Developmental research designs are non-experimental methods used to study age-related changes

in behavior. They aim to describe the relationship between age and other variables, such as language

ability. There are two main types: cross-sectional design and longitudinal design, each with its strengths

and weaknesses. For instance, studying how language ability changes with age suits such research.

The cross-sectional developmental research design is a between-subjects design comparing ages

using separate groups of participants. For example, a researcher wanting to look into the connection

between IQ and aging could choose three different age groups - 40s, 60s, and 80s - and measure IQ for

each one (see Figure 10.7). It allows researchers to observe behavior changes as people age without

waiting for participants to grow older, collect data quickly, and require no long-term cooperation. The

cross-sectional research design has flaws, such as the inability to predict individual development over

time and generation effects, which may distinguish groups based on factors other than age. Internal

validity may be jeopardized due to the apparent relationship between age and other variables caused by

generational differences.
 The longitudinal developmental research design involves measuring a variable in the same group

of individuals over time, typically every few months or years. These individuals are usually cohorts of

roughly the same age and have grown up in similar circumstances. Multiple measurements of a particular

variable are made at two or more times to investigate the relationship between age and that variable. For

example, to examine IQ and age using the longitudinal approach, a researcher might measure IQ in a

group of 40-year-olds and then measure the same individuals again at ages 60 and 80 (Figure 10.8). The

longitudinal developmental design is a research method that examines one group of people over time,

avoiding cohort effects and examining behavior changes with age. However, it is time-consuming,

expensive, and subject to high dropout rates, known as participant attrition or mortality. This can weaken

the internal validity of the research, as participants may lose interest, move away, or die. The group at the

end may have different characteristics from the group at the beginning, as motivation may explain

changes over time. Additionally, the same individuals are measured repeatedly, potentially affecting

scores obtained later in the study due to previous experience with the test or measurement procedure.

Overall, the longitudinal design has both strengths and weaknesses.

This chapter discusses the application and analysis of between-subjects and within-subjects

designs, with the exception of the quasi-experimental pre-test–post-test non-equivalent control group
design. Two-group designs offer simplicity and an easy understanding of results but do not provide the

full functional relationship between variables. Statistical analysis for numerical data involves comparing

means with a t-test or single-factor analysis of variance, while chi-square tests are appropriate for non-

numerical data. The pre-test–post-test non-equivalent control group design is used for numerical data

analysis. A two-factor, mixed design analysis of variance is appropriate, which is available on most

statistical software programs like SPSS. If comparing pre-post means for one group, a repeated-measures

t-test can be used, while an independent-measures t-test is appropriate for comparing the two group

means for pre-test or post-test scores.

A true experiment involves manipulating an independent variable to create treatment conditions

and measuring a dependent variable (scores) in each condition. No independent variable is manipulated in

non- and quasi-experimental research, but groups of scores are compared. Non-equivalent group studies

compare scores between groups, whereas pre-post studies compare scores before and after treatment. The

variable that distinguishes groups is commonly referred to as an independent variable, but it is more

correctly referred to as a quasi-independent variable. As in an experiment, the dependent variable is the

score obtained by each participant. In non-equivalent control group studies, the quasi-independent

variable is determined by the difference between the treatment and non-treatment groups. In time-series

studies, the quasi-independent variable is 'before versus after treatment'. This concept is used in both non-

experimental and quasi-experimental research. In differential research, the participant variable is used to

differentiate groups. For example, in a study comparing self-esteem scores between two-parent and

single-parent homes, the number of parents is the quasi-independent variable, while self-esteem is the

dependent variable. In a developmental study, the different ages are the quasi-independent variable, and

memory scores are the dependent variable.