energies
Article
Energy Flow Modelling Method of Energy Efficiency
Improvement for Power-Using Electromechanical Products
Xiang Wang 1 and Dong Xiang 2, *
Citation: Wang, X.; Xiang, D. Energy
Flow Modelling Method of Energy
Efficiency Improvement for
Power-Using Electromechanical
Products. Energies 2022, 15, 5240.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15145240
Academic Editor: Kostas Kounetas
Received: 22 June 2022
Accepted: 14 July 2022
Published: 19 July 2022
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Energies 2022, 15, 5240. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15145240
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China;
wang-xia16@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn
2 Department of Mechanical Manufacturing and Automation, School of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
* Correspondence: xdustb@163.com; Tel.: +86-139-1125-0036
Abstract: As a crucial factor in the improvement of energy efficiency for power-using electromechani-
cal products, the flow, conversion and distribution of energy are closely related to design variables of
products. Simultaneously, performance is the constraint of energy efficiency and is strongly affected
by design variables. In order to improve a product’s energy efficiency without compromising perfor-
mance, an energy flow model with a basic energy flow element (EFE) was built on a functional basis
and its modelling procedure is presented in this paper. Containing function, design variable and
characteristic energy in EFEs, as well as the interface parameters between EFEs and environment, the
model contributes to logically clarifying the relationship between design variables and performance.
With the refrigerator as an example, the effectiveness of the energy flow model is verified by a
comparison between simulation, based on an energy flow model, and experimentation. Furthermore,
five critical design variables of a 265 L refrigerator were screened with the model. Test results of the
improved prototype meet the requirements of operating rate and temperature uniformity, and the
daily electricity consumption was reduced by about 9%. Comparison between the design results of
the energy flow model and the testing results of the prototype demonstrates that the energy efficiency
improvement method based on energy flow model is effective.
Keywords: energy flow model; characteristic energy; performance design; energy efficiency improving
1. Introduction
The rapid depletion of primary energy sources and the urgent need to reduce car-
bon emissions have led to grim energy-saving circumstances. Worse still, global energy
demand is supposed to grow by 0.3~0.95% every year by 2050 in many energy outlooks
published by the IEA [1], IRENA [2], OPEC [3] and BP [4], though in a context in which
global economic and energy development have been terribly hit by COVID-19. Energy-
using electromechanical products is the main source of energy consumption, and energy
efficiency improvement for these products would have a significant social benefit and be
an effective way to improve energy conservation and carbon reduction for manufacturing
enterprises [5]. Meanwhile, performance guarantees are the constraints and premises
of product energy efficiency, while energy saving and consumption reduction pose new
challenges to the performance design of energy-consuming electromechanical products.
Several energy-saving unit technologies, such as the optimized design of component
structure [6,7], reduced design [8] and machining processes [9], and intelligent control
technology [10] have been developed to improve energy efficiency within the limited scope
of the product design process. However, conflicts may potentially emerge between energy
consumption and performance at the detailed design stage when the energy-saving unit
technologies outlined above are applied in the design of energy efficiency. For instance,
an increase in fan air volume in the air circulation system of an air-cooled refrigerator
can improve cooling rate but may increase energy consumption. The match of the fan
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 2 of 25

air volume and the cabinet parameters is essential to balance cooling rate and energy
consumption. Therefore, when it comes to electromechanical products with complicated
structure and function, the conflicts need to be solved via performance design from the
perspective of product or system. In other words, the key to solve the performance
matching problem after the addition of energy saving and consumption reduction targets
is to analyze the correlation between multiple design variables and performance and
energy consumption.
Energy plays a crucial role in consumption reduction and energy saving and is also an
important guarantee for the performance of electromechanical products [11]. Reasonable
flow and distribution of energy during performance matching can reduce the waste of
energy resource as much as possible on the basis of ensuring the achievement of product
performance, and thus achieves an effective balance between energy efficiency improve-
ment and performance assurance. Meanwhile, flow, conversion and distribution of energy
rely on the design variables of components and parts. In addition, as a universal and fast
method to energy efficiency optimization, performance matching for products or systems is
indispensable under the trend of mass personalized production [12,13]. As a consequence,
in consideration of the pivotal role on the product functions and performance that energy
plays during the actual operating processes of energy-using electromechanical products,
performance matching based on energy distribution should be researched. Furthermore,
identifying how a set of design variables affects energy efficiency and performance through
the use of energy is foundation and key.
In terms of performance matching, several studies have attempted to balance product
performance and energy efficiency [14,15]. In these studies, there is a lack of description of
the interactive relationship between multiple design variables and multiple performances,
so it is hard to give intuitive expression to the interactive relationship among design
variables, energy and performances.
As for energy, with its essential effect on the implementation of functions and on
performance via the use of power [16], it also plays a significant role in functional expression
throughout the conceptual design phase. Work on energy flow started more than 30 years
ago. The concept of flow was addressed by Phal and Beitz, based on which anticipative
functions were performed by energy, material, and signal flow among components [17].
Building upon this study, the implementation of functions relies on the conversion and
transfer of the three flows above. Energy flow among these plays a decisive role with energy
borne by material flow and controlled by signal flow. In order to adopt a standardized
design language, Stone proposed a mode of functional expression called functional basis,
which consists of “verb + noun” [18,19]. Such a concept, in which the “verb” denotes
the action acting on the energy and the “noun” denotes the various forms of energy,
is conducive to simplifying the functional structure of product. Additionally, besides
the important role on function implementation, the action form and law of energy is
also strongly associated with performance implementation. The “substance-field” theory
from TRIZ reveals the rules that dictate how performance implementation rests with the
interaction between parts and energy [20].
In addition, energy has been studied by system modelling. H. M. Paynter proposed a
bond graph method that includes interactions among different physical domains to describe
various parts of composition, conversion, logic relationship and physical characteristics
based on energy and energy exchange for complex mechatronics systems [21]. Modelica
is an object-oriented, declarative, multi-domain modeling language for the modeling of
physical systems containing mechanical, electrical, electronic, hydraulic or thermal sub-
components [22,23]. The Modelica Standard Library contains over 1600 model components
and 1300 functions in many fields [24]. Considering that the three-dimensional structural
model is usually turned into a topological structure in the Modelica modeling method,
characteristic parameters rather than structure parameters are used so that Modelica is
unable to express how design variables affect the performance of each energy flow process.
Therefore, this model can only be applied to verify the feasibility of products and complete
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 3 of 25

the simulation of an entity model or system, due to the small amount of quantitative
guidance for performance optimization logically.
The energy modelling methods above have been used in concept design stages in
many fields such as automobiles [25,26], engineering machinery [27,28], the international
space station [29] and biological engineering technology [30]. However, they cannot be
applied to the detailed design stage since none of them built a relationship among design
variables, energy flow and performance quantitatively or accurately.
During the detailed design stage, some scholars have combined design variables and
energy to analyze the influence of energy flow on performance for complex electromechan-
ical products quantitatively. Gao et al. proposed an energy loss model that considered the
oil leaks and friction associated with clearances in the slide guide system of a hydraulic
press to find the optimum fit clearances with a decreased pillar weight, something which is
conducive to the improvement of energy efficiency for a single aspect instead of a whole
product or system [31]. Wang addressed energy flow element (EFE), consisting of structural
element (D), interface (T) and energy variation (∆E), as the basic object of energy flow
analysis [32], and has achieved good results in the area of vehicle passive safety [16,33].
Duan optimized the cold dissipation and temperature uniformity of a refrigerator based
on energy flow element [34]. However, the studies above were carried out under a single
performance constraint in passive energy absorption and dissipation conditions while in an
active energy consumption condition, therefore, it is difficult to analyze the comprehensive
effect of design variables on multiple energy functions and performance objectives.
To sum up, energy analysis is one of the most efficient ways to explore performance
matching under the constraint of energy efficiency. Although an amount of effort has been
made to discuss energy expression model for complex energy-using electromechanical
products, the relationship and quantitative characterization among design variables, en-
ergy and performance are still inadequate. A large number of engineering tests have to
be designed to model the relationship between design variables and product performance
when designing new products [35,36]. In order to ascertain how design variables impact
the response of energy efficiency and performance to instantly support performance match-
ing, energy flow element was redefined and an energy flow model based on functional
basis was built. The model was built using characteristic energy as a bridge to analyze
the influence of design variables on multiple performances for complex energy-using
electromechanical products.

2. Energy Flow Model

Product performance, a premise and constraint for power-saving and consumption-
reducing design, is an evaluation measure for design solutions under the combined effects
of function, structure and environment. The energy efficiency of a product has to do with
how efficiently it uses power in the process of accomplishing function and performance by
transferring and distributing energy between and within parts of the product. According
to functional basis theory, complex products are composed of functional modules that
possess diverse structures and perform different functions. Generally, the structure sustains
energy action, and the energy is what allows the structure to fulfill its function. As a result
of energy conversion within functional structures and energy transfer between different
functional structures, the product’s function is realized and expressed through energy
efficiency and performance. Therefore, energy flow is the critical factor accounting for
product performance and energy efficiency. For the sake of performance matching with
energy efficiency improvement, an energy flow model based on functional basis needs to
be established to intuitively describe the relationship of influence between energy, structure
and performance.
In this section, “energy flow element” is defined, firstly, as the basic unit for describing
the conversion and transfer of energy for energy-using electromechanical products. After
that, environment and transmission of energy in energy flow model are illustrated. Finally,
Energies 2022,
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15, xx FOR
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PEER REVIEW
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Finally, the
Finally, the energy
energy characteristic
characteristic equation
equation is
is developed
developed to
to calculate
calculate characteristic
characteristic
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 4 of 25
which can
which can be
be used
used to
to analyze
analyze energy
energy action
action characteristics.
characteristics.

2.1. Defining
2.1. Defining Energy
Energy Flow ElementElement Based
Based on on Functional
Functional Basis Basis
the energy characteristicFlow
equation is developed to calculate characteristic energy, which can
During
During
be used theenergy
the
to analyze conceptual
conceptual design stage,
design stage, functional
action characteristics. functional basis basis is is standard
standard vocabulavocabula
when decomposing
when decomposing the the global
global function
function of of aa product
product into into smaller
smaller sub-functions.
sub-functions. It I
2.1. Defining Energy Flow Element Based on Functional Basis
of functions
of functions andand flows
flows with
with specific
specific definitions,
definitions, expressed
expressed in in the
the form
form (verb
(verb ++ no
no
During the conceptual design stage, functional basis is standard vocabulary used
each
each sub-function
when sub-function
decomposing the (Figure
(Figure 1). Energy
1). Energy
global function flow
flow and
of a product and conversion
intoconversion of functional
of functional
smaller sub-functions. basis are
basis are
It is a set
point
point and elementary
and elementary
of functions and flows with unit
unit of power
of power
specific consumption,
consumption,
definitions, respectively.
expressed inrespectively.
the form (verbIn In our study,
our study,
+ noun) for the
the
of functional
each
of functional
sub-functionbasis
(Figure
basis is extended
is extended
1). to consider
Energy flow
to consider
and conversionthe quantization
the quantization
of functional basis characteristics
are the key of
characteristics of th
th
point and elementary
units undergoing
undergoing energy unit of power
energy conversion consumption,
conversion or respectively.
or transfer,
transfer, and and theIn our study,
the effects the
effects that concept
that such
such charac
charac
units
of functional basis is extended to consider the quantization characteristics of the basic
have on
have on performance.
performance.
units undergoing
Therefore,
Therefore,
energy conversion
“energy flow
or “energy
transfer, and
flow element”
theelement”
effects that is
is defined
defined
such
as aa basic
as
characteristics
basic uni
un
on functional
on
have functional basis.Therefore,
basis.
on performance. Energy flow
Energy flow element
“energy element is composed
is
flow element” composed
is definedof ofasone
one or unit
or
a basic more
more parts with
parts
based with
structural correlation and energy interaction and can achieve a certain function tt
structural
on functionalcorrelation
basis. Energy andflowenergy
element interaction
is composed and
of can
one or achieve
more a
parts certain
with function
strong
structural
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energy conversion
conversion energy interaction
or transfer
or transfer and can (Figure
independently
independently achieve
(Figurea2). certain function through
2).
energy conversion or transfer independently (Figure 2).

