender gaps. Enrollment
drives focused on first grades and pre-K enrollment can also be effective

Challenge 3: Girls in poor families are less likely to attend school

Poverty is a major challenge for girls’ education. Girls in poor families are
22 percentage points less likely to attend school than boys. This gender
gap gets narrower with better-off families.

This highlights what families express as the biggest constraint to sending

girls to primary school: the cost of education. Girls in rural areas, who are
more likely to be in poor households, are also less likely to be enrolled than
any other group, including girls in urban areas and boys in both rural and
urban areas. Girls in rural areas are the most disadvantaged group.
Solutions. Pakistan has recently expanded the conditional cash
transfer program to all districts in the country and has had girls’ stipend
programs with positive outcomes. Expanding and consolidating this
financial support to families—differentiating by gender and rural areas—
could help in closing these gaps. These financial conditionalities will only
work if there are enough schools available, which is not the case in many
rural areas of Pakistan.
Challenge 4: Security of girls and women at school
Girls face harassment in school and on the way to school. They face
challenges to their security in public spaces, transportation, and near
schools. Girls express anguish at all types of harassment in these spaces,
the Center for Gender and Policy Studies reports. Given this, parents in
Pakistan either delay girls’ education or prevent them from attending school
altogether. The second most important reason parents give for not sending
girls to school is the distance to schools, which is a factor that exacerbates
parents’ security concerns: the more distant the school, the more risk for
girls.
Solutions. Improving transport services for girls and female teachers, as
has been done in KP Province, and making school safe for students (for
example, building boundary walls in schools).
STATISTICS OF WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN
1. More than 40 percent of girls never enroll in school. “The situation is
especially alarming in rural areas due to social and cultural Obstacle.”

