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 CHAPTER:

WINDSOR SOS

COURSE:

CELL BIOLOGY SESSION 2

TUTOR:

Mikayla Bornais (borna111@uwindsor.ca), Quinn Santoro (santoroq@uwindsor.ca)

Allison Baker (baker12t@uwindsor.ca), Siddh Sood (soods@uwindsor.ca)

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 .

Chapter 5: Cellular Respiration

Energy Flow

· Plants, algae, and bacteria rely on sunlight to bring in energy but we as heterotrophs rely on organic molecules to
bring in energy
· Organic compounds=>ATP=>work=>survive

Cellular respiration: the process by which energy-rich food molecules are broken down in a series of metabolic
reactions to produce ATP

Energy Levels of Electrons in an Atom

- organic molecules consist of many C-H nonpolar covalent bonds

- C and H have similar electronegativities, so electrons in bond sit equidistant from both atomic nuclei

- therefore, electrons in bond sit at high energy levels, that is, energy is released when organic molecules are
metabolized because the bonds in the product molecules hold the electrons closer to the atomic nuclei (i.e at a
lower energy level)

How do we get the energy that is stored in organic molecules?

• Oxidize the molecule --> remove electrons

• Donor is oxidized - lose electrons
• Acceptor is reduced - gains electrons
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• Oxidation-reduction reactions (REDOX reactions): Transfer electrons from donor to acceptor atoms (cellular
respiration is a series of redox reactions)

Cell Respiration

C H O + 6 O + 32 ADP + 32 P → 6 H O + 6 CO + 32 ATP
6 12 6 2 i 2 2

• This is the overall (important) result

• Glucose is oxidized to form carbon dioxide, oxygen is reduced to form water (redox nature of the reaction)
• Main goal is to produce ATP that can be used by cells to do work

Cell Respiration is Controlled Combustion

- oxidation of glucose is not one step, it occurs through series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions

- thus, potential energy of glucose isn’t freed instantaneously, it is released stepwise by the direct transfer of
electrons from glucose-derived molecule to energy carrier molecules

- simple combustion of glucose in presence of O2 would result in energy lost as heat, and NOT harnessed by
energy carriers

- dehydrogenases are responsible for removal of electrons from food molecules. Important function of
dehydrogenases: removal of two hydrogen atoms from a substrate molecule, transfer of two electrons and 1 proton
to NAD+ to make NADH (energy carrier)

Cell Respiration: 3 Stage Breakdown

1) Glycolysis (occurs in cytosol)

2) Citric Acid Cycle (occurs in mitochondrial matrix)
3) ETC and Chemiosmosis (occurs in inner mitochondrial membrane)

1) Glycolysis: 1 molecule of Glucose is converted to 2 molecules of pyruvate in a series of metabolic reactions

with several intermediates. Some ATP and NADH synthesized

2) Pyruvate Oxidation and Citric Acid Cycle: Oxidize pyruvate => Acetyl coenzyme A (Acetyl-CoA) produced
as well as release of CO2, Acetyl-CoA enters metabolic cycle (also known as Kreb’s or Citric Acid cycle),
oxidized completely to form CO2
More ATP and NADH synthesized

3) Oxidative Phosphorylation:

NADH is oxidized, electrons travel through electron transport chain (ETC), and ultimately are transferred to
oxygen to form water. Energy released by sequential transfer of electrons is used to create proton gradient across

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mitochondrial membrane that results in synthesis of ATP (chemiosmosis). A lot of ATP produced, as well as
water

Mitochondria = POWERHOUSE OF CELL (lol) = ATP production

• Citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation occur in mitochondria

• Composed of two membranes: outer membrane and inner membrane. Between these membranes is
intermembrane space, and the innermost compartment is the mitochondrial matrix

NOTE: Prokaryotes don’t have a mitochondria and thus carry out cell respiration in a different manner with
glycolysis and the citric acid cycle occurring in the cytoplasm and the ETC located at the plasma membrane or
internal membrane derived from plasma membrane

Glycolysis

• 10 steps in the cytosol (first 5 steps require energy, last 5 steps release energy)
• Glucose (6 carbons) is oxidized to produce two molecules of pyruvate (3 carbons each)
• Electrons removed are delivered to NAD , producing NADH (reduction) • Each glucose molecule oxidized
+

produces
– 2 ATP (produced by substrate-level phosphorylation, which is transfer of phosphate from high energy
molecule to ADP to make ATP)
– 2 NADH
– 2 pyruvate
· Energy investment phase is the initial 2 ATP put into the process · Energy output phase is the 4 ATP produced
resulting in a net gain of 2 ATP

Glycolysis: Steps 1-3

· Step 1: phosphorylation of glucose produces glucose-6-phosphate (ATP used because phosphate came from
ATP) · Step 2: rearrangement of glucose gives us fructose-6-phosphate · Step 3: second phosphorylation event
occurs, producing
fructose-1,6-biphosphate.(another ATP used) This molecule is highly energized because of the phosphate groups
(two are now present on molecule)

Enzymes can be regulated to determine how fast glycolysis occurs or if we don’t want it to occur at all. This is
done by feedback inhibition (negative feedback).
· Phosphofructokinase is regulated by ATP production if cells have excess ATP

Glycolysis: Steps 4-5

· Splitting 1 sugar => 2 molecules Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
· Step 4: fructose-1,6- phosphate is split and forms
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
· Step 5: These molecules are isomers of each other and can be converted back and forth between each other at
equal rates, yet only G3P moves forward in the process. Dihydroxyacetone to G3P is a faster conversion thus
dihydroxyacetone is converted to G3P and thus two G3P move forward in process

Glycolysis: Steps 6-7

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· Energy Output
· Production of 2 ATP (PER G3P molecule, so 4 ATP produced) by substrate-level phosphorylation
· Synthesis of 2 NADH by redox reaction
· Step 6: 2 electrons, 2 protons removed from G3P, and NAD+ accepts electrons and 1 proton (REDOX). 1,3-
biphosphoglycerate is formed · Step 7: Two phosphates are on the molecule making it unstable so 1 Pi is donated
to ADP (remember: occurs for both G3P, so 2 ATP produced) which creates 3-phosphoglycerate
· currently, net gain of 0 ATP

Glycolysis: Steps 8-10

• Energy Output
• Step 8: 3-phosphoglycerate is isomerized into 2-phosphoglycerate • Step 9: water is removed to create
phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) • Step 10: Remaining phosphate group removed, produces pyruvate (2 ATP produced
because we had two PEP molecules)
• two pyruvates – less potential energy than glucose

OVERALL: NET GAIN 2 ATP

Summary: Don’t worry about memorizing all the molecules and what happens to them in each step. I illustrate the
full picture so that the important steps are studied within context. For glycolysis, just know how the ATP is
produced (substrate-level phosphorylation), how much ATP is produced overall (net gain 2 ATP), to which
energy carriers the electrons go and how many are produced (NAD+ to make NADH so net gain 2 NADH), the
number of pyruvate molecules produced per glucose (2), function of phosphofructokinase (we’ll get to later), and
which phase these important steps happen in (energy requiring steps 1-5 or energy releasing steps 6-10)

Pyruvate Oxidation

· Pyruvate synthesized from glycolysis is oxidized. This process links glycolysis and citric acid cycle

Overall result: 1 acetyl-CoA molecule, plus release of CO2 and formation of NADH

· First, pyruvate is transferred from the cytosol to mitochondrial matrix, passing through outer and inner
mitochondrial membranes.
· Decarboxylation (removal of carboxyl group, simply O-C=O) then results in the release of CO2
· Then, oxidation of remaining 2 carbon molecule -> acetate. Leads to electron and proton transfer to NAD+,
making NADH
· Coenzyme A reacts with remaining molecule which is an acetyl group, forming acetyl-CoA (2 carbons)

Summary: Relatively uncomplicated series of reactions, but know that for every pyruvate molecule oxidized, 1
acetyl-CoA produced and it has 1 less carbon than pyruvate. Understand the decarboxylation reaction that releases
CO2 (removal of O-C=O releases O=C=O which is carbon dioxide). Remember that NO ATP produced, just
NADH. And, occurs in mitochondrial matrix (innermost portion).