Sub-function
Sub-function

Input flow
Input flow Output flow
Output flow
verb+noun
verb+noun

Figure1.1.
Figure
Figure 1.The
The
The expression
expression
expression of aa functional
of functional
of a functional basis
basis forbasis for aa subfunction.
for subfunction.
a subfunction.

FF EEcc
qq qq
vv EE

qq
Figure
Figure 2.EFE
Figure2.2. EFE
EFE
model.
model.
model.
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The
The
energy information
flowinformation such
element are assuch as function,
as
follows: function, design
design variables,
variables, energy
energy variation
variation andand in
in
•in energy
in energy
Function flow
flow(F). Felement
element
represents are
are as
theas follows:
follows:
function (energy conversion or energy transfer) realized
••
by the EFE
Function (F). and determines
(F). FF represents
represents the the type and internal
the function
function connection
(energy of input and
conversion output transf
or energy
energy
Function (energy conversion or transfe
energy in the course of energy conversion or transfer. For example, the function of an
ized
ized by
electric
by the EFE
the isEFE
motor
and determines
and determines
to convert electrical energy
the type
the into and
typemechanical internal
and internalenergy
connection
connection of input
of input and
while the function
and
ofenergy
energy in the
in the course
a heat exchanger course of energy
of
is to transfer energy
the heat conversion
conversion
energy fromor or transfer.
transfer.
internal For
fluidFor example,
example,
to external the fun
fluid.the fun
• an electric
electric motor
Characteristic
an motor
Energyis is(Eto
to convert
Ec represents
c ).convert electrical energy
the energy
electrical energy into
value mechanical
to mechanical
into realize energy
the function
energy while the
of while
the the f
EFE and
of aa heat also the
heat exchanger index
exchanger is to
is toevaluate
to transfer performance
transfer the the heat realization.
heat energy
energy from It will
from internal be elaborated
internal fluid
fluid to in
to external
external ff
of
the following sections.
•
•• Design
Characteristic
Characteristic Energy
Energy (E ).
(Ec). E E represents
represents the energy
the energy value to
valuephysicalrealize
to realize the fun
char-the fun
c c
Variable (v). v represents a cset of design variables containing
the EFE
the EFEparameters
acteristic and also
and also the the
andindexindex to evaluate
to
geometrical evaluate
structure performance
performance
parameters, giving realization.
realization. It will
It will be
a quantitative be ela
ela
in the
in the following
description following sections. of energy conversion and transfer and determining
sections.
about characteristics
•• the quantitative
Design Variable
Design relation
Variable (v). (v).between
vv representsinput and
represents output
aa set
set energy.variables
of design
of design variables containing
containing physical
physical
• Energy Variation
teristic parameters (∆E).
parameters and ∆E represents
and geometrical the difference
geometrical structure between input
structure parameters, energy
parameters, giving and output
giving aa quantita
quantita
teristic
energy during the course of function implementation, including energy dissipation
scription
scription
and about characteristics
about
energy storage characteristics
or release with EFE’s of energy
of energy conversion and
conversion
state changing. and transfer
transfer andand determin
determi
• quantitative
quantitative
Interface relation between
relation
(q). q represents between
the interface input
input
when and
and output energy.
output
transferring energy.
energy between EFEs, in-
• • Energy
cluding Variation
interface geometric(ΔE). ΔE
states
Energy Variation (ΔE). ΔE represents the differencerepresents
and parameters,the difference
interface between
statebetween
parameters input
related
input energy aa
energy
toput
energy flow
energy during and control
during the signals.
the course
course of Interfaces
of function have also been
function implementation, adopted
implementation, including in other mod-
including energyenergy d
put energy
tion and
tion and energy
energy storage
storage or or release
release with with EFE’s
EFE’s state
state changing.
changing.
•• Interface (q).
Interface (q). qq represents
represents the the interface
interface when when transferring
transferring energy energy between
between EE
cluding interface
cluding interface geometric
geometric states states and and parameters,
parameters, interface
interface statestate parameters
parameters
to energy
to energy flow flow andand control
control signals.
signals. Interfaces
Interfaces have have also also been
been adopted
adopted in in othe
oth
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Based on the definition above, an EFE model can be further elaborated in v

concrete eling
Based
forms of energy
approaches.
on the definition
action.
For example,above,
Typically,
they
anare EFE
there are
referred
modeltocan
three
as “port” types
in bond
be further
ofgraphs
EFE models,
elaborated and
in view o
inc
converting
concrete“connector” input
forms in energy
of Modelica. to another
energy action. output
Typically, there energy (such
are three typesas compressor),
of EFE models, converting
including
energy to
Based energy
on the change
definition of the
above, EFE
an itself
EFE (such
model canas bechassis
converting input energy to another output energy (such as compressor), converting inpufurther frame)
elaboratedand intransferring
view of th
concrete
type forms
of energy of energy
from action.
oneofplace Typically,
to another there are
placethree types of
(such frame) EFE models,
as condenser). including
energy to energy change the EFE itself (such as chassis and transferring the same
converting input energy to another output energy (such as compressor), converting input
typeIn oforder
energytofrom better
oneelucidate the EFEplace
place to another model, (such theas compressor,
condenser). one of the three ty
energy to energy change of the EFE itself (such as chassis frame) and transferring the same
EFE In order
models, to
is better
taken elucidate
as an the
example. EFE model,
Firstly,
type of energy from one place to another place (such as condenser). the
from compressor,
a functional one of the
basis three
point oftypes
view,o
EFE In
pressor models,
can be
order is better
to taken elucidate
as an example.
represented EFEFirstly,
astheshown from
in Figure
model, a3functional basis
in the conceptual
the compressor, one point
of the of types
design
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stage. It
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of EFE
tion is to can
models, be
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is taken as
as an energy
electrical shown
example.into in Figure
Firstly,
heat from 3 in the conceptual
a functional
energy design
basis point
of refrigerant. stage. Its
of view, a accord
Obviously, func
tion is
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can be electrical
represented energy into
as shown heat
in energy
Figure
functional basis, what determines its function is the conversion and transfer 3 inoftherefrigerant.
conceptual Obviously,
design stage.according
Its
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e
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what energy into
determines its heat energy
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and transfer of energy
that
to is, the content
functional described
basis, what determines in thefunction
“verb” ispart. However,and what makes a critical diff
that is, the content described in theits“verb” part.the conversion
However, what makes transfer of energy,
a critical difference
tothat
performance
is, the contentresponse
described in intheEFE model isHowever,
“verb” a compressor’s quantitative characteristic
to performance response in EFE modelpart. is a compressor’s what makes a critical difference
quantitative characteristics. As a
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to performance physical
response in EFEform modelofis aa compressor’s
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result, the actual physical form of a compressor, such as theoretical volumetric capacity
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characteristics. As a ca
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isentropic efficiency i , needsto betodefined
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which contributes which
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to(Figure
detailed design
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(Figure 4). 4).

Electrical energy
Electrical energy HeatHeat
energy
energy
Converting
Convertingelectric energy
electric intointo
energy
heat
heatenergy
energyofof
refrigerant
refrigerant

Figure 3.Functional
Functional basis model of compressor.
Figure 3. Functional
Figure 3. basis
basis model
model of compressor.
of compressor.

mr,in , pr,in , Tr,in , vr,in Convert electrical

Convert electrical W com
mr,in , pr,in , Tr,in , vr,in energy into heat energy W com
energy into heat energy mr,out , pr,out , Tr,out , vr,out
U [Vth ,  v , i , ] ΔE mr,out , pr,out , Tr,out , vr,out
U [Vth ,  v , i , ] ΔE
Figure4.4.EFE
Figure EFEmodel
modelof of compressor.
compressor.
Figure 4. EFE model of compressor.
In
Inthe theEFE EFEmodelmodel of compressor,
of compressor, the inputthe parameters
input parameters U (alternating current voltage),
U (alternating current volt
mr,in (input flow quantity of refrigerant), pr,in (input pressure of refrigerant), vr,in (input
age),Inmr,in (input
the EFE flow
model ofquantity of refrigerant),
compressor, p
the ofinput (input pressure
parameters of refrigerant),
U side
(alternating vr,in (inpu
are status curren
r,in
flow velocity of refrigerant) and Tr,in (temperature refrigerant) on the left
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age), velocity
parameters r,in (input
of refrigerant)
flowenergy,
of electrical quantityandof
while Tthe
r,in (temperature of refrigerant) on the left side are status
refrigerant),
output parameters pr,in (input pressure
mr,out (output flow ofquantity
refrigerant),
of vr,in
parameters
refrigerant),
flow velocityr,out pof electrical
(output energy,
pressure ofwhile the
refrigerant),
of refrigerant) and Tr,in (temperature output
v r,out
parameters
(output flow m r,out (output
velocity of flow
refrigerant)
of refrigerant) on the left side are quantity
of refrigerant),
and T (output pr,out (output pressure
temperature of of refrigerant),
refrigerant) on the rightvr,out
side(output flow
are status velocity of ofrefriger
r,out
parameters of electrical energy, while the output parameters mparameters
r,out (output flow qu
ant) energy.
heat and Tr,out (output
In the uppertemperature
box, a descriptionof refrigerant)
of compressor on function
the rightis side are status
provided, and Wparameters
com
ofrepresents
refrigerant), the amountpr,out (output
energypressure oftorefrigerant), vr,out (output flowbox,velocity
Vth , ofand re
of heat energy. In theofupper conversion
box, a descriptionrealizeofthe function.
compressor Infunction
the lower is provided,
ant)
ηW and
v com T
andrepresents r,out
ηi are design(output temperature
thevariables,
amount of and ∆E is the
energy of refrigerant)
energy variation
conversion on
to realize the right
between side
input and
the function. are status
Inoutput.
the lower box para
ofObviously,
heat energy. 
compared In the upper
to functional box,
basis,aan description
EFE model with
Vth, v and i are design variables, and ΔE is the energy variation between input and
of compressor
design variables function
and energyis provide
value
Woutput. contributes to the quantitative characterization of
com represents the amount of energy conversion to realize the function. In the low
the relationship among design
variables,Obviously,
energy and comparedperformance. to functional basis, an EFE model with design variables and
th, v and
Venergy  are
value contributes
i design variables,
to the quantitative and ΔE is the energyofvariation
characterization between
the relationship amonginp
2.2.
output.
designEnergy Transmission
Obviously,
variables, compared
energy to functional basis, an EFE model with design variab
and performance.
energyForvalue
energy-using electromechanical
contributes products, energy
to the quantitative conversion inof
characterization each
theEFE and
relationship
energy
2.2. transmission
Energy through the interface between different EFEs arrive at the accom-
Transmission
design variables, energy and performance.
plishment of a function and influence the energy efficiency. Energy transmission from an
For energy-using electromechanical products, energy conversion in each EFE and en
EFE to another, consisting of energy type, size and direction, describes the causality of
ergy
2.2. transmission
Energy
energy through
Transmission
between EFEs. the interfacebybetween
As is demonstrated Stone in different EFEs
their research onarrive
energyatmodeling
the accomplish
ment
in of a function
conceptual design,and influence
function ofthe energydetermines
the electromechanical
a product efficiency.the
Energy transmission
typeconversion
of energy to be from an EFE
For energy-using products, energy in con-
each EFE a
to another, consisting of energy type, size and direction, describes the causality
veyed, and the direction and magnitude of these transfers are critical factors in determining of energy
ergy transmission
betweenperformance
product
through
EFEs. As is[19].
the interface between different EFEs arrive
demonstrated by Stone in their research on energy modeling in con
at the accom
ment of adesign,
ceptual function
the and influence
function the energy
of a product efficiency.
determines Energy
the type transmission
of energy from a
to be conveyed
toand
another, consisting
the direction of energyof
and magnitude type,
thesesize and direction,
transfers are criticaldescribes the causality
factors in determining of
prod
between EFEs. As
uct performance is demonstrated by Stone in their research on energy modeling
[19].
ceptual design,
In an energythe
flowfunction of a product
model, energy determines
transmission the type
is represented byof energy
directed tosegmen
line be con
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 25
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 6 of 25
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 25