2. In KPK and Baluchistan women are severely bound by cultural

constraints and prejudices. They are involved in productive, reproductive,
and community work for 14-18 hours, in these areas the female literacy
rate stands between 15 percent and 25 percent a day as well as in northern
tribal areas the education of girls is strictly prohibited on religious ground
 Problems of Pakistan’s Women in Education:
There are several issues and causes of education problems for girl children
in Pakistan
1. Problems of Access to Education
Inaccessibility of primary education is a result of distance, child labor, male
preference, scarcity of teachers, local leaders’ fear of losing power, and
frequent policy changes. The problem of access applies to both girls and
boys; however, it is more serious for girls.
2. Problems of Separate Schools
In our society coeducation is not accepted even in primary schools. Family
and parents don’t allow their girls to study in coeducation schools due to
several reasons. The government often failed to take measures to provide
separate schools and classrooms for girls.
3. Child Labour
Children often do not attend school because they are working to support
their families for their survival. Millions of children under the age of 14 are
laborers at brick kiln factories, the carpet weaving industry, agriculture,
small industries, and domestic services across Pakistan.
4. Male Preference
Parents favor the education of their sons over their daughters. Whenever
there is a tradeoff between boys and girls for sending school; parents
prefer to expend on boys’ education as they are the future earning hands of
their families.
Typically, the education of a boy is desirable even for the most
disadvantaged people and those who live beyond the designated settled
areas. However, the education of a girl is not necessarily desirable
because any investment made would not bear fruit for their family since
girls leave to live with the family of their husbands.
5. Fear of Extremists
In Pakistan, particularly the KPK militant group have blasted thousands of
schools, especially girl schools, and thousands of student have lost their
lives during studying. Extremist groups are against -girls and women’s
education, as well as they, have given threats and threatening letters to
several Governments and private girls’ schools for stopping girl education.
Women are not allowed to step out of their houses. If they are allowed to
go out they have to be covered in heavy burqas from head to toe. In short,
women, which are 51 percent of the country’s population, have been forced
to just bear children for their husbands and remain within their houses for
cooking and cleaning.
How Bangladesh improved Women Education:
Bangladesh has taken several practical measures to improve women's
education and promote gender equality in the education sector. Some of
these measures include:
1. Enactment of Laws: Bangladesh has enacted laws and policies that
promote gender equality in education. The National Education Policy
and the National Women's Development Policy address issues related
to women's education and aim to ensure equal access and
opportunities for girls and women in the education system.
2. Girls' Stipend Program: The government of Bangladesh introduced
the Girls' Stipend Program, which provides financial incentives to girls
from economically disadvantaged families to encourage their
enrollment and retention in schools. This program has been successful
in increasing the enrollment and attendance of girls in schools.
3. Female Teacher Recruitment: The government has taken steps to
increase the recruitment of female teachers, especially in rural and
disadvantaged areas. Female teachers can serve as role models for
girls and help create a more inclusive learning environment.
4. Safe Schooling Initiatives: Efforts have been made to create safe
and conducive learning environments for girls. Safe school initiatives
aim to address issues like school-related gender-based violence,
which can deter girls from attending school.
5. School Infrastructure and Facilities: Investment has been made in
improving school infrastructure and facilities, including separate toilets
for girls, safe drinking water, and girl-friendly learning spaces.
6. Flexible Schooling Hours: In some areas, flexible schooling hours
have been introduced to accommodate the needs of girls who may
have household responsibilities or work outside of school.
7. Targeted Interventions: Targeted interventions have been
implemented to address specific challenges faced by girls in education,
such as dropout rates, early marriage, and adolescent pregnancy.
8. Empowerment Programs: Beyond formal education, empowerment
programs have been introduced to provide life skills, vocational
training, and leadership opportunities for girls and women.
9. Monitoring and Evaluation: China regularly monitors and evaluates
the progress made in improving women's education. Data collection
and analysis help identify gaps and challenges, allowing for targeted
interventions and continuous improvement.
10. Women's Education and Employment: China has recognized the
importance of education in improving women's economic
opportunities. Initiatives have been introduced to link education with
employment, encouraging women to participate in the workforce and
seek higher-paying jobs.
11. Mentoring and role model programs: An article in the Journal of
Educational Psychology suggests that mentoring and role model
programs can positively impact women's educational outcomes.
Pairing girls with successful female mentors can inspire and motivate
them to pursue education and overcome challenges.
 WOMEN AND WORK IN PAKISTAN:
1. Women’s Labour Force Participation in Pakistan
Pakistan has one of the lowest rates of female labour force participation in
Asia, says the Asian Development Bank (ADB). The report noted that only
22 percent of women participated in the labour force in Pakistan in 2019
compared to an average of 24 percent in the South Asia region.
2. Gendered Division of Paid And Unpaid Work
A person doing paid work receives the value of his or her labour as money
or in kind. People doing work as garments factory worker, doctor, engineer,
teacher, or in any other profession where they are receiving regular. On the
other hand, un-paid work is the work done by a person without receiving a
wage. The human labour done by a woman to perform domestic chores (e.g.
cooking, cleaning, and child rearing) is the example of un-paid work.
Sometimes, family women also do unpaid work in family agriculture and
business. Overall Pakistan’s situation shows that the number of employed
females is three times less as compare to employed male. It shows that 77%
men as compared to 23% women are employed in overall population of
Pakistan. It is observed that the employment opportunities are higher for
women in rural areas than for women in urban areas.
3. Women’s Segregation in Different Industrial Sectors
Majority of the women employed are working in agriculture, forestry, hunting
and fishing sectors. The gender disaggregated statistics show that 74% of
the employed women as formal workers are segregated in these industrial
sectors in the year 2013-14. The number of men employed in these sectors
is much less than women; as only 34% men are employed in these
industries. The number of men is higher than women in manufacturing,
construction, wholesale and retail trade, transport, storage and
communication, community and social services. The informal sector employs
81% of working women. Even though this contribution accounts for 65 per
cent of the PKR 400 billion (USD 2.8 billion) in the informal economy of
Pakistan, women earn just PKR 3,000-4,000 (USD 15-20) per month and as
a result face multidimensional vulnerabilities.
 4. Women’s Segregation in Occupational Hierarchy
There is a wider gender gap in male and female’s differential participation at
the different levels of occupational hierarchy. Women are marginally
represented in the management group, while they are segregated as the
lowest tier workers in agriculture, fishery and forestry. The data provided by
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics show that only 0.3% (2.5% men) of the
employed women are represented in managerial cadre while 62% of the
