JP Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

© 2021 Pushpa Publishing House, Prayagraj, India

http://www.pphmj.com
http://dx.doi.org/10.17654/HM023010035
Volume 23, Number 1, 2021, Pages 35-56 ISSN: 0973-5763

AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF

PINE NEEDLES AND STRAW FIBERS ON THE
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR AND THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY OF ADOBE EARTH BLOCKS
WITH CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

S. Nasla1, K. Gueraoui1, M. Cherraj1, A. Samaouali3, E. Nchiti2,

Y. Jamil1, O. Arab2 and K. Bougtaib1
1
Team of Modelling and Simulating in Mechanics and Energetics
Energy Research Centre
Faculty of Sciences
Mohamed V. University
B.P. 1014, Rabat, Morocco
2
Team of the Field of Mechanical and Materials
Energy Research Centre
Faculty of Sciences
Mohamed V. University
B.P. 1014, Rabat, Morocco
3
Team of the Field of Thermodynamics and Energetics
Energy Research Centre
Faculty of Sciences
Mohamed V. University
B.P. 1014, Rabat, Morocco
Received: April 19, 2021; Accepted: May 20, 2021
Keywords and phrases: soil, adobe blocks, fiber, straw, pine needle, thermal conductivity,
chemical composition.
36 S. Nasla et al.
Abstract

Non-industrial materials used in civil engineering are manufactured

materials applied by craftsmen during short production cycles. These
are generally local materials, earth, and stone, plant fibers with binder
and such others found on the site or near the construction site. Their
study and use have become promising in highly industrialized
countries. For this study, we have selected adobe block as a
construction material sample of the ground, which was mixed with
some fibers stabilizers such as straw fibers and pine needle fibers in
various counts distinctly. The adobe block specimens were retained
from Had Laghoualem, Khemisset soil. The study purposes contain
the mineralogical characterization of the soil and the fibers stabilizers,
where the used sample making was analyzed by miscellaneous
techniques such as (X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy). The
findings display that each of these materials contains carbonates
calcite, kaolinite and quartz. Additionally, a thermal conductivity
measurement was conducted on the adobe blocks stabilized with
fibers samples using the CT-meter device. The thermal conductivity
estimation infers that the adobe block thermal conductivity is inversely
proportional with the percentage of straw fibers stabilizers, and pine
needle fibers stabilizers. As a function of the content of fiber
stabilizers in the samples, we found that straw fibers improve the
mechanical behavior of adobe blocks as compared to pine needle
fibers.

1. Introduction

There is a wide variety of types of earthenware construction; the most

commonly used type is adobe. This construction technique requires a rather
clayey soil, to which straw is often added. This initial material is hydrated to
reach a plastic paste state. The latter is thrown into a wooden frame that
gives it its shape and dimensions. After smoothing by hand or with a wooden
ruler, the frame is removed with a sharp blow, and the molded clay is
allowed to dry. In several reworkings, each block of adobe is turned over so
that it dries evenly throughout its thickness, then it is ready for masonry.
Many studies have worked on examining the influence of adding fibers
to adobe bricks to boost its properties [9-13]. Ouedraogo et al. [12] have
 An Experimental Study of the Effect of Pine Needles … 37
investigated how adding fonio straw can affect the adobe bricks.
Furthermore, they concluded that the thermal conductivity declines
obviously when the proportion of the fibers rises. Millogo et al. [23] have
put various lengths of Hibiscus Cannabinus fibers to reach out reducing
thermal conductivity while improving mechanical properties.
The aim of this experimental work is to look out for a correlation
between the chemical properties of fibers, their thermal and mechanic
behaviors of adobe bricks. Finally, for the purpose of the well
comprehension of this behavior, an experimental investigation was carried
out for two types of adobe bricks. Adobe bricks samples were mixed with
straw fibers for the first type experiment while for the second, adobe bricks
samples were mixed with pine needles. The two-type experiment was done
using various portions.