Citric Acid Cycle

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● 8 enzymatic reactions
● Acetyl groups are completely oxidized to CO2 (high energy molecule to low energy molecule)
● Electrons removed in oxidations are accepted by NAD+ and another energy carrier called FAD, which is
reduced to FADH2
• Substrate-level phosphorylation produces some ATP
• Each acetyl group oxidized produces 2 CO 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH
2, 2

(Note that the Coenzyme A is removed from acetyl group in first step of citric acid cycle)

Summary of Citric Acid Cycle

1 acetyl-CoA + 3 NAD + 1 FAD + 1 ADP + 1 P + 2 H O ->2 CO + 3 NADH + 1 FADH + 1 ATP

+
i 2 2 2

+ 3 H + 1 CoA
+

• based on one pyruvate molecule so if you had to give numbers for 1 glucose you would double this

· Acetyl CoA reacts with oxaloacetate to create citrate

· Citrate is isomerized to isocitrate
· Isocitrate is oxidized and electrons are gained by NAD+ which creates alpha ketoglutarate; 1 Carbon removed
and reacts with oxygen to release CO2, NAD+ gains electrons, is reduced to NADH + (H+)
· alpha ketoglutarate oxidized, another carbon removed, 1 C removed and CO2 released, NAD+ again reduced to
NADH + (H+)
· CoA comes in to create a higher energy molecule called Succinyl-CoA, CoA is released and then this energy is
used to bind Pi to GDP to make GTP (Guanosine triphosphate), then phosphate from GTP transferred to ADP to
create ATP (substrate-level phosphorylation). Succinyl-CoA makes Succinate
· Succinate oxidized, releasing two electrons and two protons to FAD making FADH2 (redox reaction), leads to
formation of fumarate
· Fumarate makes malate by addition of water (facilitated by enzyme fumarase)
· Malate then oxidized to NAD+ making NADH + (H+) and forming oxaloacetate (redox reaction)
· Oxaloacetate is first molecule of cycle (i.e first molecule that reacts with incoming acetyl-CoA) so cycle
continues

Summary: Understand what energy carriers are used, how they are reduced (NAD+ and FAD receive electrons
and protons from molecules in citric acid cycle to make NADH + (H+) and FADH2), how much ATP is produced
and how this occurs, as well how much GTP used to make this ATP (1 ATP made from 1 GTP by substrate level
phosphorylation), 2 CO2 released.

Important: Remember that if asked to consider how much of something is produced in a given cycle PER glucose
molecule, you need to remember that in glycolysis, TWO pyruvate molecules are produced from ONE glucose
molecule, and in turn, each pyruvate oxidized produces one acetyl-CoA. We examined the citric acid cycle in
terms of 1 acetyl CoA, where we know 1 ATP is produced. But if a question asked, for example, how many ATP
are produced in the citric acid cycle PER glucose molecule oxidized in cellular respiration, the correct answer
would be 2 ATP.

Oxidative Phosphorylation: Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis

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All of the C atoms that were present in the original glucose molecule have now been released as CO2 (if unsure
how, go back and do the arithmetic of how many times CO2 was released). So where did the potential energy go,
if no longer in the C-H bonds? Energy carriers!

Goal of ETC: extract the energy stored in the energy carriers to create proton gradient, which is responsible for
the massive production of ATP at this step in cell resp.

· Electron Transport Chain occurs at inner mitochondrial membrane

- Includes: 4 major protein complexes (I, II, III and IV) and 2 smaller shuttle carriers (Ubiquinone and cytochrome
c)
· O2 is final electron acceptor. Upon accepting electrons it forms water.

Respiratory Electron Transport Chain Cont’d

· Electrons are passed from NADH and FADH to O2 through carriers in a stepwise manner (moved down chain
2

to different complexes to get to final electron acceptor)

· Electrons are depleted of energy (every time they are transferred to a complex or carrier in the chain some of the
energy is released)
· The proteins themselves don’t transfer the electrons, rather, this is accomplished by prosthetic groups (non
protein molecules)
· These prosthetic groups alternate between states of oxidation and reduction as they pass electrons further along
chain
Important: electron movement along the chain is thermodynamically favourable, that is, spontaneous
So where does the energy released go? It is used to move H+ protons that are abundant in aqueous matrix
environment across the membrane into the intermembrane space.
This occurs at distinct locations in chain: In complexes 1,4, protein components use the energy released from
electron transport for pumping protons directly into intermembrane space. Also, as ubiquinone molecules in the
membrane collect electrons, they become charged. This is not good because membrane is nonpolar so they also
pick up protons (H+) from matrix to neutralize negative charge from electrons. Once they pass on the electrons,
they again become charged, so to neutralize the positive charge they release the H+ they collected from matrix into
intermembrane space. These processes establish the proton gradient, which is ultimately responsible for the
massive ATP production that occurs later in this step.

Note: NADH gives electrons to complex 1, FADH2 gives electrons to complex 2. Both complex 1 and 2
donate electrons to ubiquinone.
· Ubiquinone transfers its electrons to complex 3, which transfers to cytochrome c, which then transfers to
complex 4.
· When the electrons get to complex 4, they are donated to oxygen which binds H+ to form water

Important question: What has occurred to establish the proton gradient, that is, the difference in H+ concentration
across the inner mitochondrial membrane? Three things:
• Direct transfer of H+ to intermembrane space by complexes 1 and 4
• Transfer of H+ to intermembrane space by ubiquinone when it neutralizes its charge after dropping off
electrons to complex 3
• And the reaction of O2 with H+ in matrix which reduces amount of H+ in matrix, thereby increasing
concentration gradient across inner mitochondrial membrane
THERE IS NOW ABUNDANCE OF H+ IN INTERMEMBRANE SPACE
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· Electrochemical gradient (difference of hydrogen ions in intermembrane space/ mitochondrial matrix) is used to
create ATP
· This potential energy stored in the membrane gradient is known as the proton-motive force. Harnessing this
energy that can do work for the cell is called chemiosmosis.
· Because of this gradient the ions want to diffuse back to the matrix, but they can’t go through the membrane
because it is hydrophobic, so the ions travel through membrane protein called ATP synthase
· ATP synthase is a transport/membrane protein, and an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of ATP
· As the H+ pass through ATP synthase down their concentration gradient, ATP is produced. Production of ATP in
this way, by connecting the proton motive force to oxidation of molecules with high energy bonds by an ETC is
called oxidative phosphorylation.
Note: this is different than substrate-level phosphorylation that we saw in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle

Redox Components of Electron Transport Chain

· Prosthetic groups transfer electrons

· 40kcal/mol is the energy the electrons start with, but by the time they reach O2 they are in a low energy state and
thus form a low energy molecule in water.
· This is a spontaneous reaction because the free energy of each subsequent molecule in the chain decreases

Uncoupling of Electron Transfer and ATP Synthesis

· Chemiosmosis and ETC are coupled

· They can be uncoupled when ionophores form channels across membranes. These channels can leak protons,
thus in presence of ionophores, the active (requires energy) pumping of H+ to intermembrane space is
counteracted by H+ subsequently leaking back into matrix through ionophores. Therefore no proton gradient
established, and no capacity to synthesize ATP by proton motive force.
· This would be TOXIC to our cells because we wouldn’t be able to perform work to stay alive due to the lack of
ATP production, although, it can be a strategy for some organisms to produce heat to stay warm since the energy
released by the eTC is not captured in the establishment of the proton gradient but is instead lost as heat in the
presence of ionophores.