that the characteristics of energy transmission depend on the corresponding state param
etersInofanthe
energy flow model,
interfaces. energy transmission
The direction of the lineissegment
represented by directed
represents theline segment
direction of energy
that the EFEs.
between characteristics ofthe
energy transmission depend to on
EFEthe corresponding
indicatingstate param-
flow and the causal relationship of energy transmission from source EFE to that
Two ends of line segment are connected interfaces,
target EFE
eters of the interfaces.
the characteristics Thetransmission
of energy direction of depend
the lineon segment representsstate
the corresponding the direction
parameters of energy
namely that energy from source EFE is equal to energy into target EFE. For example, as
of the interfaces. The direction of the line segment represents the direction
flow and the causal relationship of energy transmission from source EFE to target EFE of energy flow
shown
and in Figure
the causal 5, energy
relationship is transmitted as the refrigerant flows fromEFE,
compressor to con
namely that energy fromofsource
energy transmission
EFE is equal from sourceinto
to energy EFE to target
target EFE. Fornamely
example, as
denser
that through
energy a pipeline
from source in
EFEis the refrigerator,
istransmitted
equal to energy so that
into targetflow
EFE.rate, pressure as
For example, and temperature
shown
shown in Figure 5, energy as the refrigerant flows from compressor to con-
in Figure 5, energy is transmitted as the refrigerant flows from compressor to condenser input.
of the refrigerant at the compressor output are the same as those at the condenser
denser through a pipeline in the refrigerator, so that flow rate, pressure and temperature
through a pipeline in the refrigerator, so that flow rate, pressure and temperature of the
of the refrigerant
refrigerant at the compressor
at the compressor output areoutput
the same areasthe same
those as condenser
at the those at the condenser input.
input.
U Ta

U T
Convert electrical Tr , pr Transfer heat energy a
Wcom Qcond
energy into heat energy from refrigerant to air
Convert electrical Tr , pr Transfer heat energy
Wcom Qcond
,  v ,energy
[Vth heat
energy into i ] ΔE [lcond , to
from refrigerant di ]air ΔE
[V ,  ,  ]
th v transmission
i ΔE cond i [l ,d] ΔE
Figure 5. Energy between compressor and condenser.

Figure
Figure 5.5.Energy
Energytransmission
transmission between
between compressor
compressor and condenser.
and condenser.
The quantitative characteristic of energy transmission is strongly associated with in
terface
The state parameters. Based onofbond graph theory this can be expressed as:
The quantitative
quantitativecharacteristic
characteristic energy
of energy transmission
transmission is strongly associated
is strongly with with in-
associated
interface state parameters. Based on bond graph
t theory this can be expressed as:
terface state parameters. Based onPbond

(t ) = graph
e(t )  theory
Z t
f (t )dt , this can be expressed as:
0
(1
t

0 
P(t) =(t ) = e(te)(×) f (ftf(t)
)(tdt,
)dtis, generalized flow variable.(1)P(t) = e(t
where e(t) is generalized potentialPvariable tand
0
(1)
× f(t) has dimension of power, so the quantitative characteristics of energy can be de
wheree(t)
where e(t)is is
generalized potential
generalized variable
potential and f(t) and
variable is generalized flow variable.
f(t) is generalized flow = e(t) × f (t)
P(t)variable. P(t) = e(t)
scribed
has more of concisely when a system reaches a steady state. As seen in Equation (1)
× f(t)dimension
has dimension power,of so the quantitative
power, characteristics
so the quantitative of energy
characteristics canof beenergy
described
can be de-
generalized
more concisely potential variable and generalized state.flow variable, which(1), can be obtained with
scribed more when a system
concisely when reaches a steady
a system reaches As seen
a steady in state.
Equation
As seen generalized
in Equation (1)
the interface
potential variable state
andparameters
generalizedofflow
EFE, are key
variable, to obtaining
which energywith
can be obtained transmission.
the interfaceThe rela
generalized potential variable and generalized flow variable, which can be obtained with
tionship
state between
parameters the are
of EFE, interface parameter
key to obtaining andtransmission.
energy a generalized variable
The is illustrated
relationship between in Fig
the
the
interfaceparameter
interface
state parameters
and a
of EFE, are
generalized
key to
variable is
obtainingin
illustrated
energy
Figure
transmission.
6.
The rela-
ure 6.
tionship between the interface parameter and a generalized variable is illustrated in Fig-
ure 6.

Status parameter of interface Generalized variable

Status parameter of interface Generalized variable

Figure6.6.Relationship
Figure Relationship between
between the the interface
interface parameter
parameter and a and a generalized
generalized variable.variable.

FigureFor 6. Relationship between the interface parameter andheat a generalized variable.

Forexample,
example,asasfor forthe
thecondenser
condenser in in
Figure
Figure5, the
5, the exchange
heat exchangeprocess for the
process for the in
internal refrigerant is a constant pressure heat exchange process. In the process, the
ternal refrigerant is a constant pressure heat exchange process. In the process, the specific
Forenthalpy
specific example, as for of
hr (J/kg) the condenser
the refrigerantinis Figure 5, the heat
the generalized exchange
potential process
variable and the for the in-
enthalpy
flow hr (J/kg)
quantity m of theisrefrigerant
(kg/s) the is the generalized
generalized flow variable, potential
so the variable
product P and
= m the
h flow quan
(W)
ternal refrigerant is a constant pressure heat exchange process. In the process, the specific
r r r
tity be
can mrused
(kg/s) to is the generalized
measure energyflow variable, so theinput product P = mrhrefrigerant
r (W) can be used to
enthalpy hr (J/kg) of thethe
refrigerant transferred between
is the generalized potentialand variable
output and the flow at quan-
measure
steady theInenergy
state. transferred
other words, between
the energy inputofand
reduction output refrigerant
the refrigerant at steady
flowing through the state. In
tity mr (kg/s) is the generalized flow variable, so the product P = mrhr (W) can be used to
other words,
condenser EFE at the energy
steady statereduction
equals the of the refrigerant
energy difference between flowing through
input the condenser
and output energy, EFE
measure the energy transferred between input and output refrigerant at steady state. In
m (hr,in − hstate
atr steady r,out ). equals
In the condenser
the energy EFE, the potential
difference variable
between hr can
input andbeoutput
derivedenergy,
from themr (hr,in −
other
state words, by theusingenergy reduction of parameters
the refrigerant flowing through
(Thr ,r pcan the condenser EFE
hr,out).equation
In the condenser the interface
EFE, state
the potential variable r ). Therefore,
be derived energy
fromtransferred
the state equation
at steady state
between equals the energy difference between
state input and output energy, mr (hr,in −
by usingEFEs can
the interface be calculated by using
state parameters the
(Trinterface
, pr). Therefore, parameters.
energy transferred between EFEs
hr,out). In the condenser EFE, the potential variable hr can be derived from the state equation
canEnvironment
2.3. be calculated by using the interface state parameters.
by using the interface state parameters (Tr, pr). Therefore, energy transferred between EFEs
can be Ascalculated
is shown inbyFigure
using7,the
theinterface
boundary in an
state energy flow model is defined as the
parameters.
2.3. Environment
environment when energy is converting and transferring in a product or system.
As is shown in Figure 7, the boundary in an energy flow model is defined as the
2.3. Environment
environment when energy is converting and transferring in a product or system.
As is shown in Figure 7, the boundary in an energy flow model is defined as the
environment when energy is converting and transferring in a product or system.
s 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 7 of 25

q enironment

FigureFigure
7. EFE model
7. EFE modelof
of environment.
environment.

In order to make the expression of environment consistent with the energy flow
In orderinto
element anmake
energythe
flowexpression of environment
model, a similar method is used consistent with
to describe the the energy flow
characteristics
in an of
energy flow model, a similar method is used to describe the characteristics of
environment.
ment. • Function. The function of environment is to provide a source of energy for the product
or system, or to receive energy generated by the product or system.
• Function.
• The function
Design Variable. of environment
The environment is immutableis to
andprovide
has an effecta source of energy
on the product or for t
uct or system,
system or toboundary
as objective receivecondition
energywhengenerated
designing, bysothe
thereproduct orvariable.
is no design system.
• • Energy Variation. The environment with a physical scope far
Design Variable. The environment is immutable and has an effect on the pr greater than the product
or system is objective and for which there is an infinite capacity for energy supply or
system as absorption,
energy objective that boundary condition
is, the energy variationwhen designing,
is arbitrary in terms of soenergy
thereabsorbed
is no design v
• Energy Variation. The environment with a physical scope far greater than t
or released.
• Interface.
uct or system Energy transfer between
is objective and forenvironment
which there and other
is anEFE is carried
infinite out through
capacity for energ
the interface. Since the environmental state does not change, the interface state
or energy absorption,
parameters that is,remain
of the environment the energy
unchanged variation is arbitrary
and only serve in terms
as the boundary of of en
sorbed or action
energy released.
in the product or system.
• Interface. Energy
For example, transfer
a power between
grid with constantenvironment andcan
and stable voltage other EFE isas
be regarded carried
the out
environment of a household appliance, since it can provide power
the interface. Since the environmental state does not change, the interface for multiple appliances
at the same time. In addition, it should be noted that the determination of the environment
rameters of the
has to do with environment
the energy effect of theremain
product unchanged
or system. In theand caseonly serveair,asthethe bou
of indoor
energy action
energy effect will in the product
significantly or the
influence system.
air temperature so that the indoor air should
be treated as EFE as for conditioner; however, for a household refrigerator, the effect of
For example, a power grid with constant and stable voltage can be regarde
heat on temperature is negligible, so indoor air should be treated as the environment.
environment of a household appliance, since it can provide power for multiple ap
at the2.4.
sameEnergy Characteristic Equation
time. In addition, it should be noted that the determination of the envi
In order to study the relationship between EFE energy action and performance realiza-
has totion
doviawith the energy effect of the product or system. In the case of indoo
energy flow model, it is indispensable to establish an energy index to evaluate EFE
energy effect will
performance. significantly
Based on the energy influence
conservationthe
law, air temperature
characteristic so that
energy was theasindoor
defined an ai
index toas
be treated evaluate
EFE as EFEfor
performance, and thehowever,
conditioner; energy characteristic equation wasrefrigerator,
for a household established the
to calculate the characteristic energy.
heat on temperature is negligible, so indoor air should be treated as the environm
The amount of energy involved in EFE should remain constant according to the energy
conservation law. That is, the total energy of EFE input is equal to that of EFE output plus
2.4. Energy Characteristic
the energy Equation
loss, as is shown in Equation (2).
n m
∑k=1 Ek,in − ∑between
In order to study the relationship E
k=1 k,out
=EFE
∆E, energy action and performa (2)
ization via energy flow model, it is indispensable to establish an energy index to
where ∑nk=1 Ek,in and ∑m k=1 Ek,out are the energy of input and output respectively. ∆E
EFE performance.
represents energy Based
loss. on the energy conservation law, characteristic energy
fined as an index(2)toelucidates
Equation evaluate theEFE performance,
macroscopic regularity and the conservation
of energy energy characteristic
in EFE with equa
the form,tomagnitude
established calculate and path
the of energy. However,
characteristic it is difficult to clarify the influence
energy.
of design variables and interface parameters on energy conversion and transfer without
The amount
an index of energy
containing involved
design variables andininterface
EFE should remain
parameters. constant
In addition, according t
according
ergy conservation law.
to functional basis Thatwhat
theory, is, the total energy
determines of EFE input
energy efficiency is equal tois that
and performance the of EF
transformation or transfer of energy, that
plus the energy loss, as is shown in Equation (2). is, the content described in the “verb” section.
Therefore, the quantitative nature of the energy conversion or transfer effect in the EFE