In Section 2 of this paper, the materials used in this study are described,
namely soil, straw fiber and pine needles. Section 3 presents the results of
the chemical and mineral analysis of these materials. The different results of
the thermal analysis for the nine samples of adobe blocks with two different
kinds of fibers as stabilizers are presented in Section 4. Section 5 presents
the effect of pine needles and straw fibers on the compressive strength of
the adobe blocks. Finally, a conclusion indicates the important and valuable
information about the properties of earth and fibers as building materials that
will be extremely beneficial for engineers and ecological building designers.

2. Study Materials

2.1. Material

The materials used in this study are soil, straw fiber and pine needles.

2.2. Soil

The soil that is used for making our samples was taken from
Had Laghoualem, Khemisset province (Rabat-Salé-Zemmour-Zaer region).
Before we start making our samples, we have tested the soil to ensure its
38 S. Nasla et al.
suitability for construction. The reference criterion for soil selection was the
recommendations of CRATerre (Centre International de la Construction en
Terre). We carried out several soil tests (granulometry, sedimentometry and
Atterberg Limits testing). Two measurement methods are used to obtain the
granulometric curves: sieving and sedimentation. Figure 1 shows the
granulometric curves of the soil with the ideal curve. From the upper and
lower limit fuseau, we can observe that the situation of particle size curve of
our soil is between the ideal curve and the upper limit fuseau, and it is closer
to the ideal curve.

Figure 1. Granulometric curves of earth Khemisset.

According to the curve of the soil granulometry distribution in Figure 1,

and Table 1 which summarizes the granular fraction and the Atterberg limits,
the soil is defined as clayey sandy silt. Also, according to CRATerre
recommendations, it can be concluded that the earth of Khemisset can be
used in the earth construction [1-3].

Table 1. The granular fraction and Atterberg limits of the earth Khemisset
Clay 23.18%
Silt 25.28%
Sand 35.08%
Gravel 16.46%
Liquid limit (LL) 35
Plastic limit (PL) 18
 An Experimental Study of the Effect of Pine Needles … 39
2.3. Fibers
For the manufacture of earthenware test pieces, we also used straw
fibers and pine needle fibers from the Rabat-Salé-Zemmour-Zaer region,
whose physical characteristics are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Physical characteristics of the fibers used

Characteristics Unit Straw fiber Pine needle fibers
3
Apparent volumetric mass Kg/m 210 550
Diameter mm Enter 1 and 4 Enter 1 and 2
Length mm Enter 20 and 60 Enter 500-1200

Figure 2. Fiber of straw.

Figure 3. Fiber of pine needles.

40 S. Nasla et al.
2.4. Mixture composition; sample preparation

In order to improve the thermal characteristics of buried adobes

blocks/bricks, we opted for two types of treatment, treatment with straw
fiber with four different contents: 1, 2, 3, 4%, and treatment with pine needle
fiber with four different contents: 1, 2, 3, 4%. Table 3 and Figures 4 and 5
show the number of materials used for each series of adobe blocks/bricks.

Table 3. Compositions of adobe blocks/bricks mixtures

Designation Ground (%) Straw fiber (%) Pine needle fiber (%)
Ref 100 0 0
Str1 99 1 0
Str2 98 2 0
Str3 97 3 0
Str4 96 4 0
Pn1 99 0 1
Pn2 98 0 2
Pn3 97 0 3
Pn4 96 0 4

Figure 4. Wooden mold.

 An Experimental Study of the Effect of Pine Needles … 41

Figure 5(a). Earthen adobe blocks/bricks test tubes with straw fibers.

Figure 5(b). Earthenware test tubes with pine needle fiber.

2.5. The device for measuring thermal conductivity

The CT-meter was used to evaluate the thermal conductivity of the

samples in Figure 6. It aims to accurately assess the thermal characteristics
of several homogeneous and isotropic materials such as adobe blocks. The
apparatus consists of a shock sensor, an electronic acquisition system, and
software for testing guidance and data processing. The thermal parameters of
the CT-meter (heating power = 1W, measuring time = 500s, heating time =
400s, resistance of the probe = 2.2Ω, and the ambient temperature = 26°C),
the thermal parameters are constant for all samples.
42 S. Nasla et al.

Figure 6. CT-meter devices [8].