Efficiency of Cell Respiration

· About 40% efficiency for utilization of energy released by glucose oxidation if the H gradient is used only for
+

ATP production
. The other 60% is converted to heat which helps to keep our body temperature at 37C which is warmer than our
environments
· This efficiency is better than a car’s efficiency

ATP Production

· FADH2 comes in at complex 2 so less ATP produced (3 ATP per NADH and 2 ATP per FADH2)
· Net gain of 38 ATP (maximum theoretical yield). In eukaryotes this number is 36 ATP because 2 ATP are used
to transfer NADH produced in glycolysis into mitochondrion. (Prokaryotes don’t have mitochondria, so they don’t
lose these two ATP)
· Sometimes there is an easier transfer of electrons than other times, other times uncouplers are present or stresses,
type of environment, pH, and temperature can all alter the efficiency
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· Thus, a range of ATP is produced based on these circumstances

Oxidation of Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins

· Proteins and fats can also be used to generate ATP (ex. Glycerol from triglycerides converted to G3P that can be
used in cell resp, also proteins can be hydrolyzed into amino acids and then deaminated to make pyruvate

Control of Cellular Respiration

· rate of oxidation of energy-rich molecules in cell resp controlled by supply and demand model
· in other words, the rate of production of ATP is determined by the cell’s need for ATP
· key enzyme that is regulated is phosphofructokinase (pFk) in glycolysis (catalyzes reaction of fructose 6-
phosphate into 1,6-biphosphate. ATP and ADP can act as allosteric regulators of this phosphofructokinase. ATP is
allosteric INHIBITOR of pFk: if excess ATP present in cell, some will bind to allosteric site on pFk, making it
unable to convert fructose 6-phosphate into 1,6-biphosphate. ADP is an allosteric ACTIVATOR of pFk: in
absence of ATP, ADP binds pFk to increase rate of reaction so more ATP is produced.

Oxygen and Cellular Respiration

Cell resp can occur in absence of oxygen in two ways:

Fermentation

· Reaction pathways occur in the cytosol (no citric acid cycle or eTC) but
glycolysis still occurs
In cell resp, if after glycolysis occurs there is little or no oxygen present, pyruvate remains in cytosol and is
reduced by oxidizing NADH. This metabolic process is called fermentation.
● NAD then free to accept more electrons removed from sugars in glycolysis
+

● ATP production by glycolysis continues in absence of oxygen

Net gain of 2 ATP per glucose molecule (because only glycolysis is occurring)

• Lactate Fermentation: pyruvate converted to lactate, occurs in muscle cells

• Alcohol fermentation: occurs in microorganisms like yeasts, where pyruvate is reduced to ethyl alcohol, CO2
released, NADH oxidized to NAD+

Anaerobic Respiration
Occurs in some prokaryotes
• Uses the same mechanism of cell respiration except that the final electron acceptor is something other than O2
that has a high electronegativity, such as SO4(2-), NO3(-)
• Eukaryotic organisms can’t carry out this function but prokaryotes such as anaerobic bacteria can.
• This process still produces ATP

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• Strict anaerobes: cannot survive in presence of oxygen
• Strict aerobes: require oxygen, cannot live by using only fermentation
• Facultative anaerobes: can switch between fermentation and aerobic respiration

Paradox of Aerobic Life: Oxygen essential, but also toxic

• Although many organisms cannot exist without oxygen because it is required for electron transport chain that
ultimately results in ATP synthesis, oxygen can be dangerous to all forms of life
• 4 electrons are required to reduce a molecule of O2 to create water. Partially reduced forms of O2 (occurs when
O2 accepts fewer than 4 electrons) are considered reactive oxygen species (ROS)
• These molecules oxidize things really well because they want those extra electrons in order to fill their valence
shells and thus become more stable. This is dangerous because ROS can remove electrons from important
biomolecules like lipids, proteins, and DNA.
• The good thing is complex IV can give 4 electrons at a time to O2 thus toxicity is nullified.
• Strict Anaerobes can’t give these 4 electrons at once which is why they can’t survive in the presence of O2

• However, our cells aren’t perfect and sometimes we do produce these oxygen species. To counteract these
processes, we use enzymes to convert these reactive species to water

Defence Against Reactive Oxygen Species

Aerobic organisms have evolved antioxidant defence ability to deal with oxygen rich environments, namely,
enzymes and non-enzymes that inactivate ROS molecules. Two examples are superoxide dismutase (converts
superoxide anion to hydrogen peroxide) and catalase (reduces hydrogen peroxide to water). Vitamins C and E
also can reduce ROS.

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 Chapter 6: Photosynthesis
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: AN OVERVIEW
Photosynthesis: the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic molecules using light energy.

Photosynthetic organisms are autotrophs (auto=self, trophs= feeding). Because they make all of their required
organic molecules from carbon dioxide and simple substances present in their surroundings.

Photoautotrophic Organisms: are known as Earth’s primary producers-- convert solar energy into chemical
energy that creates organic molecules used by many other organisms.

● They can do this because they have pigments that can capture light energy and transfer it into another form.
● These organisms needs organic molecules themselves for cellular respiration.

Heterotrophs: consumers or decomposers that require an already synthesized source of organic molecules.

MAIN LOCATION:
1) Photosynthetic prokaryotes do photosynthesis in the cytoplasm and the plasma membrane.

2) In eukaryotes, photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplast:

Chloroplast (a type of plastid): a membrane bound organelle that is formed from three membranes that define
three distinct compartments:

1. Outer membrane: covers the entire surface of the organelle

2. Inner membrane: surrounds liquid matrix of chloroplasts called the stroma and photosynthesis thylakoid
membrane
3. Intermembrane Compartment: space between the outer and the inner membranes

● Thylakoid membranes: photosynthetic membranes are organized into disks called thylakoids, and these disks
form a stack called a granum. Inside each thylakoid disk is matrix called lumen. Finally, the connections between
the grana are called lamellae.
● The photosynthetic pigments involved in photosynthesis are located in the thylakoid membranes.

● Stroma - aqueous environment within the inner membrane.

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS- TWO STAGES

1. Light Dependent Reaction

- where pigment molecules capture light energy which is used to synthesize ATP and NADPH - oxidation of is
needed to reduce NADP+ to NADPH - occurs along thylakoid membrane.
2. Light Independent Reaction (aka Calvin Cycle) - uses energy in NADPH and ATP to convert carbon from
CO2 (inorganic form) to glucose (organic molecule) - occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts.