employed women are segregated in the agriculture, forestry, and fishery as
lowest tier of workers.
5. Gender Wage Gap
The term wage refers to the monetary compensation paid by an employer to
an employee in exchange of any work done by the later. The gender wage
gap or gender pay gap refers to the difference in the average pay or earning
of men and women for the same work done. The Global Wage Report 2019-
20 by International Labor Organization explains the gender pay gap variation
between men and women between countries and for Pakistan it is 34 per
cent. Pakistani woman’s income is 16.3 per cent of a man’s income.
6. Gender Discrimination, Sticky Floors and Glass Ceiling:
Gender discrimination at workplace refers to an undue, unfair, and unequal
advantage or disadvantage given to an employee on the basis of his or her
gender. Female employees are more discriminated than men in private
sector organizations. Gender discrimination decreases their satisfaction,
motivation, commitment and enthusiasm but increases the stress level
among employees.
Sticky floors, is a term referring to women’s segregation in the lowest tiers of
the occupational hierarchies. They are segregated in the less paid industrial
sectors as informal workers which make them economically weak and
insecure in terms of employment tenure.
The term glass ceiling refers to the idea that women despite having equal
education and skill, as that of men, still face certain invisible, unreachable
and untouchable barriers in reaching to the highest tiers of occupational
hierarchy.
HOW BANGLADESH IMPROVED WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN
WORKFORCE:
1. Promoting Microfinance: Bangladesh is famous for its microfinance
initiatives, such as the Grameen Bank founded by Nobel Laureate
Muhammad Yunus. These microcredit programs target women in rural
areas, providing them with access to financial resources to start their
businesses and create employment opportunities.
2. Vocational Training: The government of Bangladesh, along with
various NGOs and private organizations, has focused on providing
vocational training to women, particularly in non-traditional fields.
These training programs equip women with valuable skills and
knowledge, making them more employable in sectors like construction,
mechanics, and technology.
3. Incentives for Employers: The government has offered incentives to
businesses that employ a certain percentage of female workers,
encouraging them to hire more women and create a more diverse
workforce.
4. Remote Work Opportunities: The rise of the digital economy has
opened up new opportunities for women to work remotely, particularly
in the IT and outsourcing sectors. Bangladesh has been focusing on
nurturing the IT industry, which provides flexible and remote work
options for women.
5. Women-Only Economic Zones: To address safety concerns and
cultural barriers, Bangladesh has established women-only economic
zones. These zones provide a conducive environment for female
entrepreneurs and workers, promoting women's participation in the
labor force.
6. Mobile Banking and Digital Payment Systems: The expansion of
mobile banking and digital payment systems has improved financial
inclusion for women in rural areas. This increased access to financial
services facilitates entrepreneurship and small business growth
among women.
7. Support for Women-Owned Businesses: Bangladesh has provided
financial and technical support to women-owned businesses through
various grants, loans, and mentoring programs.
8. Flexible Working Hours: In an effort to support work-life balance and
facilitate women's participation in the labor force, some companies in
China have introduced flexible working hours and telecommuting
options.
9. Targeted Job Training: The Chinese government has initiated
programs to provide targeted job training for women, particularly in
sectors where they are underrepresented. This training aims to equip
women with relevant skills and qualifications to access higher-paid and
traditionally male-dominated professions.
 WOMEN AND LAW IN PAKISTAN
Legal Status of women in Pakistani Society:
The constitution of Pakistan recognizes the principle of equality of all citizens
and the right to equal protection of the law. It specifically prohibits
discrimination on the basis of gender, and makes provision for measures of
affirmative action by the State. However, the constitution is silent on the
critical issues, such as women’s reproductive rights, as well as rights to
development or the environment, which are equally relevant for women.
Coexistence of multiple legal systems provides different options for settling
contentious issues concerning women’s right and usually least favorable to
women is implemented. Even the application of Muslims laws is uneven for
instance; the lack of protection under statutory law, of women’s religious right
to choose a spouse and the absence of punitive actions for not giving women
their share of inheritance.
Law hindering the women’s development in the society:
1. Zina Ordinance
The law regarding sexual crimes against women heavily favors men. The
Zina ordinance confuses rape with adultery and places female victims of the
former as well as that accused of the latter at particular risk.
 Adultery and Rape Confusion: The Zina Ordinance lumps together
the offenses of adultery and rape, leading to confusion and unjust
treatment of rape victims. If a woman accuses a man of rape, and the
court is unable to prove the rape beyond doubt, the woman can be
charged with adultery and face punishment, including imprisonment or
even death by stoning. This creates a deterrent for rape victims to
report the crime, fearing prosecution for adultery.
 Burden of Proof: The burden of proof for adultery cases is placed on
the woman, making it difficult for women to prove their innocence. The
need to provide four male witnesses to establish the offense of adultery
makes it almost impossible for women to defend themselves against
false accusations.
 2. Evidence Law
The law of Evidence (1984) states that the value of the women’s testimony
should be considered only half of a man’s even in criminal matters.
3. Father as guarantor for child citizenship
The Pakistan Citizenship Act (1951) guarantees citizenship by descent only
through the father.
4. Age Discrimination
There is discrepancy in the minimum age of marriage for the girls at sixteen,
and for the boys at eighteen.
5. Divorce
Women don’t have an equal right of divorce. Right of divorce given to women
through delegation (Tafweez) though permissible in Islam, yet the attitude of
majority has led to its disuse. Furthermore, the procedures of women seeking
divorce are quite complex. The Muslim family Law Ordinance (1961) brought
important reforms by making marriage registration mandatory, introducing a
standardize marriage contract form, and laying down a procedure for
divorce. However, it did it not offer a fair post-divorce settlement.
Efforts from the Civil Society:
Many theatre groups like Ajoka and Lok Rehas brought issues for debate
among masses through their parallel theatre techniques. Media played a
very important role even in the days of oppression to raise controversial
issues but still there is room to use these means of communications more
effectively. As a logical effect of such moment a lot of free legal aid centers
are opened in various part of the country to help out the women. Free legal
aid service of AGHS and Tahuffuz are few of these examples. Kashf
Foundation which is aiming at empowerment of women through micro
financing is yet another laudable venture. Shelter home opened in the name
of ‘Dastak’ for the destitute women is also one of the off shoots of these
efforts from the civil society side. Regrettably, political parties have not
played any significant role to improve the status of women even in their own
parties. I have publicly questioned the leaders of the political parties as to
why they have not adopted the convention to reserve 33% seats for women
in their working committees. Answer given to me is that they are not vote
catchers. Unfortunately, on account of such myopic view of political leaders
the number of women politicians has gradually shrunk since the days of
independence.