Humayun Kabir

Department of MME
BUET, Dhaka
  The critical temperature lines
 Micro-structural development during slow
cooling of steels
 Classification of steels
 Effect of carbon and other alloying elements
on structure and properties of steels

Reference:
1. WD Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering ,An Introduction,
 L
austenite + L L + cementite
Temperature, °C

austenite
austenite
+ ferrite austenite + cementite

ferrite cemenite
ferrite + cementite

Fe wt. % carbon Fe3C

 1130 Upper Critical Temperatures
Upper-critical where transformation of austenite begins
Temperature Line during cooling
A3  g-a allotropic transformation
g
Temperature, °C

910 Acm  precipitation of Fe3C from g

Acm g+Fe3C Lower Critical Temperatures
g+a A3
A1 A3,1 where austenite transformation ends during
723 cooling by forming pearlite isothermally

For a particular alloy, both upper- and

Lower-critical lower-critical temperatures change during
Temperature Line heating and cooling.
a+P P+Fe3C Critical temperature line goes down on
cooling, while it goes up on heating.
0.8 2.0
wt. % carbon The variation in temperature depends on
cooling and heating rate. For slower rates,
Steel portion of Fe-Fe3C diagram the two temperatures approach each other.
(d-zone omitted)
 Eutectoid steels (0.8 % C)
1130
When an eutectoid steel is
cooled slowly, all austenite
grains transforms into the
eutectoid mixture pearlite, a
Temperature, °C

Austenite
910 lamellar or layered structure
of ferrite and cementite.
Austenite
+ Ferrite  The layers of alternating
723 phases in pearlite are formed
 in the same way as layered
structure of eutectic is formed:
Pearlite + by redistribution C atoms
Ferrite + between ferrite and cementite
Pearlite Cementite
by atomic diffusion.
0.8 2.0
wt. % carbon
 Eutectoid steels (0.8 % C)
Austenite (0.8 % C) cannot change
into ferrite (0.025 % C) until some of
its carbon atoms come out of
solution.
Therefore the first attempt of
transformation is the precipitation of
carbon atoms out of austenite to
form plates of cementite (6.67 % C).
Pearlite microstructure
containing alternate
layers of ferrite (white)
In the areas immediately adjacent and cementite (black)
to cementite, the iron is depleted
of carbon, and the atoms
rearrange themselves to form
ferrite.
Thus, thin layers of ferrite are
formed on each sides of cementite
plate. This process continues until
all austenite change into pearlite.
 Hypoeutectoid steels (< 0.8 % C)

1130 Allotropic transformation of

austenite (FCC) to ferrite
Austenite (BCC) starts at A3 line at the
grain boundaries of
austenite.
Temperature, °C

910 
A3 Since ferrite can dissolve
 Austenite very little carbon, the extra
Proeutectoid
+ Ferrite carbon comes out of solution
Ferrite and the remaining austenite

723  becomes richer in carbon.
A1
The carbon content of g
gradually moves down and to
Ferrite + Pearlite + the right along A3 line.
Pearlite Cementite
At 723 C (A1 line), the
0.20 0.8 2.0 remaining g grains containing
wt. % carbon
0.8% carbon undergoes
eutectoid reaction and forms
pearlite.
 Hypereutectoid steels (> 0.8 % C)
The Acm line is a solvus line
along which carbon solubility 1130
of austenite decreases with T.
Austenite
Below Acm, the extra carbon
comes out of g along the grain
boundary as Fe3C precipitates.
Temperature, °C
910  Acm
During their growth, Fe3C Austenite
combine each other to form +
Proeutectoid
one single grain (just like  Cementite
Cementite
joining two soap bubbles). 723 

A3,1
As Fe3C precipitates, carbon
content of the remaining g
gradually moves down and to Ferrite + Pearlite +
the left along Acm line. Pearlite Cementite

At 723 C (A3,1 line), the

remaining g containing 0.80% 0.8 1.0 2.0
carbon undergoes eutectoid wt. % carbon
reaction and forms pearlite.
 why a proeutectoid phase (ferrite or cementite) forms along
austenite grain boundaries?

 The atoms are bonded less regularly along a grain boundary (e.g., bond angles are
longer), and consequently there is an interfacial or grain boundary energy similar to
the surface energy.

 The magnitude of this energy is a function of the degree of misorientation, being

larger for high-angle boundaries.

 Grain boundaries are more chemically reactive than the grains themselves as a
consequence of this boundary energy.
 why a proeutectoid phase (ferrite or cementite) forms along
austenite grain boundaries?