3. Results of Chemical and Mineralogical Analysis

To analyse the chemical elements, and determine the proportions of the

mineralogical elements in the three samples, namely, earth, straw fibers and
pine needle fibers, three different analytical techniques were carried out
in the laboratory of the Faculty of Science, Rabat: X-ray diffraction, IR
Infrared and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) combined with X-ray
Dispersive Energy Microanalysis (EDX).

3.1. Analysis by scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS)

The SEM allows us to obtain three-dimensional micrographs on the

surface of samples with a very high resolution in the nanometer range, which
gives us qualitative information on the homogeneity of the sample [4, 5].

From the obtained micrograph earth, it can be seen that the calcite
CaCO3 is dominant as well as the quartz SiO2.

3.2. SEM examination and EDS analyses

The SEM allows for images on the surface of the samples in three
dimensions with a very high resolution of the order of nanometers, which
gives us qualitative information on the homogeneity of the sample [16, 17].

According to the images of the earth Khemisset, pine needle and straw
fiber obtained by the SEM with EDS, we note:
 An Experimental Study of the Effect of Pine Needles … 43
SEM examinations performed on earth samples, Figures 8(a) and 8(b),
showed a heterogeneous structure consisting of isolated particles of kaolinite
Figure 1, coarse grains of quartz and tiny acicular particles of free silica. The
structural formula of kaolinite, deduced from its EDS analyses, Figure 1, is
(Si), (Al), (Mg), (O) calcium-rich zones, manifesting as bright areas.

However, the pine needle samples contain particles of kaolinite, Figure

9(a), coarse grains of quartz and tiny acicular particles of free silica. The
structural formula of kaolinite, deduced from its EDS analyses, Figure 9(b),
is (Co), (O), (Cr), (C) calcium-rich zones and (K).

On the other hand, the sample of straw, Figures 7(a) and 7(b), showed a
heterogeneous structure consisting of isolated particles of kaolinite, Figure
10(a), coarse grains of quartz and tiny acicular particles of free silica. The
structural formula of kaolinite, deduced from its EDS analyses, Figure 7(b),
is (O), (Mn), (Si), (Ni), (K) and (C) (calcium-rich zones, manifesting as
bright areas.

3.3. X-ray diffraction (XRD)

This technique is classically used in mineralogical studies in order

to identify the different crystallized mineral phases [5, 6]. From the
diffractogram presented in Figure 11(a), it is clear that the earth contains
mainly Quartz SiO2 [7, 8], kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4 [8] and Muscovite
H2KAl3(SiO4)3. We notice a very high proportion of quartz in the material.
The absence of smectites and the low proportion of illites show that the clay
is not swelling [9]. The mineralogical composition of the material could
have an effect on the physical, thermal and mechanical properties of the
bricks, including their density, porosity, thermal conductivity and
compressive strength [10].

Through the chemical analysis of straw and pine needle fibers, Figures
11(b) and 11(c), we note the absence of crystallized phases; therefore, the
two last samples contain phases with an amorphous nature.
44 S. Nasla et al.

Figure 7. SEM micrograph of earth, (a) 5µm and (b) 1µm.

Figure 8(a). SEM micrographs of earth clayey samples.

Figure 8(b). EDS analyses of areas of earth clayey samples.

 An Experimental Study of the Effect of Pine Needles … 45

Figure 9(a). SEM micrographs of pine needle clayey samples.

Figure 9(b). SEM micrographs of pine needle clayey samples.

Figure 10(a) SEM micrographs of straw clayey samples.

46 S. Nasla et al.

Figure 10(b). EDS analyses of straw clayey samples.

Figure 11(a). Earth’s X-ray diffraction spectrum.

Figure 11(b). Straw X-ray diffraction spectrum.

 An Experimental Study of the Effect of Pine Needles … 47

Figure 11(c). Pine needle X-ray diffraction spectrum.

3.4. Infrared (IR) analysis

Infrared spectrometry analysis is concerned with the identification of

crystallized and amorphous mineral phases. It is used to identify secondary
minerals such as calcite and quartz [4, 5].

The IRTF spectra of the soil of adobes are presented in Figure 12(a).
The main bands, Figure 12(a), characterize the presence of quartz, kaolinite
and hygroscopic water. The observed splitting at 1250.56; 1316.11, 1365.66,
1422.20 and 1449.91cm–1 suggests that the carbonate groups are slightly
distorted and are in the amorphous state.