● Carbon fixation= process of converting carbon from an inorganic source to

organic molecules.

THE PHOTOSYNTHETIC APPARATUS (PHOTOSYSTEMS)

The light dependent reaction of photosynthesis is initiated by the light absorption within pigment molecules that
are bounded precisely to specific proteins

• Together they make the apparatus of a photosystem

Two important concepts about light absorption:

a. A single photon of light excites only a single e-within a pigment molecule, raising it from the ground state to an
excited state.

b. A photon of light can only excite an e- when the energy of the photon matches or exceeds the amount of energy required
to raise the electron from the ground state to an excited state/

After an electron absorbs a photon of light, 1 of 3 possible events occur:

Fate #1: The excited e- from the pigment molecule returns to its ground state, releasing its energy either as heat or
as an emission of light of a longer wavelength- called fluorescence.

Fate #2: The energy of an excited e- but not the electron itself is transferred to a neighboring pigment molecule in
a process called inductive resonance. The transfer excites the second molecule and the first returns to its ground
state- very little energy is lost in the transfer.

Fate #3: The excited e- is transferred from the pigment molecule to a nearby e- accepting molecule called a
primary acceptor. **This fate occurs in photosynthesis***

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The pigments:

● Chlorophylls are the main photosynthetic pigments in plants, cyanobacteria and green algae.
● Carotenoids are another type of pigment that absorb photons and pass energy on to chlorophyll.
● Chlorophyll A is the only pigment to pass electrons onto the primary acceptor. Also absorbs most strongly blue and red
light, green light is reflected (why most plants are green).

The photosystems:

● Each photosystem is composed of a large

antenna complex (or light harvesting complex) of pigment proteins that surrounds a central rxn center.
● There are two different photosystems:
○ (PSI)- Photosystem I: the specialized chlorophyll A in the rxn centre of PSI is called P700, because its
absorption maximum is at a wavelength of 700nm. It’s actually the second photosystem in the pathway, but it was
just the first photosystem to be discovered.
○ (PSII)- Photosystem II: contains chlorophyll A P680 which absorbs light maximally at 680nm. Actually the
first photosystem in photosynthesis called photosystem II because it was discovered second.

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THE LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION:

Linear Electron Transport:

This is a non-spontaneous process and USES energy (from photons/light). Protons and NADPH are formed which
are used to fuel the Calvin Cycle.

Transporting 1 e- across this chain requires 2 photons

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Cyclic Electron Transport:
• PSI operates independently on PSII using cyclic electron flow
• Electron transport from PSI to ferrodoxin is NOT followed by electron donation to the NADP+ reductase complex
• Reduced ferredoxin donates e- back to plastoquinone (PQ) pool. This keeps moving protons across the thylakoid
membrane without the involvement of PSII electrons.
• NADPH is not formed during cyclic transport
• Electrons do not go to Calvin Cycle
• Cyclic transport occurs when the plant cell does not need more electrons, but the plant cell needs ATP. The ATP is
used later in the Calvin Cycle to reduce CO2.

THE CALVIN CYCLE (aka Light Independent Reaction, aka Dark Reaction)

● In the cytosol of photosynthetic bacteria and in the stroma of the chloroplast a series of 11 enzymes catalyzed
rxns use NADPH to reduce CO2 into sugar.
● Calvin cycle - CO is reduced and converted into organic substances.
2

○ NADPH provides electrons and H . +

○ ATP provides additional energy

○ Carbon fixation - capturing CO molecules with the key enzyme rubisco (RuBP carboxylase/oxygenase).
2

● This process is endergonic, requiring energy supplied by ATP.

● Events in one turn of the Calvin Cycle:
o Phase 1: Fixation. Fixing of a carbon atom from CO2 into one molecule of
the 5-carbon sugar, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) to produce two molecules
of the 3-carbon compound 3- phosphoglycerate
o Phase 2: Reduction. Each molecule of 3-phosphoglycerate gets an additional
phosphate added from the breakdown of ATP. Its produces 2- molecules
of
1,3-biphosphoglycerate, this is reduced by an e- from NADPH to make
2-G3P molecules.
o Phase 3: Regeneration. For each turn of the cycle, two molecules of G3P
are produces- a total of 6 carbon atoms.

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PHOTORESPIRATION & CO2 CONCENTRATING MECHANISMS

Rubisco (oldest enzyme) is inefficient at

fixing CO2:

● Rubisco has dual activity

● That is because the active site of Rubisco is not
specific to CO2. A molecule of O2 can also bind to
the active site and react with RuBP.
● When this happens, one of the products is a
two-carbon compound that is exported from the
chloroplast and actually requires the cell to
consume ATP to convert it into carbon dioxide,
which is lost
● O2 is a competitive inhibitor of carboxylation.
● Photorespiration: it occurs in light and is similar
to cellular respiration in that is consumes O2 and
releases CO2

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WAYS TO OVERCOME PHOTORESPIRATION:

Algae Pump Bicarbonate Anion into cells:

● A bicarbonate molecule is pumped into
the cytosol through a protein (needs
energy).
● Then, it will get converted into CO 2

which will pass freely into the

cytoplasm.
● Concentration of CO dissolved in water
2

well below needed to saturate Rubisco

active site.

C4 photosynthesis:

● Some plants in hot, dry climates have evolved another mode of carbon fixation that minimizes photorespiration.
● Besides the Calvin cycle, these plants have a second carbon fixation pathway called C4.
● In this cycle, CO2 initially combines with a 3-carbon molecule
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) producing the 4-carbon intermediate
oxaloacetate, which is then reduced to malate by e- transferred from NADPH. The malate is then oxidized to
pyruvate releasing CO2. Pyruvate is then
converted back into PEP in a rxn that consumes ATP. The oxygenation rxn of Rubisco is inhibited by the C4 cycle
because the conversion of malate to
pyruvate actually generates CO2, resulting in much higher concentrations of CO2 at the site of Rubisco. The
enzyme PEP carboxylase that binds CO 2

does NOT have any oxygenase activity

● When O concentrations are lower, the 4-C molecule is oxidized to release CO2
2

● A key distinction between the C4 and the C3 metabolism concerns the carboxylation rxns
● The cycle gets its name from the first 4-carbon
(oxaloacetate).
● The types of plants with a C4 metabolism are: tropical trees,
com, sugar cane.

● For one turn of the C4 cycle, one

molecule of ATP is
required to regenerate PEP from
pyruvate

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C4 plants spatially separate the C4 pathway and the Calvin
cycle:

● Some C plants run the C and Calvin cycles in

4 4

different cells.
● CO is captured in mesophyll cells close to the surface
2

of leaves where PEP carboxylase is NOT affected by

high O concentrations.
2

● The 4-C intermediate is then transported to bundle

sheath cells deeper in the leaf where CO is released. 2

● There, O is less abundant and CO is more

2 2

concentrated and therefore, photorespiration is reduced

and the Calvin cycle is enhanced.