 
model is the key and bridge to the degree
n of performance
m realization. In order to establish
k =1
the relationship between design variables
E k,in −
and k =1
E = E ,
function/performance,
k,out from the point of
energy, characteristic energy is defined as a bridge to indicate the relationship between
 
n m
whereenergy andEperformance.
k =1
and To illustrate
k,in E k =1
arethethe
k,out
characteristic
energy of energy
inputof EFE
andinoutput
a generalrespectively
sense,

resents energy loss.

Equation (2) elucidates the macroscopic regularity of energy conservation
with the form, magnitude and path of energy. However, it is difficult to clarify t
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 8 of 25

it is necessary to analyze the quantitative characteristics of EFE in its function realizing

process through energy, and energy characteristic equation is introduced to calculate and
characterize the characteristic energy in this paper. The characteristic energy is defined as
follows:

Definition 1. Characteristic energy (Ec ) refers to the energy of the transformation or transfer
required to achieve the function in EFE.

In the example of compressor, the main purpose of a refrigerator compressor is to

convert electrical energy into refrigerant heat energy. Hence the characteristic energy is the
compression energy expressed as Equation (3):

κ pr,out κ−κ 1
Wcom = mr pr,in vr,in [( ) − 1]/ηi , (3)
κ − 1 pr,in

As the characteristic energy emphasizes the energy response of design variables and
interface parameters in the fulfillment of the function/performance, the energy characteris-
tic equation of the characteristic energy may also be written as Equations (4)–(7) associated
with the design variables to generate optimization of design data:
Power consumption of the compressor

mr ( h2 − h1 )
Wcom = , (4)
ηi

Outlet specific enthalpy

Wcom − Qk
h2 = h1 + , (5)
mr
Refrigeration flow
ηv Vth N
mr = , (6)
vr,in
Thermal dissipation externally

Qk = U Ak ( Tr,out − Ta ), (7)

where h2 and h1 are the enthalpies at the compressor inlet and outlet respectively; Qk is the
thermal dissipation externally; UAk is the compressor’s overall thermal conductivity; Ta is
the ambient temperature. In other words,

κ pr,out κ−κ 1 (h − h1 )ηv Vth N

Wcom = mr pr,in vr,in [( ) − 1]/ηi = 2 + U Ak ( Tr,out − Ta ). (8)
κ − 1 pr,in vr,in

Equation (8) describes the relationship between energy action of EFE and input as well
as output energy. The middle formula of the equation reflects the quantitative properties
of realizing function, namely the identification compressor EFE performance, while the
right formula of the equation reflects the change of the input and output energy. Obviously,
the preceding values are associated with design variables and interface parameters. Ac-
cording to the calculation idea of the characteristic energy of the compressor, the energy
characteristic equation for calculating characteristic energy can be derived as shown in
Equation (9):

Ec = ∑ (Esource,in − Esource,out ) = ∑ (Etarget,out − Etarget,in ) + ∆E, (9)

where Esource , Etarget ∈ { E1 , E2 , · · · , En }, Esource and Etarget represent source energy and
target energy in energy conversion or transfer respectively. That is, the characteristic energy
measures the transfer of energy from source energy to target energy.
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 9 of 25

For complex energy-using electromechanical products, characteristic energy can be

calculated with energy characteristic equations directly through numerical calculation for
physical characteristics of EFE, and can be also obtained by modelling and characteriz-
ing calculation with three-dimensional distribution characteristics using a finite element
method or constructing a characteristic energy fitting law under different operation condi-
tions with fitting test data.
In conclusion, an energy flow model based on EFE for a functional basis has been
proposed by Stone. Taking function as a carrier and energy as a bridge, increasing elements
such as design variables, interface, characteristic energy and variation of energy, it can
help to express the behavior and characteristics of the components in energy action, and
characterize identification of EFE performance.

2.5. Comparisons with Other Existing Energy Modeling Methods

In this paper, the energy flow expression was used to realize the transition from
conceptual design to detailed design, and for analyzing the relationship between energy
effect and energy efficiency. A comparison between this and other existing energy modeling
methods is given in Table 1.

Table 1. Comparisons with other existing energy modeling methods.

Part and Design Metrics of Evaluating

Factors Function Interface Environment
Variable Performance
Expression of √
input and output × × × ×
streams [17]
Functional basis √ Boundary
× × ×
[19] conditions
Energy
Only expressing
modeling √
Energy model connection
methods × × Energy variation
[32] relationship and
flow direction
Energy flow √ Containing √ √
model in the interface status Characteristic energy
paper parameters
√
means that the factor is contained in the method; × means that the factor is not contained in the method.

It can be seen that the method of expressing energy flow in this paper is based on the
energy modeling method during conceptual design stage proposed by Pahl and Stone, and
enriches the design variables, interfaces and environment characteristics of the energy flow
element with functions. Based on the existing energy flow modeling and analysis methods,
characteristic energy is used as the energy index for evaluating performance instead of
energy variation, which is better applicable to general energy-consuming mechanical and
electrical products.

3. Modelling Procedure
The energy flow model of energy-consuming electromechanical products illustrates the
relationship between energy and design variables in the process of performance realization,
allowing improvements in both energy efficiency and performance. Its establishment is
the process by which the components of the function are described through the expression
of energy flow, the environment, and the energy transferred between them. In order to
establish energy flow model of electromechanical products under the constraints of energy
efficiency and performance, the function is represented by EFEs and energy transferred
among them.
Figure 8 illustrates the process of creating an energy flow model for electromechanical
products. Pahl believed that function is the transformation or transfer of material flow,
energy flow and signal flow, and proposed a step-by-step decomposition method for
Energies 2022,
Energies 2022,15,
15,x5240
FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 25 10 of 2

itfunctional
[17]. Stonemodeling
proposedapproach,
that product functions
starting fromcan befunction-based
the expressed usingmodeling
functionalmethod
chains in con
consisting of functional bases and energy transfer between functional bases. Using the
ceptual design, the concerned function and performance are performed with a series o
above functional modeling approach, starting from the function-based modeling method
energy conversions or transfer effects by establishing a functional chain under energy ef
in conceptual design, the concerned function and performance are performed with a series
ficiency
of energyand performance
conversions constraints.
or transfer Onestablishing
effects by the basis ofa functional chain,under
functional chain the functional
energy basi
is divided
efficiency andinto energy flow
performance elements
constraints. according
On the to the series
basis of functional chain,criterion, parallel
the functional basiscriterion
and the type of design problem, and then the characteristics of these elements
is divided into energy flow elements according to the series criterion, parallel criterion and are defined
Lastly,
the characteristic
type of energy
design problem, of the
and then product or system
the characteristics of these that has are
elements energy flow
defined. elements is
Lastly,
characteristic
calculated. energy of the product or system that has energy flow elements is calculated.

Establishing Functional Chains under Performance Constraints

Functional Expressing sub-functions

decomposition with functional bisis
Energy efficiency Function Functional
Focus performances tree chain

Dividing Energy Flow Element

Concatenation criterion Adding design variable,

Functional Parallel criterion Energy flow characteristic energy, etc. Energy flow
chain element Building energy model
Design requirements
transmission relation

Establishing Energy Characteristic Equations

Energy characteristic Soloving q(t) by numerical calculation or experiments Characteristic

equations energy
Setting design variables

Figure8.8.Energy
Figure Energyflow modelling
flow procedure.
modelling procedure.
3.1. Establishing Functional Chains under Energy Efficiency and Performance Constraints
3.1. Establishing Functional
Since the guarantee Chains under
of performance is aEnergy Efficiency
prerequisite and Performance
for improving Constraints
energy efficiency
Since the
and energy flowguarantee of performance
model is different accordingistoa which
prerequisite for improving
target performances areenergy
focused efficiency
on, the first step of an energy flow model for energy efficiency improvement
and energy flow model is different according to which target performances are focused is to set up
product
on, the functional
first step chain
of anunder
energyconstraints
flow model of energy efficiency
for energy and performance.
efficiency improvement It shouldis to set up
be noted that the function/performance of the energy flow model must
product functional chain under constraints of energy efficiency and performance. I be related to energy,
that is, the performances unrelated to energy, such as appearance and surface characteristic,
should be noted that the function/performance of the energy flow model must be related
are not considered in this paper.
to energy, that is, the the
After determining performances unrelated for
focused performances to energy, such as appearance
electromechanical products, func- and surface
characteristic, are not considered in this paper.
tional decomposition can be carried out based on Paul’s method of function–structure
After
analysis determining
to form the focused
relevant function performances
tree. During functionalfor electromechanical
decomposition, products, func
a more detailed
tional decomposition
relationship can beand
between function carried
energyout based ontoPaul’s
is supposed be builtmethod
step byof function–structure
step with the
energy
analysis action in the
to form processfunction
relevant of realizing functions
tree. Duringatfunctional
all levels ofdecomposition,
the considered function
a more detailed
tree, as is shown
relationship in Figure
between 9. Function
function F0 is decomposed
and energy is supposed intotoF1,
beF2built
and step
F3 while F1 iswith the
by step
decomposed into F1.1, F1.2 and F1.3, and each function is linked through energy
energy action in the process of realizing functions at all levels of the considered function flow.
tree, as is shown in Figure 9. Function F0 is decomposed into F1, F2 and F3 while F1 is
decomposed into F1.1, F1.2 and F1.3, and each function is linked through energy flow.
nergies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 11 of 25

Figure 9. Functional decomposition based on function tree.