The bands of carbonates are (1509.14; 1560.78, 1599.38cm–1), quartz

(1028.82, 1155.60cm–1). The presence of CH and calcite is revealed by the
intensification of the band at 897.57, 2919.02cm–1.

It is worth noting that the marked intensification of the broadband at

3326.47cm–1 is commonly attributed to hydration water, may be taken as an
indication of the presence of CSH, kaolinite (694.16cm–1, 662.78) [11-14].

The IRTF spectra of the pin are presented in Figure 12(a), which shows
the bands of carbonate observed splitting at 1200.77, 1250.12, 1317.72,
1341.13, 1364.42 and 1439.07cm–1 suggesting that the carbonate groups are
slightly distorted and are in the amorphous state.
48 S. Nasla et al.
The presence of CH and calcite is revealed by the intensification of the
band at 2849.80, 2917.92cm–1.

The IRTF spectra of the straw are presented in Figure 8. The main
bands, Figure 8(a), characterize the presence of CH and calcite revealed by
the intensification of the band at 873.876, 1406.86cm–1. It is worth noting
that the marked intensification of the broadband at 3309.99cm–1 is commonly
attributed to hydration water, may be taken as an indication of the presence
of CSH [23-27].

Figure 12(a). Infrared spectra of the samples a: earth of adobes

blocks/bricks.

Figure 12(b). Infrared spectra of the samples a: pine needle.

 An Experimental Study of the Effect of Pine Needles … 49

Figure 12(c). Infrared spectra of the samples: straw fiber.

4. Results of Thermal Analysis

We conducted thermal conductivity measurements for nine samples of

adobe blocks with two different kinds of fibers as stabilizers. One sample
without any stabilizer, four samples stabilized by pine needle fiber and four
more samples stabilized by straw fiber with different contents, the dimension
of each of the samples is 4 × 4 × 16cm3.
Figure 13 shows the evolutions of the thermal conductivity as a function
of fiber contents of the straw fiber and the pine needle fiber. There is an
inverse relationship between the thermal conductivity of the adobe blocks
samples and fiber content. For straw fibers or the pine needle fibers, the
thermal conductivity decreases when the fiber content increases. In addition,
we can observe that even with small quantities of fibers result in a
significant change in the thermal conductivity of adobe blocks an
appreciable decrease of the thermal conductivity. In addition, we found that
the greatest value of the thermal conductivity of adobe block samples is that
of the sample which does not contain any fibers content (0% of fiber) where
the thermal conductivity value is 0.769 (W/m.K). In addition, the lowest
thermal conductivity value is for samples with the greatest value of fiber
content (4% fiber content) where the thermal conductivity value is 0.589
(W/m.K) for the straw fiber content. Moreover, 0.682W/m.K for the pine
needle fiber, Table 4. There is marked decrease in thermal conductivity of
50 S. Nasla et al.
the adobe blocks samples with straw fiber more than the adobe blocks
samples with pine needle fiber.

Figure 13. Thermal conductivity as a function of fiber content.

Indeed, the reason for the decrease in the thermal conductivity of the
samples with the increase in the fiber content is that the fibers increase the
number and size of the voids between the particles of the samples. The
presence of voids increases air quantity inside it and decreases thermal
conduction pathways. Therefore, the higher the proportion of air inside
adobe blocks the higher will be the thermal insulation character of the
material since air is a good insulator where the value of thermal conductivity
is 0.0262W/m.K.
Thermal conductivity is dependent on samples densities, presence of
voids reduces the density of the samples and thus reduces their thermal
conductivities, Table 4 [24, 25].