CAM plants temporally separate the C4 pathway and the

Calvin cycle :
● Some plants such as pineapple, run cycles at different
times (temporal separation) versus (spatial separation).
● These plants are CAM PLANTS.
● CAM Plants: named for crassulacean acid metabolism, from the
crassulaceae family in which the adaption was the first observed.
● These plants live in regions that are hot and dry during the day and cool at night.
● The stomata open only at night, when they release O2 that accumulates from photosynthesis during the day and
allow CO2 to enter the leaves.
● The entering CO2 is fixed by the C4 pathway into malate which
accumulates throughout the night and is stored in large cell vacuoles.

● Reduction of water loss by the closure of the stomata during the hot daylight
hours has the added benefit of making CAM plants highly resistant to
dehydration- as result CAM species can tolerate extreme daytime heat and
dryness.
● In photosynthesis, G3P is a product of the Calvin cycle and is used to make
sugar and other organic fuel molecules. In cell resp, it’s an intermediate
generated in glycolysis in the conversion of glucose pyruvate .
● Thus G3P is used by anabolic pathways when it is generated by
photosynthesis and it is a product of a catabolic pathways in cell resp

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 Chapter 7- Cell Cycles

Why do we have cell cycle?

Answer: We know from the Cell Theory that Cells arise from the growth of pre-exisiting cells. This means that
Each of the cells have undergone cell division in order to create new cells which is vital to keep us alive.

THE CELL CYCLE IN PROKARYOTES

*Key thing to remember: Prokaryotes have ONE circular DNA
Prokaryotes use Binary Fission in order to create new cells. Binary fission can be split up not three periods:

Period B: Initiation of Replication

- Replication starts at the Origin of replication (ori) which is locaed in the middle of the DNA. This is
also the area where enzymes are located which are necessary for DNA replication
Period C: DNA Replication
a) The ori will be duplicated
- Each new cell must have an ori in order for it to undergo DNA replication and make future cells
b) Each ori (2- one for each new cell) will move towards the two ends or poles of the cell
- It is the active movement that allow for there to be two replicated chromosomes at opposite sides of the
cell
Period D: Cytoplasmic Division
a) Plasma membrane grows inward
b) A new cell wall is created
c) The two cells are cut into two separate cells
Result: Binary Fission will produce two daughter cells

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EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE
● When you are an organism made up of many, many cells, you need to be very controlling of your cell cycles
● In eukaryotes, control of cell cycle is especially important due to the many different types of cells present that
need to work together in order for the organism to function properly

Cell Cycle: Time of growth followed by time of division of nuclear material and cytokinesis
- It is essential for multicellular eukaryotes to have strict control of cell division

Types of Cell Division

1. Mitosis: produces 2 daughter cells made up of the same number of chromosomes of the parent cell
- The new cells are clones or genetically identical to the original cell

2. Meiosis: produces 4 daughter cells made up of half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
-The new cells are genetically different from the original cells

What are Chromosomes?

Chromosomes: A DNA molecule packaged into a thread structure that is replicated and divided between 2 cells
during the cell cycles
Eukaryotic DNA~single, linear chromosomes that is found in the nucleus

Ploidy: Ploidy is the number of sets of chromosomes found in the nucleus of a cell
2 Common Types of Ploidy
Diploid: 2n~2 copies of each chromosome
Haploid: n~1 copy of each chromosome. Ex: Sperm and Egg Cell

Homologous Chromosomes: Are a pair of chromosomes, you receive one from mom and one from dad
Chromosomes that contain similar genetic material but they may contain different alleles
• To be more specific: these chromosomes have all of their genes lining up, meaning their genes are found in
the same order and match up.
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Non-homologous Chromosomes: Chromosomes that do not have the same genes

Sister Chromatids: Duplications of the chromosomes to make two identical copies.

- They are produced during replication of DNA and are required for division
- They are held together by a centrome
Centromere: Holds together sister chromatids in a chromosome

MITOTIC CELL CYCLE: Overview

There are two major phases: Interphase and Mitosis
Interphase: Period of cell growth and preparation for cell division
Mitosis: Period where you replicate DNA to create two new genetically identical cells

MITOTIC CELL CYCLE: Phase 1- Interphase

Interphase: The cell grows and replicates its DNA in preparation for mitosis (also called the M phase) and
cytokinesis.
- There are 3 main phases in Interphase: G1, S, G2. *G0 plays a particular role (more detail to come)
- Interphase begins when the daughter cell from previous division cycle enters an initial period of
cytoplasmic growth.
- Longest part of the cell cycle

G1 Phase (Gap)
- This is the time the cell takes to GROW
- The cell makes various RNAs, proteins, and other types of cellular molecules but not nuclear DNA
o Trick: The G stands for Gap, referring to the absence of (or the gap in) DNA synthesis.
- Cell carries out its function
- Time varies based on cell type
S Phase
- DNA Replication!
o Trick: S stands for synthesis as in synthesis (making) DNA
- DNA and chromosomal proteins (chromosomes) are duplicated~ makes the sister chromatids!
- Still continues making other important cellular molecules
- 10-12 hours
** Important note: Not all cells will go here. You need a signal to move to S phase. This signal can be seen as the
point of no return and this cell is on the path to cell division. If you do not get that signal then you will leave the
cycle and go to the G0 phase. (More about this in the Cell Cycle Control Section)
G2 Phase
- Continues making RNA and proteins, including the ones it’ll need to go through mitosis
- Cell continues to grow
- 4-6 hours
- No DNA synthesis
o Trick: Remember G stands for Gap in (or no) DNA synthesis
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G0
- Cell cycle has stopped
- No more dividing for these cells
- Ex: Nerve cells
What About Chromosomes? What do they look like right now?
The chromosomes in this stage do not resemble the above picture. Instead, they are very loose, which will give
DNA replication enzymes access to the DNA, and organized inside the cell’s nucleus

MITOTIC CELL CYCLE: Phase 2- Mitosis

Mitosis: In this cycle, the organism’s DNA is replicated equally with no changes or alterations made to the DNA.
A clone is created because the offspring is genetically identical to the original cell.

Where does mitosis occur?

1. Mitosis occurs in somatic cells ~ any cell in an organism that is not a reproductive cell
2. Chromosome segregation: Occurs during mitosis; the sister chromatids separate and are equally
distributed into the cells that form as a product of mitosis

Five important steps in Mitosis:

3. Prophase
4. Prometaphase
5. Metaphase
6. Anaphase
7. Telophase

Step 1: Prophase
a. Chromosomes that were replicated during interphase begin to condense
b. Condensation makes the long DNA molecules small enough to be divided easily during mitosis
c. Condensation here is also good because replication enzymes cannot access the DNA which effectively stops DNA
replication and transcription, etc. are not needed
d. Microtubules will grow from centrosome and start forming the spindle e. Spindle starts moving to opposite ends
of cells to form spindle poles

Step 2: Prometaphase
a. The nuclear envelope breaks down which signals the beginning of this stage.
b. By this time a complex of several proteins, a kinetochore, has formed on each chromatid at the centromere
c. Kinetochore: A group of proteins, shaped like a disc, that is the point of attachment of microtubules to the
chromosomes.
d. Some microtubules don’t attach to centromere~ non-kinetochore microtubules
e. Chromosomes still not visible
f. Connection of microtubules to kinetochores determines the outcome of mitosis because now the sister chromatids
are attached to microtubules leading them to opposite spindle poles

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Step 3: Metaphase
a. The spindle reaches its final from and the spindle microtubules move the chromosomes into alignment at the
spindle midpoint, also called the metaphase plate.
b. Chromosomes are at their most visible point. This is the point where they look like the above picture.
c. Karyotype: each strand is a pair of sister chromatids. All chromosomes are arranged in order of their shape and
size

Step 4: Anaphase
a. During this process, sister chromatids separate and move to opposite spindle poles.
b. Chromosome segregation is done
c. Separated chromosomes are now called daughter chromosomes

Step 5: Telophase
a. The spindle disassembles and the chromosomes at each spindle pole decondense and return to the extended state
typical of interphase.
b. New nuclear envelope forms at each pole
c. 2 nuclei present at the end of nuclear division
d. Cytoplasm has yet to divide
e. Cytoskeleton resumes interphase phase role
f. RNA transcription resumes

Image of Cell Cycle

Cytokinesis (Usually part of Telophase)

The division of the cytoplasm, usually follows the nuclear division stage of mitosis and produces two daughter
cells, each containing one of the daughter nuclei.