Figure 9. Functional decomposition based on function tree.
As is demonstrated in Figure 9, the focused function/performance is decomposed
Asstep
step by is to
demonstrated in Figure
the terminal function 9, the
(also named focused
function function/performance
unit) expressed as functional is
group. Afterwards the energy transfer relationship among functional modules is set
step by step to the terminal function (also named function unit) expressed
up, hence, the functional chain under the constraint of energy efficiency and focused
group. Afterwardsis the
function/performance energy with
accomplished transfer relationship
the sub-functions among
replaced functional
by functional basis. modu
hence, the functional chain under the constraint of energy efficiency and f
3.2. Dividing Energy Flow Element
tion/performance is accomplished with the sub-functions replaced by functi
Functional chain describes the energy transfer relationship between functional bases.
However, it does not describe design variables, interface parameters or the energy change
3.2. Dividing
of functional EnergysoFlow
modules, Element between functional modules and energy in the
the relationship
process of function/performance realization needs to be reconstructed by using the form of
energy Functional
flow elementchainon the describes
basis of functionthe chain.
energy transfer
Generally, relationship
some functional bases between
with fun
However,
common effects it does not describe
on energy efficiency anddesign variables,
performance interfacetoparameters
are combined form an energy or the e
flow element, or a functional basis can be divided into multiple
of functional modules, so the relationship between functional modules and energy flow elements. This
process follows the flow criteria for identifying modules from functional models presented
process of function/performance realization needs to be reconstructed by u
by Stone [37].
of energy flow element
Concatenation Criterion: onIf thethe basis
same formofoffunction
energy passes chain.
through Generally,
multiple sub-some fun
functions and no other forms of energy are produced,
with common effects on energy efficiency and performance are combined then these sub-functions can be to
combined into one EFE.
ergyParallel
flow element, or a functional basis can be divided into multiple energy fl
Criterion: If the same form of energy flow backwards through two paths
This process
at a node, thesefollows
two energytheflows
flowform criteria for identifying
new energy modules
flow respectively from
according to functiona
the
series criteria.
sented by Stone [37].
Flow criteria provide a means of evaluating the correlation between sub-functions in
Concatenation Criterion: If the same form of energy passes through m
the EFE division, but it is difficult for practical problems to find an ideal energy transfer
functions
relationship inand no otherorforms
concatenation parallel of energy
form, are
therefore, produced,
using flow criteriathenas on these
its own sub-fun
is
not enough, and
combined intoit one
should be analyzed in conjunction with the design object.
EFE.
In addition, the division of EFE should also be combined with the characteristics
Parallel Criterion: If the same form of energy flow backwards through t
of products and target performance. As for the containing box of a fridge for example,
node,
when the these two energy
performance flows
constraint is itsform
thermal new
load,energy
our concernflowis respectively
heat loss due to according
the
temperature
criteria. difference between the inside and outside of the box. In that case, cold
room and refrigerating room, though as different sub function, can be combined into one
Flow criteria provide a means of evaluating the correlation between sub
functional module, whose characteristic energy is the heat loss of the box constituted by
the
two EFE division,
chambers. but
It should alsoitbeisstressed
difficult forflow
that the practical
criteria ofproblems
EFE divisionto find
give an ideal en
a method
relationship
to evaluate the in concatenation
correlation or parallel
among functional form,
modules. therefore,
However, using flow
it is improper to basecriteria
this simply based on the flow criteria in the EFE division of electromechanical products;
is not enough, and it should be analyzed in conjunction with the design obje
In addition, the division of EFE should also be combined with the cha
products and target performance. As for the containing box of a fridge for ex
the performance constraint is its thermal load, our concern is heat loss due t
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 12 of 25

therefore, specific design objects and performance goals need to be considered. For example,
the compressor, condenser, evaporator and internal heat exchanger (IHX) can be defined
as EFEs when designing a freezer refrigeration system, because their design is focused
on the energy conversion and transfer when refrigerant flows through the EFEs above.
The compressor manufacturer would define motor, cylinder and piston as EFEs because
their focus is the conversion characteristics among electrical and mechanical energies of the
compressor, and the heat energy of refrigerant.
As a basic unit of energy flow model, EFE contains function, design variables, energy
variation, characteristic energy and interfaces. It is composed of one or more components
and achieves function through the role of energy (flow, conversion, transformation and
transfer, etc.).

3.3. Establishing Energy Characteristic Equations

After establishing EFE, characteristic energy of EFE can be calculated to evaluate the
EFE’s performance realization. In accordance with its definition, characteristic energy is a
function of design variables and interface parameters. For energy-using electromechanical
products composed of multiple EFEs, characteristic energy can be written as vector form
shown in Equation (10):
      
Ec1 (t) v1 ϕ1 (v1 , q(t))
 Ec2 (t)    v2    ϕ2 (v2 , q(t)) 
Ec (t) =  .  = Φ . , q(t) =  , (10)
      
..
 ..   ..    . 
Ecn (t) vn ϕn (vn , q(t))

where the vector of Ec is a function of vector v composed by design variables of all EFEs
and interface state parameter q(t) at time t, Ec (t) = [Ec1 (t), Ec2 (t), . . . , Ecn (t)]0 is the vector
composed of all characteristic energy of EFE at time t, v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn )0 represents design
variables of all EFEs, q(t) is the value of the interface state parameter at time t, and Φ = (ϕ1 ,
ϕ2 , . . . , ϕn ) is energy characteristic equation of all EFEs.
It is obvious that v and q(t) are needed to calculate EFE characteristic energy. Among
them, q(t), which reflects the operating status of product or system at time t, is determined
by initial interface state q0 and v. q0 is the initial value of interface state parameters,
including initial conditions of interface state parameters between EFEs and boundary
conditions of environment state parameters. Therefore, for a deterministic system, q(t) can
be obtained via v and q0 according to system characteristics, as is shown in Equation (11):

q(t) = F (v, q0 ), (11)

where F is a mapping relation determined by physical characteristics of system.

If the system can be described by physical characteristic function, q(t) can be solved by
numerical calculation based on analytic equation or finite element method. In addition,
if this is not the case, then q(t) can be solved by experiment or regression approximation.
Furthermore, the two methods above can also be combined. Under the conditions of the v
and q0 , the characteristic energy of each EFE can be obtained by Equations (10) and (11).
Afterwards, the EFE model contains the physical relationship between various pa-
rameters in the form of mathematical equations, which provides quantitative support for
the analysis of the system model and can be the basis of a specific parameter analysis of
performance design. As for the EFE of a household refrigerator compressor (Figure 4),
its characteristic energy (W com ), which is compression work of the compressor to convert
electrical energy into refrigerant heat, is described as Section 2.4.
Based on the energy characteristic equations of compressor in Equation (3), the inter-
face state parameters (pr,in , pr,out ) are defined as the test condition national standard value
(63 kPa, 762 kPa). According to the design variables in Table 2, the characteristic energy
W com of compressor EFE in stable operation is 55.7 W. Thus, characteristic energy contribut-
ing to realizing EFE function can be quantified with energy characteristic equations.
 Energies2022,
Energies 2022,15,
15,5240
x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 25
13 of 25

Table2.2.Design
Table Designvariables
variablesofofaatype
typeofofcompressor.
compressor.

Design
Design Variables
Variables Parameters
Parameters
Vth (cm3) 9.05
V th (cm3 ) 9.05
N (r/min)
N (r/min) 3000
3000
η v ηv 0.8275
0.8275
η i ηi 0.7219
0.7219

3.4. Performance
3.4. Performance Design
DesignBased
Basedon
onEnergy
EnergyFlow
FlowModel
Model
Through
Through energy flow analysis,analysis, thethelink
linkofofEFEs
EFEsthat
that contains
contains design
design parameters,
parameters, in-
interface information,
terface information, characteristic
characteristic energy
energy and and performance
performance parameters
parameters willwill effectively
effectively en-
enhance
hance the thelogical
logicalandandcausal
causalrelationship
relationship between
between parameters in productproduct performance
performance
analysis. Furthermore, based on the energy flow model, the simulation
analysis. Furthermore, based on the energy flow model, the simulation and analysis and analysis
algo-
algorithm of product can be designed to quantitatively analyze the relationship
rithm of product can be designed to quantitatively analyze the relationship between per- between
performance parameters
formance parameters andand design
design parameters.
parameters. ThisThis
willwill be shown
be shown in case
in the the case
studystudy in
in Sec-
Section
tion 4 as4 well.
as well.
As
Asisisthe
thekey
keyto to
thethe
performance
performance response via energy
response consumption
via energy consumptionof energy-consuming
of energy-con-
electromechanical products, energy is strongly related to energy efficiency
suming electromechanical products, energy is strongly related to energy efficiency and performance.and
After establishing the energy flow element reflecting the energy action
performance. After establishing the energy flow element reflecting the energy action form and stateform
and
the
andcharacteristic
state and theenergy used toenergy
characteristic evaluate thetoimpact
used of EFE
evaluate on performance
the impact of EFE onrealization,
performance a
performance design process for analyzing the impact of component
realization, a performance design process for analyzing the impact of component design design variables on
energy
variablesflowonand performance
energy flow andwas constructed was
performance basedconstructed
on the energy flowon
based model, as is shown
the energy flow
in the Figure 10.
model, as is shown in the Figure 10.

Energy efficiency constraint & Functional

Product / System Functional chain
Performance constratint decomposition

Building energy flow model Screening critical design variables

Interface parameter Interface parameter

EFE2 Design variable

EFE1
Parameter
Critical
Characteristics analysis
design
energy
variables
F Ec
EFE q q
v E
Energy efficiency
Performance
q

Optimizing energy efficiency and performance

optimization
Optimized results: Energy efficiency & Performance
Critical design variables
A set of design variables

Figure10.
Figure 10.Performance
Performancedesign
designprocedure
procedurebased
basedon
onenergy
energyflow
flowmodel.
model.

The performance
The performance design
design process
processbased
basedononenergy
energyflow model
flow is mainly
model to construct
is mainly to con-
the relationship among design variables, characteristic energy and energy efficiency/per-
struct the relationship among design variables, characteristic energy and energy effi-
formance to support to
ciency/performance product performance
support design. Firstly,
product performance a functional
design. Firstly, achain was built
functional by
chain
function
was decomposition
built by under the under
function decomposition constraints of energy
the constraints of efficiency and performance.
energy efficiency and perfor-
Then, an
mance. energy
Then, flow flow
an energy model based
model on on
based EFEEFE
waswasestablished
establishedaccording
accordingto to the above
above
 sign variables are screened with the working characteristics of product or s
eration state parameters under different design variable combinations simu
the simulation model. Lastly, energy efficiency improvement and perform
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 ment could be accomplished by optimizing the critical design variables.
14 of 25