 Furthermore, impurity atoms often preferentially segregate along these boundaries

because of their higher energy state.

 A lower net interfacial energy results when a proeutectoid phase forms along existing
austenite grain boundaries than when the proeutectoid phase forms within the interior
of the grains.

 The total interfacial energy is lower in large or coarse-grained materials than in fine-
grained ones because there is less total boundary area in the former.
Based on carbon content
Dead soft (0.03–0.10 % C) Steel
wires, rivets, chain, sheet, strip, welded pipe
Mild (0.10–0.25 % C) Steel
rolled plate, structural shapes, gears, forgings
Medium carbon (0.26–0.60 % C) Steel
connecting rods, crane hooks, shafts, axles, gears, rotors, rails
High carbon (0.61–2.14 % C) Steel
screw drivers, saws, drills, dies, hammers, wrenches, punches, chisels
 Variation in steel structures with carbon content

Dead soft steel (C0.01%) Low carbon steel (C0.1%) Medium carbon steel (C0.4%)
Ferrite grains only Mostly ferrite with a few pearlite Almost equal ferrite and pearlite

Eutectoid steel (C0.8%) Hypereutectoid steel (C0.9%)

Pearlite grains only Pearlite grains surrounded by cementite network
Problem
For an Fe-0.35% C alloy at a temperature just below
the eutectoid, determine the following:
[a] The fraction of ferrite and cementite phases
[b] The fraction of ferrite and pearlite
[c] The fraction of eutectoid ferrite
Solution
[a] Apply lever rule for a tie line that extends all the way across
the Ferrite + Cementite phase field. Then,
WF = 100 (6.67 – 0.35) / (6.67 – 0.025) = 95.109 %
WFe3C = 100 – 95 = 4.89 %

[b] Use tie line that extends only up to the Ferrite + Pearlite
phase field. Then,
WF = 100 (0.8 – 0.35) / (0.8 – 0.025) = 58.06 %
WP = 100 – 56 = 41.93 %

[c] The amount of ferrite calculated in [a] is the total (i.e.,

proeutectoid plus eutectoid) ferrite content, while that
calculated in [b] is the proeutectoid ferrite content only. Thus,
The eutectoid ferrite content = 95.109 – 58.06= 37.05 %.
Steelmaking process
basic oxygen process, electric process, etc.
De-oxidation practice
rimmed, capped, semi-killed, killed
Product form
wire, bar, plate, sheet, strip, tubing, or structural shapes
Finishing method
cold drawn, cold rolled, hot rolled, extruded, etc.
Application
tool steels, bearing steels, spring steels, etc.
Metallography
hypoeutectoid, eutectoid, hypereutectoid
Composition
plain carbon, low alloy, high alloy, high-strength-low-alloy (HSLA)
• Additions of other alloying elements (Cr, Ni, Ti, etc.) bring
about rather dramatic changes in the binary iron–iron carbide
phase diagram.

• One of the important changes is the shift in position of the

eutectoid with respect to temperature and to carbon
concentration.

• Thus, other alloy additions alter not only the temperature of

the eutectoid reaction but also the relative fractions of pearlite
and the proeutectoid phase that form.
Shift of Eutectoid Temperature
Shift of Eutectoid Composition
(Carbon %)
Effect of small quantities of other elements:
• Sulfur: generally kept below 0.05% . Forms FeS (low melting point
eutectic) which causes hot shortness. When the steel is forged or rolled
at elevated temperatures, the steel becomes brittle due to the melting of
FeS allowing cracks to develop. Harmful!

• Manganese: present in all commercial plain carbon steels in the range

of 0.03 to 1.0 %. The function of Mn is to counteract the ill effects of
Sulfur. In the presence of Mn , Sulfur tends to form MnS rather than
FeS. MnS may pass out to slag or remain as well distributed inclusions
throughout the structure. Beneficial!
Effect of small quantities of other elements:
• Phosphorous: The phosphorous content is generally kept below
0.04% . This small quantity tends to dissolve in ferrite increasing the
strength and hardness slightly. Sometimes it improves cutting
properties in the range of 0.07 to 1.12%. In larger quantities
phosphorous reduces ductility, increasing the tendency to crack when
cold worked making it cold short.

• Silicon: Most commercial steels contain between 0.05 to 0.3% silicon.

Silicon dissolves in ferrite increasing the strength without greatly
reducing the ductility. It promotes the de-oxidation of molten steel
through the formation of SiO2.