Animals: produced by furrowing, microtubules form a belt inside plasma membrane, and microfilaments come
together and tighten which makes a furrow in the plasma membrane
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Plants: material that forms cell wall is deposited along the place of the old spindle midpoint which continues until
new wall is built

MITOTIC CELL CYCLE: Phase 2- Mitosis (Expanded)

Spindle Formation
Animals
-Animal cells and many protists have a centrosome: near the nucleus from which microtubules radiate outward in
all directions.
-The centrosome is the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC) of the cell, anchoring the microtubule
cytoskeleton during interphase and positioning many of the cytoplasmic organelles
-The centrosome contains a pair of centrioles: usually arranged at right angles to each other

Plants
- NO CENTROMERE
- Spindle originates from many MTOCs
- Formed in all directions from nucleus

Centrosome and Spindle Formation

1. Centrosome at interphase has 2 centrioles and several microtubules
2. S phase: centrioles duplicate and 4 centrioles in cell now
3. Prophase: centrosomes separate, and each cell gets one new centriole and one old centriole
4. Separate until they reach opposite sides of the nucleus. Microtubules lengthen and increase in number. Late
prophase: early spindle is complete with separated centrosomes and a mass of microtubules between them.

Kinetochore and Nonkinetochore Microtubules

• Kinetochore microtubules: Connect chromosomes to spindle poles
o Motor proteins are going to walk along the microtubules, and they will bring the sister chromatid
attached to the kinetochore. There are other proteins in the kinetochore that are enzymes that will
break down the microtubules as the motor protein walks along
o The microtubules don't actually move. It is the motor proteins that move
o Microtubules remain stationary

• Nonkinetochore microtubules: Extend between spindle poles without connecting to chromosomes

o Elongate the cell
o Stretch the cell to create space so there enough room for separation of sister chromatids
o Sliding of nonkinetochore microtubules in the zone of overlap at the spindle midpoints pushes the
poles further apart and increases total length of spindle

Spindle midpoint: microtubules from opposite poles overlap

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How do chromosomes move?
-Motor proteins walk the microtubule
- While some motor proteins walk up the microtubule, others will be disassembling the microtubule which which
will go back to tubulin

How do we know that microtubules remained stationary?

- Took tubulin and tagged them (fluorescent)
- They took one region of the microtubules and bleached it. They followed and watched it all through anaphase
- The bleached area did not move which means the microtubules don't move

CELL CYCLE CONTROL

What controls the cell cycle? Complexes of cyclin and a cyclin-dependant protein kinase (CDK)
As part of internal control, the cell cycle has built in checkpoints to prevents critical phases from beginning until
the previous phases are completed.
Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases are the internal controls that directly regulate cell division
Cyclin: a group of proteins that regulates the process of mitosis by the activation of CDKs
CDKs: Protein kinases, enzymes that add phosphate groups to target proteins. Become active when combined
with cyclin

Cyclin LEVELS rise, but CDK ACTIVITY rises! This important to remember!

Cyclin/CDK Control
During G1 Phase
● Cyclin E LEVELS rise
● CDK2 ACTIVITY rises
○ Cell passes G1/S Checkpoint
During S Phase
● Cyclin A LEVELS rise
● CDK2 ACTIVITY rises
○ S phase is done
During G2 Phase
● Cyclin B LEVELS rise
● CDK2 ACTIVITY rises
○ Cell passes G2/M Checkpoint
Trick to remember type of cyclin: It spells BAE backwards!
**Also it is very important to know the different checkpoints in the cell cycle**
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External Controls
There are surface receptors that bind signals (peptide hormones, growth factors, cell-surface molecules, molecules
from extracellular matrix) which trigger internal responses that affect cell division by either speeding it up, slowing
it down, or completely stopping it.

ASSYMETRIC CELL DIVISION

This is how stem cells in animals and plants divide.
2 pools of daughter cells are created
- Progenitor Cells: A cell that can technically differentiate into a specific cell type, but it is more specific than a
stem cell
- Stem Cells: Cells that can differentiate into a number of different cell types This is due to a difference in
regulatory proteins

Cells Cannot Divide Indefinitely

Cellular Senescence: Loss of cell’s ability to proliferate aka divide; Cells get old and cease diving.
- Can be due to DNA damage and telomere shortening
● DNA Damage: Mutations that come from errors in DNA replication. Some mutations are harmless, but others
can be deadly.
● Telomere Shortening: Telomeres are extensions at the end of chromosomes that protect the genes in the cells.
Without telomeres, genes can be damaged, and we don’t want to pass on short telomeres or damaged genes to
offspring.

CANCER
Cancer is when control over cell division is lost.
A very fast mass of cells are formed that gets in the way of body functions.
Oncogenes: A gene that has mutated and can cause cancer

Metastasis: Cancer cells that break loose and go to another body part to form a tumor

APOPTOSIS
Apoptosis: programmed cell death that is a very old process found in multicellular eukaryotes that can be triggered
through internal or external signals and involves activating caspases protease enzyme.
Why do we do this?
1. When DNA is damaged: we don’t these cells to go in the cell cycle and create more cells with damaged DNA

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2. Development to Make tissues: You make tissues using cells but if you have extra cells instead of leaving them
there to get in the way we kill them off since they aren’t necessary for survival

Apoptosis in C. elegans

Overview
• CED-9 inhibits CED-4
• EGL-1 inhibits CED-9
• Apoptosome complex activates CED-3

Cell under normal condition (absence of death signal)

• CED-9 is on the surface of the mitochondria and is bound to CED-4 and inactivates it

Cell under Apoptosis (presence of death signal)

1. The death signal, EGL-1, is produced
2. EGL-1 binds to CED-9 which changes its shape which releases CED-4
o Since CED-9 is no longer working CED-4 becomes active
3. CED-4 and proCED-3 create the apoptosome complex (4 CED-4 and 4 proCED-3)
4. Apoptosis complex activates CED-3 which is a caspases and goes on to cause nuclear DNA degradation
and mitochondrial disruption which results in Apoptosis

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 Chapter 8: Genetic Recombination

• Mutations, Random Fertilization and Recombination make us so diverse

• Genetic recombination puts the “sexual” in sexual reproduction
• Genetic Recombination: the process of enzymes cutting and pasting DNA backbones into a new combination