4. Example Applied to Refrigerator

modelling procedure. Through an analysis of the relationship among design variables,
In order to verify the effectiveness of the energy flow model for en
characteristic energy and performance supported by EFE model, combined with numerical
improvement,
simulation and CAEan air-cooled
analysis, refrigeration
the simulation model was system wasThe
established. taken asdesign
critical an exampl
variables are screened with the working
tive analysis of simulation and test. characteristics of product or system and operation
state parameters under different design variable combinations simulated based on the
simulation model. Lastly, energy efficiency improvement and performance enhancement
4.1. Energy
could Flow Model
be accomplished of Refrigerator
by optimizing the critical design variables.
A refrigerator
4. Example is a kind
Applied to Refrigerator of product which insulates heat through ther
materials
In order to preserve
to verify objects atoflow
the effectiveness the temperature
energy flow model with forthe principle
energy efficiencyof steam
for refrigeration.
improvement, In the
an air-cooled refrigeration
refrigeration system was system
taken asof an a refrigerator,
example refrigerant
for comparative
analysis of simulation and test.
medium to transport energy among parts and components. There are se
energy
4.1. Energy such as electrical
Flow Model of Refrigerator energy, mechanical energy, heat energy, etc. Fu
structure consists
A refrigerator of mechanical
is a kind of product which parts, heatheat
insulates exchangers,
through thermalthrottling
insulationelement
materials to preserve objects at low temperature
ergy action forms, which all have great complexity. with the principle of steam compression for
refrigeration. In the refrigeration system of a refrigerator, refrigerant is used as the medium
The energy
to transport specificamong refrigeration processThere
parts and components. is demonstrated
are several forms ofinenergyFiguresuch11. Low
aslow-pressure
electrical energy,gaseous
mechanicalrefrigerant (R600a)
energy, heat energy, flows intothe
etc. Furthermore, the compressor
structure consists from
oftube
mechanical parts, heat exchangers, throttling elements
(point 1) and is compressed into high-temperature, high-pressure and other energy action forms, gas (
which all have great complexity.
it isThe cooled
specificinto high-pressure
refrigeration process is supercooled
demonstrated inliquid Figure 11. (point 3) with heat rele
Low-temperature
through the
low-pressure condenser.
gaseous refrigerantAfter(R600a)that,
flows it turns
into into a low-temperature,
the compressor from the air suction low-
tube (point 1) and is compressed into high-temperature,
phase liquid (point 4) after flowing through the internal high-pressure gas (point
heat2).exchanger
Then, c
it is cooled into high-pressure supercooled liquid (point 3) with heat released outward
capillary
through tube andAfter
the condenser. suction
that, ittube. It then
turns into evaporateslow-pressure,
a low-temperature, into low-temperature,
two-phase low
(point
liquid 5) 4)
(point byafter
absorbing
flowing throughheat thein internal
the evaporator.
heat exchanger Finally,
combined it with
turns into low-p
capillary
tube and suction
heating gas by tube. It then evaporates
transferring heatinto
withlow-temperature,
a capillary low-pressure
tube (point gas1)(point
in a suctio
5) by absorbing heat in the evaporator. Finally, it turns into low-pressure, superheating
vapor
gas compression
by transferring heat withrefrigeration cycle
a capillary tube is completed.
(point 1) in a suctionIn thethus
tube, meantime,
a vapor the e
stitutes airrefrigeration
compression circulation cyclesystem with In
is completed. thetherefrigerator
meantime, the cabinets
evaporatorthrough
constitutesthe air
air circulation system with the refrigerator cabinets
provide cooling capacity for the refrigerator cabinets to realizethrough the air duct system to provide
the low-tem
cooling capacity for the refrigerator cabinets to realize the low-temperature storage function
ofage
the function
refrigerator.of the refrigerator.

Figure
Figure Refrigeration
11. 11. principleprinciple
Refrigeration of refrigerator.
of refrigerator.

Since refrigeration performance and energy consumption are the key

of refrigerator design, the refrigerating capacity, as well as energy efficien
 be obtained by analyzing the functional chain of a refrigeration system shown in Figu
13. In Figure 14, there is heat transfer between FB3 and FB4, in other words, they are
series relation and can be combined into an EFE (refrigerator cabinet). FB5 and FB6
related through air and heat, which satisfies the series rule. Considering the design obje
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 there is a structural assembly relationship between component of FB5 (air 15flue) of 25 and co
ponent of FB6 (fan), that is, the effect of energy can be analyzed with the uniform meth
of flow field. Therefore, they can be combined into an EFE. FB7 to FB11 are related throu
Since
refrigerant, refrigeration
which performance
satisfies the series and energy
rule. FB7consumption
to FB11 can are the key performances
be also combined of into an E
refrigerator design, the refrigerating capacity, as well as energy efficiency, were set as the
in principle, however, those components (compressor, condenser, evaporator, IHX) ha
constraints to analyze the energy flow of a refrigerating system.
significant influenceanalysis,
In functional on refrigeration
our focus is performance, and thusenergy
on the function involving they conversion
are not merged
of he
Consequently, thesofunctional
the refrigerant, chain
some functions of a refrigerator
unrelated underdesign
to the performance the constraints of refrigerat
of the refrigeration
system will not be considered in the functional chain, such as opening
capacity and energy efficiency is divided into six functional modules (compressor, and closing of the c
refrigerator door, some additional functions of the chamber (keeping fresh,
denser, evaporator, IHX, air duct system and refrigerator cabinet), as is shown in Figuremoisturizing,
degerming, anti-microbial, lighting, etc.), multimedia, compressor noise reduction, the
Thesedefrosting
can be function
respectively
and soconverted
on. Excludinginto EFEs
those including
functions, functions,
the refrigerator design
functions variables,
based
terface parameters, characteristic energy, etc.
on the refrigeration principle of the refrigerator are summarized as the functional chain
shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Summarized functional chain of refrigerator.

Figure 12. Summarized functional chain of refrigerator.
The functions of the subsystem are decomposed until we reach the bottom of the
function tree and the functional chain is detailed with energy conversion or transfer func-
tion. Expressing sub-functions in common functional basis and establishing the energy
transfer relationship between the functional basis, Figure 13 depicts the functional chain of
the refrigerator.
According to flow criteria, the correlation among functional modules in Figure 14
can be obtained by analyzing the functional chain of a refrigeration system shown in
Figure 13. In Figure 14, there is heat transfer between FB3 and FB4, in other words, they
are in series relation and can be combined into an EFE (refrigerator cabinet). FB5 and
FB6 are related through air and heat, which satisfies the series rule. Considering the
design object, there is a structural assembly relationship between component of FB5 (air
flue) and component of FB6 (fan), that is, the effect of energy can be analyzed with the
uniform method of flow field. Therefore, they can be combined into an EFE. FB7 to FB11
are related through refrigerant, which satisfies the series rule. FB7 to FB11 can be also
combined into an EFE in principle, however, those components (compressor, condenser,
evaporator, IHX) have significant influence on refrigeration performance, and thus they are
not merged here. Consequently, the functional chain of a refrigerator under the constraints
of refrigerating capacity and energy efficiency is divided into six functional modules
(compressor, condenser, evaporator, IHX, air duct system and refrigerator cabinet), as is
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 16 of 25

Energies 2022,
Energies 2022, 15,
15, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 16 of
16 of 25
25
shown in Figure 15. These can be respectively converted into EFEs including functions,
design variables, interface parameters, characteristic energy, etc.

FB4: heat
FB4: heat isolation
isolation
heat
heat
heat
heat
air, heat
air, heat FB3: transfer
FB3: transfer the
the
heat energy
heat energy from
from
food to
food to air
air
FB5: sending
FB5: sending air
air

air, heat
air, heat
FB6: convert
FB6: convert electric
electric air, heat
air, heat
energy into
energy into air
air
pressure difference
pressure difference

air, heat
air, heat
FB7: transfer
FB7: transfer heat
heat
energy from
energy from cabinet
cabinet
refrigerant
refrigerant to refrigerant
to refrigerant refrigerant
refrigerant

FB8: conveying
FB8: conveying refrigerant
refrigerant FB9: reduce
FB9: reduce the
the pressure
pressure
to compressor
to compressor of refrigerant
of refrigerant
refrigerant
refrigerant refrigerant
refrigerant

electricity
electricity FB10: convert
FB10: convert electric
electric refrigerant
refrigerant FB11: transfer
FB11: transfer the
the heat
heat
energy into
energy into refrigerant
refrigerant heat energy
heat energy from
from
heat energy
heat energy refrigerant to
refrigerant to the
the air
air

Figure 13.
Figure13.
Figure Functional
Functional
13.Functional chain
chain of of
chain
of refrigerator
refrigerator under
refrigerator the the
under
under the constraint of refrigerating
constraint
constraint of refrigerating capacity
of refrigerating and energy
capacity
capacity and energy
and en-
efficiency.
efficiency.
ergy efficiency.

FB3: transfer
FB3: transfer the
the heat
heat energy
energy
from food
from food to
to air
air heat
heat
air, heat
air, heat
FB4: heat
FB4: heat isolation
isolation

FB5: sending
FB5: sending air
air
FB6: convert
FB6: convert electric
electric
energy into
energy into air
air air, heat
heat
air,
pressure difference
pressure difference

air, heat
air, heat
FB7: transfer
FB7: transfer heat
heat
energy from
energy from cabinet
cabinet
refrigerant
refrigerant to refrigerant
to refrigerant refrigerant
refrigerant

FB8: conveying
FB8: conveying refrigerant
refrigerant FB9: reduce
FB9: reduce the
the pressure
pressure
to compressor
to compressor of refrigerant
of refrigerant

refrigerant
refrigerant refrigerant
refrigerant

electricity
electricity FB10: convert
FB10: convert electric
electric refrigerant
refrigerant FB11: transfer
FB11: transfer the
the heat
heat
energy into
energy into refrigerant
refrigerant heat energy
heat energy from
from
heat energy
heat energy refrigerant to
refrigerant to the
the air
air

Figure 14.
Figure14.
Figure The
14.
The correlation
The
correlation among
correlation
among functional
among modules
functional
functional of aa freezer
modules
modules of freezer refrigeration
of a refrigeration system based
freezer refrigeration
system based on flow
system
on flow rule.
based on
rule.
flow rule.
rgies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 17 of 25

Circulation of air
Cabinet
and heat

Thermal load, seen as the heat source of the air in the cabinet.

Air circulation system

Environment outside
Promoting the circulation flow of the cold air
produced by evaporator and air in the cabinet.

the cabinet
Evaporator
Electrical energy
Power supply

Heat
Heat exchange between refrigerant
and air in the cabinet.

Regenerator

Heat exchange between the refrigerant in capillary and regenerator.

Compressor Condenser
Converting electrical energy Transferring heat from the
into heat energy of refrigerant. refrigerant to the ambient air

Figure 15. The

Figure functional
15. The functionalmodules ofrefrigeration
modules of refrigeration system.
system.

Parsing of each function module according to the principle of EFE, EFE model is set up
Parsing of each function module according to the principle of EFE, EFE model is
with function information, energy flow information, design information and performance
up with functionThe
information. information, energy
physical relation flowcharacteristic
among information, design
energy, information
design and perf
variables and
mance information.
interfaces The physical
are also analyzed relation
in the form among characteristic
of characteristic equations. energy, design variab
Design variables and interface parameters of six EFEs are shown
and interfaces are also analyzed in the form of characteristic equations. in Table 3. Character-
istic energy and its expression are shown in Table 4.
Design variables and interface parameters of six EFEs are shown in Table 3. Char
teristic energy and its expression are shown in Table 4.
Table 3. Parameters of refrigerating system model.

EFE
Table 3. Parameters Design Variables
of refrigerating Input Parameters
system model. Output Parameters
Compressor Ta , N, Vk , ηv , ηg , U Ak Pcond , h1 , Pevap h2 , T2
EFE
Condenser Design
lcond , ma , mVariables
r , d i , Sr TInput
2 Parameters
Tcond ,Output
Pcond Parameter
Compressor
IHX Ta , Nsc,Vk ,shv ihx
∆T , ∆T , ε , ,UAk T , T
cond evap P ,h ,P h ,
1 4h
h ,T
Evaporator levap , ma , mr , di , Sgr h4 , Tcabcond 1 evapTevap , Pevap , Qevap 2 2
Compartments Wefl , U A,ffm
, UA fz , T ,T ,m Qevap T2 Tcab T
Condenser
Air duct system
cond a,m
Wfan,p , ηf , Cpa
r ,ffdi ,fzSr ef
Tevap
cond , Pcond
Ma , Efan , Tcab,in
IHX Tsc , Tsh ,  ihx Tcond , Tevap h1 ,h4
Evaporator levap , ma , mr , di , Sr h4 ,Tcab Tevap , Pevap ,Qevap
Compartments Wef ,UAff ,UAfz , Tff , Tfz , mef Qevap Tcab
Air duct system Wfan,p ,f , Cpa Tevap M a , Efan , Tcab,in

Table 4. Characteristic energy and its expression.