Table 4. The experimental values of thermal conductivities of adobe blocks

with different fibers stabilizers
The density of the Thermal conductivity of The density of the Thermal conductivity
Fiber
samples stabilized the samples stabilized samples stabilized of the samples
content
by pine needle fiber by pine needle fiber by straw fiber stabilized by straw
(%)
(Pn) (Kg/m3) (Pn) (W/m.K) (Str) (Kg/m3) fiber (Str) (W/m.K)
0 17723 0.769 17723 0.769
1 1730 0.752 1608 0.729
2 1661 0.738 15560 0.667
3 1640 0.719 15334 0.614
4 1594 0.682 1448 0.589
 An Experimental Study of the Effect of Pine Needles … 51
5. Results of Mechanical Analysis

Another aim of this work is to determine the effect of pine needles and
straw fibers on the compressive strength of adobe earth blocks. The earth
material does not support tensile stress. We will therefore focus here on the
mechanics of the earth in compression. The principle consists in measuring
the compressive strength of adobe earth block with four different contents
(0, 1, 2 and 3%) of pine needles and straw fibers.

5.1. Measurement of compression strength

The test is made on blocks of dimension 4 × 4 × 16cm3, 8 in number and

a section of 16cm2 according to the Moroccan standard NM 10.1.051-1996.

This test requires the use of a press (Figure 14); the compression is
simple and applied to the axis of the blocks.

Figure 14. Device for measuring compressive strength.

Subsequently, the variation of compressive strength is measured as a

function of the proportion of fiber stabilizers added, as straw fibers or pine
needles (Table 5).
52 S. Nasla et al.
Table 5. Experimental results of the compressive strength of the prepared
blocks
Content of pine Measured compressive Content of straw Measured compressive
needles (in %) strength fibers (in %) strength
0 1.06875 0 1.06875
1 1.38375 1 1.23813
2 1.19625 2 1.10000
3 0.86750 3 0.85688

5.2. Results and discussions

The bell curve shown in Figure 15 indicates that initially, when

increasing the stabilizer fiber content, the simple compressive strength of the
blocks increases, which means that the material becomes harder and more
compact. Then the curve arrives at a maximum obtained for a precise value
of the fiber content. Such as:

Rcmax = 1.4 MPa for a content of pine needles of 1%.

Rcmax = 1.2 MPa for a content of straw fibers of 1%.

If the fiber content continues to increase, then the soil becomes brittle
again.

Figure 15. The variation in compressive strength as a function of the

percentage of fiber stabilizers.
 An Experimental Study of the Effect of Pine Needles … 53
6. Conclusions

This research provides us important and valuable information on the

properties of earth and fibers, which are used in construction materials
obtained from our experimental studies which are extremely beneficial
to engineers and ecological building designers. Our experimental study
required the identification of soil and the fibers stabilizers (granulometric,
chemical and mineralogical analysis) before using them. It is necessary
because it may need recommendations regarding their possible treatment.
We have studied the chemical properties of soil taken from Had Laghoualem
Khemisset, and two different fibers: the straw fiber and the pine needle fiber.
In addition, made the samples of adobe blocks by this soil, and then
measured their thermal conductivities. There are many different devices for
measuring thermal conductivity, available device in the laboratory is the
CT-meter used for experimental thermal tests. Our study concludes:

• The earth chosen from Had Laghoualem Khemisset is good and

suitable for construction.

• The mineralogical analysis of the earth of region the Khemisset

shows that it consists mainly of calcite, quartz, kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4 and
muscovite H2KAl3(SiO4)3 in different proportions.

• Chemical analysis of straw fibers and pine needle fibers shows

the absence of crystallized phases; therefore, the last two samples contain
amorphous phases.

• According to the increase of the rate of the fibers into samples, there
is an inversely proportional relationship between thermal conductivity and
fibers stabilizers (the straw fiber and the pine needle fiber). We observe the
decrease in thermal conductivity as a function of the increase in the rates of
fibers. The reason is that there is an increase in the size of voids between the
particles of the samples when the rates of fibers increase, the increase of
void volume depends on the amount of fiber.
54 S. Nasla et al.
• That straw fibers were a relatively more effective additive in
improving the thermal behavior of the adobe blocks, leading to a decrease in
thermal conductivity more than that of pine needles fibers. The addition of
straw fiber and pine needle fiber results in improving the thermal behavior of
the adobe blocks that makes them suitable materials for energy efficient in
the building.

• As a function of the content of fiber stabilizers in the samples, we

found that straw fibers improve the mechanical behavior of adobe blocks as
compared to pine needle fibers.

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