GENETIC RECOMBINATION IN BACTERIA

• Consider genetic recombination occurs in E. coli
• E. coli and many other bacteria can be grown in minimal medium: containing water, an organic carbon source
such as glucose and a selection of inorganic salts, such as ammonium chloride, that provides nitrogen- the medium
can be a liquid or gel like manner
• Prototrophs: make their own amino acids
• Other bacteria cannot grow on minimal media because they have mutations in their DNA that requires certain
molecules
• Auxotrophs: have mutations that prevents them from making certain amino acids
• Complete Media (contains all A.As) vs Minimal Media (missing some nutrients)
• Replica plating involves plating bacterial colonies on complete media then stamping them onto minimal media
and observing the differences in colony growth to distinguish the two types of bacteria
• Lederburg and Tatum provided experimental evidence for genetic recomb in bacter
• Grew 2 mutants in complete media then plated them on minimal media = no growth
• Grew the mutants together in complete media then plated them on minimal media = showed growth
• Proved that some shuffling of genetic material to produce offspring occurred
• All are examples of Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT) as DNA transfer occurs from one living cell to another
(Vertical Gene Transfer occurs from parent to not-yet-living daughter cells)
Bacterial Conjugation:
• Bacterial conjugation physically connects 2 cells by a sex pilus
• Bacteria are haploid, each has its own circular chromosome
• Plasmids: circular, non-chromosomal, transferable DNA
• R-Plasmids: contains genes that confer resistance to antibiotics
• Donor Cells (F+ = contains fertility factor) have genes that encode for the sex pilus, a long tubular structure that
connects with the F- Recepient Cell and forms a cytoplasmic bridge/connection
• F plasmid participates in Rolling Circle Replication (breaks the backbone and unrolls the DNA, replicated
on both sides) and transfers the F-plasmid over to the other cell
• Both cells become F+ and no genetic material is exchanged
• Genetic Recombination happens in HFr (High Frequency Recombination) that integrate the F-factor into the
bacterial chromosome through recombination
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 • After the F-factor integrates, sex pilus is formed between the HFr cell and a F- cell
• Rolling circle replication occurs, which replicates the chromosome and pulls it over into the recipient cell
(making it partially haploid)
• When there is a line-up of the genes on the new structure and the recipient’s chromosome, a double
crossover occurs to exchange and recombine the DNA
• The sex pilus hits a breaking point, replication stops and the partial strand of DNA is degraded and broken
down
• This also leads to the conclusion that genes closer to the sex pilus (that make it into the recpient cell) have a
much higher chance of recombining, allows for gene mapping
• Bacterial Transformation:
• Some bacteria simply take up pieces of DNA that are released into the environment as other cells disintegrate
• Linear fragments recombine by double crossovers
• We can replicate this artificially by creating pores in the membrane for added DNA to penetrate and recombine
• Bacterial Transduction:
• DNA is transferred from donor to recipient cells inside the head of an infecting bacterial virus (bacteriophage)
• Generalized Transduction:
• Virulent = kills the host cell always
• Phage attaches and inserts phage DNA into host bacteria
• Phage DNA takes over host enzymes to degrade host bacterial chromosome
• Phage replicates its DNA, parts of bacterial chromosome aren’t degraded and get looped into area of
replication
• Phage head and tail protein units are synthesized
• Assembly of phages includes pairing DNA with the proteins, sometimes the left over bacterial DNA ends
up being packaged into the viral head
• Upon lysis and release the phage with bacterial DNA will move on to infect another bacterial cell and
insert its DNA causing double-crossover recombination to occur
• Specialized Transduction:
• Temperate = when infection occurs, if host cell is deemed to be robust, the cell will not immediately be
killed
• Viral DNA is inserted into bacterial cell and will incorporate its DNA into the bacterial chromosome to
become a prophage which is replicated and passed onto daughter cells (all containing viral DNA that
remains hidden until conditions are unfavourable)
• When they switch to the lytic cycle, the viral DNA exits chromosome and takes some bacterial DNA with
it (most likely the genes closest to the site of incorporation)

GENETIC RECOMBINATION IN EUKARYOTES: MEIOSIS

• Sexual Reproduction: the production of offspring through the union of male and female gametes: Egg and
sperm cells in animals.
• Meiosis: produces gametes with HALF the chromosome number, causes genetic shuffling
• Fertilization: fuses the nuclei of egg and sperm to produce a zygote
• Diploid Phase dominates the life cycle of animals

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 • Meiosis is very quickly followed by gamete formation
• Haploid phase is reduced and no mitosis occurs
• (In comparison to other domains - biodiversity material)
• In males: all four nuclei from meiosis form sperm cells
• In females: only 1 (ONE) nucleus becomes an egg (that cell is given all the cytoplasm)
• Homologous Chromosomes: chromosome pairs (one maternal and one paternal)
• Same genes, could be slightly different alleles

• Meiosis I: first meiotic division, recombination occurs between homologous chromosomes

• Produces two haploid cells with chromatids attached
• Meiosis II: second meiotic division
• Sister chromatids separate into separate cells, produces 4 recombined haploid cells (each
chromosome set genetically different)
1. Prophase I
A. The replicated chromosomes each consisting of two sister chromatids begin to fold and condense into
threadlike structures in the nucleus.
B. synapsis - pairing of homologous chromosomes to make tetrads
C. Recombination - crossing over occurs through direct contact, mixed alleles

2. Prometaphase I
A. The nuclear envelope breaks down and the spindle enters the former nuclear area.
B. The two chromosomes of each pair attach to kinetochore microtubules that are anchored to opposite
spindle poles. Different processes during mitosis.
3. Metaphase I & Anaphase I
A. At metaphase I movements of the spindle microtubules have aligned (through RANDOM
ALIGNMENT) the recombined tetrads on the equatorial plane- the metaphase plate. The spindles separate
the homologous during anaphase.
4. Telophase I & Interkinesis
A. Telophase I is a brief stage in which there is little or no exchange of chromosomes. Tetrads align on the
metaphase plate, homologous segregate and move to poles
B. But telophase I is joined with interkinesis in which the jingle spindle of the
first meiotic divisions disassembles at the microtubules reassemble into two new spindles for the second
divisions.
C. Nondisjunction - creates abnormal numbers if improper separation occurs
5. Prophase II, Prometaphase II & Metaphase II
A. During prophase II the chromosomes condense.
B. During the prometaphase II the nuclear envelope breaks down and the spindle enters the former nuclear
area.
C. At metaphase II movements of the chromosomes within the spindle bring them to rest at the metaphase
plate
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6. Anaphase II & Telophase II
• Anaphase II begins as the sister chromatids of each chromosome separate from each other and move to
opposite spindle poles. During telophase II, the chromatids decondense to the extended interphase state, the
spindles disassemble, and new nuclear envelopes form around the masses of chromatin.
• The result is 4 haploid cells, each with a nucleus containing half the number of chromosomes present in the
cells at the beginning of meiosis.
• Nondisjunction:
• Fails at meiosis I or II, spindel fails to separate the homologous or sister chromosomes/chromatids of the
tetrad
• Meiosis I: One pole receives both chromosomes of a homologous pair
• Meiosis II: Chromatids don’t separate, resulting in gametes with abnormal numbers of chromosomes
• Creates gametes with 3 copies of a chromosome, can either be lethal or viable

GENETIC VARIABILITY:

• Genetic Recombination
• Crossing over is the key genetic shuffle of prophase I
• Tetrads held together at the synaptonemal complex (physical connection)
• 2-4 chromatids exchange alleles, chiasmata are the points of exchange, occurs between non-sister chromatids
• Random Segregation
• Key genetic shuffle of metaphase I
• Each chromosome of a homologous pair may randomly end up at either spindle pole
o Any combo of maternal and paternal chromosomes get segregated to gametes
o 2^x possible combinations
• Alternative Combination
• Key genetic shuffle at anaphase II
• Attachment of the spindle is random, therefore alignment and segregation is random
• Random Fertilization
• Random chance of male and female gamete forming zygote
• Meiosis allows randomness necessary for Mendelian laws of inheritance
• Any sperm can fertilize any egg
• Monozygotic Twins (1 egg breaks apart) vs Dizygotic Twins (2 eggs and 2 sperm)

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 Practice Questions

1. The final output of the Krebs cycle includes all of the following except:
a. NADP
b. FADH2
c. ATP
d. CO2

2. The end product of glycolysis is:

a. NADH
b. Acetyl CoA
c. Lactate
d. Pyruvate

3. Which of the following is not a product of fermentation?

a. CO2
b. O2
c. Ethanol
d. Lactate
e. All of the above are products of fermentation

4. What substance is produced by oxidation of pyruvate and feeds into the CAC- citric acid cycle?
a. Pyruvate
b. Glucose
c. Acetyl-CoA
d. O2
e. CO2

5. What role does O2 play in aerobic respiration

a. It plays no role
b. It combines with acetyl-CoA at the start of the Krebs cycle
c. It is given off as a by-product during the oxidation of pyruvate
d. It combines with H20 to help drive the formation of ATP
e. It is the final electron acceptor at the end of the Electron Transport Chain

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6. In the citric acid cycle, which of the following is true?
a. oxaloacetate combines with pyruvate to form citrate
b. 2 ATP are produced per molecule of pyruvate
c. 2 CO2 are released
d. None of these are true
e. all of these are true

7. What is true of Substrate level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation?

a. SLP involves hydrolysis of ATP to ADP +Pi
b. SLP occurs on the outer membrane of the cell
c. oxidative phosphorylation occurs on the outer membrane in the cell in eukaryotes
d. oxidative phosphorylation occurs on the inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotes

8. Which is true of the ETC and Chemiosmosis ?

a. NADH gives electrons to complex 2
b. FADH2 gives electrons to complex 1
c. electrons gain energy as they move from complex to complex
d. an electrochemical gradient is used to create ATP

9. What would an accumulation of the reactive oxygen species hydroxy radical indicate ?
a. there is a lot of cell respiration occuring
b. there is a deficient catalase enzyme within the cell
c. there is a deficient amount of vitamins in the diet
d. A and B
e. B and C

10. If two glucose molecules go through the citric acid cycle, how many NADH and FADH2 are produced?
a. 12 NADH and 4 FADH2
b. 3 NADH and 1 FADH2
c. 6 NADH and 2 FADH2
d. 24 NADH and 8 FADH2

11. Which of the following is true of the electron transport molecules in the ETC?

a. ubiquinone is a hydrophilic protein which transports electrons from complex 1 to 3 and complex 2 to 3
b. cytochrome c is a hydrophilic protein which transports electrons complex 3 back to complex 2 for re-
energization
c. ubiquinone picks up hydrogen ions in order to neutralize its negative nature when transporting electrons
d. cytochrome c is a hydrophobic protein which transfers electrons from complex 3 to 4

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12. How much ATP is produced theoretically by the aerobic portions of respiration?

a. 30 ATP
b. 32 ATP
c. 38 ATP
d. 6 ATP

13. The light reaction of photosynthesis does not

include:
a. Chemiosmosis
b. Oxygen liberation
c. Charge separation
d. Electron transport

14. The final product of the Calvin cycle is?

a. RuBP
b. PGA
c. ATP
d. G3P

15. Photosynthesis takes place in the membranes of small sacs called?

a. Thylakoids
b. Grana
c. Photosystems
d. Photons

16. The dark reactions in photosynthesis are limited by?

a. CO2, temperature, and light
b. CO2, light and water
c. Water, temperature and CO2
d. Oxygen, water and temperature

17. Colours of light most useful in photosynthesis are?

a. Green, yellow and orange
b. Red, violet and blue
c. Infrared, red and yellow
d. Red, white and Blue

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18. In mitosis cells divide to form a diploid cell, containing the same homologous pairs of chromosomes. In
meiosis, when the cells divide they form
a. Diploid cells
b. Identical haploid daughter cells
c. Centromeres
d. Non-identical haploid daughter cells
e. Tetrads

19. Binary fission means that cells?

a. Do not duplicate their DNA
b. Use sexual reproduction to create offspring
c. Split into two parts
d. All of the above

20. The cell cycle of somatic cells include the following

stages:
a. Chromatin, chromatid,
chromosome b. Interphase, mitosis,
cytokinesis c. Mitosis, binary
fission, cytokinesis d. Prophase I,
metaphase I, anaphase I

21. Non-disjunction resulting in the inheritance of an abnormal number of chromosomes occurs in?
a. Telophase I of meiosis
b. Anaphase of mitosis
c. Anaphase II of meiosis
d. Metaphase of mitosis

22. is when a bacterial cell takes up pieces of DNA that are released from dead
cells
a. Transformation
b. Transduction
c. Conjugation
d. Contact inhibition

23. Which cycle does generalized transduction utilize?

a. Lytic
b. Lysogenic

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c. None of the above
d. Both A and B

24. Which of the following statements is

true?
a. The X and Y chromosome line up during Meiosis I
b. The X and Y chromosome are autosomes
c. The Y chromosome has more genes than the X chromosome
d. Females have an XY genotype

Answers
1. A 10. A 19. A
2. D 11. C 20. C
3. B 12. B 21. B
4. C 13. B 22. A
5. E 14. D 23. D
6. C 15. A 24. D
7. D 16. A
8. D 17. B
9. E 18. D

More Cell Cycle

Questions:
1. Chromosomes are duplicated during what stage of the cell cycle?
a. G1 phase b. S phase c. prophase d. prometaphase

2.Which of the following events does not occur during some stages of interphase?
a. DNA duplication
b. organelle duplication
c. increase in cell size
d. separation of sister chromatids

3. The mitotic spindles arise from which cell structure?

a. centromere b. centrosome c. kinetochore d. cleavage furrow

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4. Attachment of the mitotic spindle fibers to the kinetochores is a characteristic of which stage of mitosis?
a. prophase b. prometaphase c. metaphase d. anaphase

5. Unpacking of chromosomes and the formation of a new nuclear envelope is a characteristic of which stage of
mitosis?
a. prometaphase
b. metaphase
c. anaphase
d. telophase

6. Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage of mitosis?

a. prometaphase
b. metaphase
c. anaphase
d. telophase

7. The chromosomes become visible under a light microscope during which stage of mitosis ?
a. prophase
b. prometaphase
c. metaphase
d. anaphase

8. The fusing of Golgi vesicles at the metaphase plate of dividing plant cells forms what structure ?
a. cell plate b.
actin ring c.
cleavage furrow
d. mitotic spindle

9. Which protein is a positive regulator that phosphorylates other proteins when activated?
a. p53
b. retinoblastoma
protein (Rb)
c. cyclin
d. cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)

Answers
1. b 6. c
2. d 7. a
3. a 8. a
4. b 9. d
5. d

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