Energies 2022, 15, 5240 18 of 25

Table 4. Characteristic energy and its expression.

Characteristic Description of
EFE Energy Characteristic Equation
Energy Characteristic Energy
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Compressor W com Compression work pout κ −κ 1 18 of 25
κ
Wcom = mr pin vin κ − 1 [( pin ) − 1]/ηi
Heat transfer from
Condenser Qcond Qcond = ( Tw − Tair )Uo Ao = mr (hin − hout )
condenser to the air
Condenser
IHX Qcond
QIHX
Heattransfer
Heat transferfrom
fromcondenser
capillary to the air Qcond −
QIHX = m(hSL,out = (hTSL.in
w −) Tair
=)U o = m−
mo(hAcap,in r (h − hout) )
hincap,out
to air suction pipe
IHX QIHX Heat transfer from capillary QIHX = m(hSL,out − hSL.in ) = m(hcap,in − hcap,out )
Heat transfer from airtoinair suction pipe
Evaporator Qevap Qevap = ( Tcab − Tw )Uo Ao = mr (hout − hin ) = ( Tw − T r )Ui Ai
Evaporator Qevap cabinet
Heat transfer to evaporator
from air in cabinet to evaporator Qevap = (Tcab − Tw )U o Ao = mr (hout − hin ) = (Tw − Tr )U i Ai
Heat transfer from food to −(TTcab )−=T mair (hair,out − hair,in )
Compartments
Compart- Qcab Qcab = Ufood
Qcab = U(food
Afood Tfood
Afood food cab ) = mair (hair,out − hair,in )
Qcab air infrom
Heat transfer cabinet −Ucab Acab ( Tenv − Tcab ) − Wfan
food to air in cabinet
ments −UEcab A= (Tenv − T−cabE) − Wfan
Air duct W fan Fan electric power Wfan = fan cab Eair,out air,in = ∆pair · QV,air
Air system
duct sys- W∆E Energy change of cold
Fan electric powerair W = Efan = Eair,out − Eair,in = pair  QV,air
fan
tube ∆Etube = Eair,in − Eair,out = Eloss
fan
flow in the air duct
tem ΔEtube Energy change of cold air flow in the air duct Etube = Eair,in − Eair,out = Eloss

The purpose
The purpose ofof energy
energy flow model is to support performance
performance design
design by connecting
connecting
performance andand relevant
relevant design
design variables
variables under
under energy
energyefficiency
efficiency and
andperformance
performancecon-con-
straints
straints with energy
energy being a bridge. The detailed process of how a compressor
The detailed process of how a compressor EFE model EFE model
is established
is established is shown
shown in in Section
Section 2.2.
2.2. In
In addition,
addition, energy
energy flow
flow analysis
analysis of
of other
other functional
functional
modules, and
modules, and establishment
establishment of of other
other EFEs,
EFEs, are
are similar.
similar. Combining
CombiningEFE EFE model
modelandandfunc-
func-
tional chain, an energy flow model of the refrigeration system under energy efficiency
tional chain, an energy flow model of the refrigeration system under energy efficiency and and
refrigerating capacity is shown in Figure
refrigerating capacity is shown in Figure 16. 16.

Convert electrical Wfan

energy into air flow Transfer cold from air Environment & air
to environment and Qcab Twall,cab Ta
Energy change of cold ΔEtube Ta,tube Ta,cab things inside cabinet
air through air duct Twall,cond
pa,tube pa,cab
[lcab , wcab , hcab ,  , d ] ΔE
[ma,evap , S tube , Ltube , ] ΔE Transfer heat energy
Qcond
from refrigerant to air
Ta,evap , pa.evap
U, I, f [lcond , di ] ΔE
Twall,evap

Transfer heat Transfer heat of Tr , pr

energy from cabinet to Qevap refrigerant from QIHX
refrigerant Tr , pr capillary to suction pipe Tr , pr
[ Levap , di ] ΔE [ Lcap , Lsl , Dcap , Di,sl , Do,sl ] ΔE Convert electrical
energy into refrigerant Wcom
heat energy
U, I, f
Power supply [Vth ,  v , i ] ΔE

Figure
Figure 16.
16. Energy
Energy flow
flow model
model of
of refrigerator
refrigerator refrigerating
refrigerating system.
system.

4.2. Simulation
4.2. Simulation and
and Validation
Validation of
of Refrigerator
Refrigerator
The test refrigerator
The refrigerator is
is an
an air-cooled
air-cooledrefrigerator
refrigeratorBCD-4XX
BCD-4XXwith
witha arefrigeration cabinet
refrigeration cabi-
andand
net a freezing cabinet
a freezing as isasshown
cabinet in Figure
is shown 17. 17.
in Figure
 Power supply [Vth ,  v , i ] ΔE

Figure 16. Energy flow model of refrigerator refrigerating system.

4.2. Simulation and Validation of Refrigerator

Energies 2022, 15, 5240
The test refrigerator is an air-cooled refrigerator BCD-4XX with a refrigeration19cabi-
of 25

net and a freezing cabinet as is shown in Figure 17.

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 25

Figure 17. Structural diagram of refrigerator prototype box. 01 Refrigeration cabinet; 02 door of
refrigeration cabinet; 04
Figure 17. Structural door gasket;
diagram 05 freezing
of refrigerator cabinet;box.
prototype 06 door of freezing cabinet;
01 Refrigeration cabinet;11
02evaporator
door of re-
chamber; 16cabinet;
frigeration compressor chamber;
04 door 03/07~10/12~15/17
gasket; 05 freezing cabinet;thermal-protective coating.
06 door of freezing cabinet; 11 evaporator
chamber; 16 compressor chamber; 03/07~10/12~15/17 thermal-protective coating.
Based on the energy flow model of the refrigerating system, a simulation iterative
process of refrigeration
Based on the energy performance
flow model on account
of the of EFE was
refrigerating built
system, for this paper,
a simulation as is process
iterative shown
in Figure 18. The refrigerator running state is described by the energy flowing
of refrigeration performance on account of EFE was built for this paper, as is shown in Figure among
EFEs and
18. The the energyrunning
refrigerator is represented
state isby the thermodynamic
described by the energyenthalpy
flowing for the refrigerator’s
among EFEs and the
refrigeration performance. In order to determine whether the refrigerator
energy is represented by the thermodynamic enthalpy for the refrigerator’s refrigeration is running
in steady state,Inthe
performance. target
order temperature
to determine of compartments,
whether the refrigerator condenser
is running and evaporator
in steady state,are
the
chosen as criterion of
target temperature parameters in thecondenser
compartments, simulationand iterative process.
evaporator Once an
are chosen as iteration
criterion
isparameters
completed, in the
the refrigerator is considered
simulation iterative process.to Once
be inana stable state.
iteration Performance
is completed, index
the refrig-
parameters and corresponding design parameters which can support simulation
erator is considered to be in a stable state. Performance index parameters and correspond- analysis
for
ingperformance matching
design parameters whicharecan
the support
outputs simulation
of the program.
analysisMoreover, the characteristic
for performance matching
energy is also calculated in the results and can be used to evaluate realization
are the outputs of the program. Moreover, the characteristic energy is also calculated of functionin
and performance.
the results and can be used to evaluate realization of function and performance.

Figure 18.
Figure 18.Iterative process
Iterative chartchart
process of refrigerating performance
of refrigerating simulationsimulation
performance based on energy
basedflow
on model.
energy
flow model.
For a refrigerator, usually evaporating temperature, condensation temperature, inlet
temperature of refrigeration cabinet and freezing cabinet are the key performance indica-
tors, while day-power consumption, operating rates and energy efficiency ratio constitute
the most important indicators of energy efficiency. In order to confirm the effectiveness of
an energy flow model through experiments, the above-mentioned indicators are chosen
as the judgment parameters to verify the validity in product design and energy efficiency.
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 20 of 25

For a refrigerator, usually evaporating temperature, condensation temperature, inlet

temperature of refrigeration cabinet and freezing cabinet are the key performance indicators,
while day-power consumption, operating rates and energy efficiency ratio constitute the
most important indicators of energy efficiency. In order to confirm the effectiveness of an
energy flow model through experiments, the above-mentioned indicators are chosen as the
judgment parameters to verify the validity in product design and energy efficiency.
A test bench for the refrigerator was built and tested at room temperatures of 16 ◦ C and
◦
32 C, respectively. The system arrives at a steady state after 600 min. The calculated value
obtained through refrigeration simulation process and the measured value of parameters
are recorded in Table 5.

Table 5. Comparison of measured value and calculated value.

16 ◦ C 32 ◦ C
Indicators Calculated Measured Calculated Measured
Error Error
Value Value Value Value
Evaporation Temperature
−29.82 −27.00 2.82 −26.34 −26.00 0.34
(◦ C)
Condensation
35.30 32.50 2.80 52.66 48.00 4.66
Temperature (◦ C)
Refrigeration Cabinet Inlet
1.53 2.50 0.97 0.04 3.25 3.21
Temperature (◦ C)
Freezing Cabinet Inlet
−24.64 −21.94 2.70 −24.62 −21.34 3.28
Temperature (◦ C)
Day-power Consumption
0.65 0.56 0.09 1.38 1.26 0.12
[(kWh/day)]
Operating Rate (R/%) 50.8 50.0 0.8 83.2 93.0 9.8

As is shown in Table 5, the temperature deviation between calculated value and

measured value is within five degrees and the deviation of day-power consumption,
operating rates and energy efficiency ratio is generally less than one generally. Thus, it is
proved that the proposed analysis method of energy flow model has reliable precision in
the application of performance response to design variables and can be used for energy
characteristic analysis and performance design of the refrigerator.

4.3. Example of Energy Efficiency Improving and Performance Design

Accurate calculation about the performance response to design variables based on
energy flow model contributes to the obtaining of a quantitative relation between design
variables and performances instantly. However, performance optimization and energy
efficiency improvements are complex processes with different influences on various design
variables with different performances. This means that a clear relationship needs to be
studied, which is the following use of an energy analysis of energy flow model.
The performance-matching method based on the energy flow model is illustrated with
the following example for a certain 265 L refrigerator whose daily electricity consumption
is 0.6958 kW·h/24 h.
Firstly, the performance objectives and constraints of a power-saving refrigerator were
defined. According to the user demand and the quality standard that the product should
meet, the performance requirements of the refrigerator include three aspects: a power
saving and consumption reducing characteristics, a food preservation characteristic and a
running state characteristic. Specific indicators are described as follows:
1. The characteristic of power saving and consumption reduction is closely related to
daily electricity consumption ECday (kW·h/24 h). The parameter can be used to
evaluate energy consumption of refrigerator and is an important reference index for
the calculation of an energy efficiency index in the energy efficiency labeling system
implemented in China since 2015.
 Energies 2022, 15, 5240 21 of 25

2.Food preservation characteristics include temperature accuracy and uniformity of

temperature space. The temperature accuracy is mainly related to the choice and
nergies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21
accuracy of a temperature control system, while the uniformity of the temperature
space is related to the energy effect of the refrigeration system EFE and air circulation
EFE. Therefore, the energy-related temperature uniformity is the focus of this paper.
The temperature uniformity is related to the temperature distribution in the refriger-
important
ator and indicator reflecting
can be reflected the matching
by the statistical characteristics
standard of a refrigeration
deviation of different sampling sys
andpoints.
box. If the operating rate is too −1 ◦ the
high, − 1 compressor starts frequently, which
To be consistent, the reciprocal σT ( C ) of standard deviation is used in the
cause great analysis
following startingsoloss to theσT−fixed-frequency
that larger 1
compressor.
indicates better temperature If the operating ra
uniformity.
3.tooThe running state characteristic mainly includes operating
low, the compressor has a large power and a large starting torque, rate. Operating rate iswhich m
equal to the ratio of refrigeration time to cycle time in a refrigeration cycle. It is an
damage the internal structure of the compressor. A reasonable operating rate sho
important indicator reflecting the matching characteristics of a refrigeration system
be the
and tradeoff
box. If thebetween cooling
operating rate is toorate
high,and startup time.
the compressor starts frequently, which will
cause great starting loss to the fixed-frequency
In order to reach the requirement of energy efficiency compressor. If theand
operating rate is too
concerned performa
low, the compressor has a large power and a large starting torque, which may damage
above, a performance matching problem can be solved by optimizing critical design
the internal structure of the compressor. A reasonable operating rate should be the
iables which have
tradeoff significant
between influence
cooling rate and startupon time.
the concerned performance. The critical
design variables
In order to are screened
reach by analyzing
the requirement of energythe effect and
efficiency of EFE designperformance
concerned variables on cha
teristic
above,energy and performance,
a performance combining
matching problem with engineering
can be solved by optimizing practice.
critical design vari-
Based on the energy flow model and its simulation model inThe
ables which have significant influence on the concerned performance. Sections
critical 4.1
EFEand 4.2
design variables
influence are screened
of EFE design by analyzing
variables the effect of EFE
on characteristic design
energy andvariables on character-
performance are calcula
istic energy and performance, combining with engineering practice.
and analyzed by taking theoretical volumetric capacity of compressor
Based on the energy flow model and its simulation model in Sections 4.1 and 4.2, the
EFE as an exam
The influences
influence of compressor
of EFE design theoretical volumetric
variables on characteristic capacity Vare
energy and performance th on each EFE cha
calculated
teristic
and energy
analyzedand performance
by taking theoreticalare calculated
volumetric via of
capacity steady-state
compressor EFE performance
as an example. simulatio
The influences of compressor theoretical volumetric capacity V on
the refrigeration system and are shown respectively in Figuresth 19 and 20. As is seen in each EFE char-
acteristic energy and performance are calculated via steady-state performance simulation
figures, theoretical volumetric capacity has a great influence on ECday and R. With th
of the refrigeration system and are shown respectively in Figures 19 and 20. As is seen
retical volumetric
in the capacity
figures, theoretical increasing,
volumetric the has
capacity performance of allonEFEs
a great influence ECdayisandimproved
R. With while
efficiency of the
theoretical wholecapacity
volumetric machine decreases,
increasing, which leads
the performance to EFEs
of all a significant
is improved increase
while in po
the efficiencyThat
consumption. of theis,
whole machinethe
although decreases,
increasewhich leads to a significant
of theoretical increase
volumetric in powerleads to
capacity
consumption.
decrease That is, although
of the operating rate,the
theincrease of theoretical
day-power volumetricofcapacity
consumption leadsstill
electricity to the
increase
decrease of the operating rate, the day-power consumption of electricity still increases.

140
y = 4.361x + 71.388
120 R²= 0.9953
Characteristic energy(W)

100 y = 3.5389x + 74.059

R²= 0.9927
80
y = 4.1624x + 12.724
60
R²= 0.9983
40

20 y = 1.884x + 8.7374
R²= 0.9971
0 Vth (m3)
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
W_com Q_IHX Q_cond Q_evap

Figure 19. The influences of compressor theoretical volumetric capacity on EFE characteristic energy.
Figure 19. The influences of compressor theoretical volumetric capacity on EFE characteristic energ

0.8
y = 0.028x + 0.3972
0.7 R²= 0.9965
ance

0.6
 0 Vth (m3)
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
W_com Q_IHX Q_cond Q_evap

Energies 2022, 15, 5240 22 of 25

Figure 19. The influences of compressor theoretical volumetric capacity on EFE characteristic energ

0.8
y = 0.028x + 0.3972
0.7 R²= 0.9965

Performance
0.6

0.5
y = 0.0017x2 - 0.0484x + 0.8067
0.4 R²= 0.9996

0.3 Vth (m3)

6 8 10 12
EC(kWh/day) R

Figure 20. The influences of compressor theoretical volumetric capacity on performance parameters.
Figure 20. The influences of compressor theoretical volumetric capacity on performance parameter
The analysis about the influences of other EFE design variables on characteristic energy
The
and analysis isabout
performance similarthe influences
to that of othertheoretical
of the compressor EFE design variables
volumetric on characteristi
capacity. Based
on these parameter analysis results, five design variables which have a significant
ergy and performance is similar to that of the compressor theoretical volumetric capa influence
on characteristic energy and performance, and which are easy parameter modifications to
realize were selected. In addition, according to the effect trend, engineering experience
and manufacturing process, the parameter scope of five design variables were set and are
shown in Table 6. The five design variables included compressor theoretical volumetric
capacity Vth , refrigerant charge M, length of capillary tube Lcap , length of evaporator tube
Levap and air volume of fan ma .

Table 6. Parameter scope of five design variables.

Design Variables
Serial Number V th M Lcap Levap ma
A/cm3 B/g C/m D/m E/kg·s−1
1 8.34 41 2.4 5.7 0.024
2 8.56 41.3 2.5 6.0 0.026
3 8.75 41.7 2.6 6.2 0.028
4 9.05 42 2.7 6.5 0.030
5 9.27 42.3 2.8 6.7 0.032
6 9.56 42.6 2.9 7.0 0.034
7 9.78 43 3.0 7.2 0.036

A uniform design method was adopted to obtain the performance response of each
group with the simulation model, as is shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Performance response of each group with simulation model.

Design Variables Performance Response

Test Number
A B C D E σT−1 ECday R
1 1 2 3 4 6 2.64 0.6270 71.17
2 2 4 6 1 5 2.53 0.6271 70.56
3 3 6 2 5 4 2.44 0.6264 69.98
4 4 1 5 2 3 2.35 0.6281 69.32
5 5 3 1 6 2 2.27 0.6279 68.73
6 6 5 4 3 1 2.19 0.6290 68.10
7 7 7 7 7 7 2.67 0.6610 68.99

With daily power consumption as the design objective and other parameters as the
◦
performance constraints (R ≤ 70%, σT−1 ≥ 2.5 C−1 ), a regression model between design
variables and performance response was established. The mixed integer linear program-
ming method was adopted to calculate the results satisfying the optimization conditions
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 23 of 25

as follows: V th = 9.27 cm3 , M = 41 g, Lcap = 2.4 m, Le = 5.7 m, ma = 0.024 kg/s. The corre-
sponding performance response was calculated by simulation: ECday = 0.6192 kW·h/24 h,
R = 69.91%, σT−1 = 2.57 ◦ C−1 . The product with EFEs corresponding to the results was
tested and the improved test results are shown in Table 8.

Table 8. Improved test results of the product with EFEs.

Performance Index Test Result

Daily electricity consumption ECday (kW·h/24 h) 0.6327
Temperature uniformity σT−1 (◦ C−1 ) 2.52
Operating rate R (%) 68.0

In Table 8, the difference between improved test data and simulation data may re-
sult in heat leakage and eddy currents caused by delicate structure. In spite of this, the
performance matching optimization design of the improved prototype still meets the re-
quirements of the optimization problem among which the daily power consumption is
reduced by about 9%. Therefore, the performance matching and energy efficiency in-
creasing method based on energy flow model is effective and provides a direction for the
optimization and design of design parameters supporting energy efficiency improvement.

5. Conclusions
As the key factor in realizing functions and performance with consumption of power,
energy plays a significant role in the design process of performance and energy efficiency
improvement for complex electromechanical products. The main aim of the present study
was to improve energy efficiency with energy as a bridge between design variables and
performance. The most important outcomes are summarized as follows:
• Energy flow model with basic element EFE was proposed and built based on functional
basis. The model contains function, design variable and characteristic energy in EFE,
the interface parameter between EFEs and the environment, which can support the
design of performance and energy efficiency improvement.
• The modelling process of the energy flow model under the constraints of energy
efficiency and target performance was presented. This contains the building of a
functional chain under the constraints of energy efficiency and performance, division
of EFE, building energy flow model and calculation of characteristic energy.
• The performance and energy efficiency design procedure based on energy flow model
was presented to systematically and logically describe the interactional and anfrac-
tuous relationship between performance and design parameters, thereby supporting
a detailed design using as bases the characteristic energy and energy characteristic
equations with the energy flow model.
• The energy flow model of the refrigerator, containing six EFE models (compressor,
condenser, IHX, evaporator, compartments and air duct system), under the constraints
of refrigerating performance and energy efficiency improving was built.
• Based on the operating principle of a refrigerator system and the energy flow model,
a simulation iterative process of refrigerating system performance was presented,
and the effectiveness of the model was verified by a comparison between simulation
and experiment.
• The performance matching method based on the energy flow model was illustrated
with an example for a certain 265 L refrigerator. There were five critical design variables
screened, containing V th , M, Lcap , Levap and ma . With ECday as design objective and σT−1
◦ −1
and R as performance constraints (R ≤ 70%, σT−1 ≥ 2.5 C ), the optimization results
of five critical design variables are as follows: V th = 9.27 cm3 , M = 41 g, Lcap = 2.4 m,
Le = 5.7 m, ma = 0.024 kg/s. The corresponding calculation results calculated by energy
flow simulation model are: ECday = 0.6192 kW·h/24 h, R = 69.91%, σT−1 = 2.57 ◦ C−1 ,
while the test results of improved prototype are: ECday = 0.6327 kW·h/24 h, R = 68.0%,
Energies 2022, 15, 5240 24 of 25

σT−1 = 2.52 ◦ C−1 . The test results of the improved prototype meet the requirements of
operating rate and temperature uniformity, and the daily electricity consumption is
reduced by about 9%. The comparison between design results of energy flow model
and testing results of refrigerator prototype validate that the performance matching
and energy efficiency increasing method based on energy flow model is effective.
In the last decades, there have been many methods to support product design and
energy efficiency improvement based on energy. Some of these, such as functional basis
and bond graph, have been presented during the conceptual design stage and cannot
be applied to the detailed design stage since none of these quantitatively developed a
relationship among design variables, energy flow and performance. While other methods
based on energy during the detailed design stage tended to improve energy efficiency
within the limited scope of parts design, or under a single performance constraint. In our
paper, we attempted to link the conceptual design and detailed design with an energy
flow model which contributes to ascertaining how various design variables impact the
response of energy efficiency and performance to instantly support performance matching.
Therefore, the energy flow model is conducive to support energy efficiency improvement
at the product or system level.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.W. and D.X.; methodology, X.W.; software, X.W.; valida-
tion, X.W.; writing—original draft preparation, X.W.; writing—review and editing, X.W. and D.X.;
supervision, D.X.; project administration, D.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data is contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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