IRAN

°Quick History of Iran Language.

-The Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BCE), Middle Iranian (400 BCE–
900 CE) and New Iranian (since 900 CE). The two directly-attested Old Iranian languages are Old Persian
(from the Achaemenid Empire) and Old Avestan (the language of the Avesta). Of the Middle Iranian
languages, the better understood and recorded ones are Middle Persian (from the Sasanian Empire),
Parthian (from the Parthian Empire), and Bactrian (from the Kushan and Hephthalite empires).

As of 2008, there were an estimated 150–200 million native speakers of the Iranian languages.
Ethnologue estimates that there are 86 languages in the group, with the largest among them being
Persian (Farsi, Dari, and Tajik dialects), Pashto, Kurdish, Luri, and Balochi.

°Language in Iran

-Persian

°Iranian Norms and Role

•Try to arrive early or at least on time; punctuality is important in Iranian society. When you arrive,
check to see if the host is wearing shoes. If not, remove yours at the door. Show respect for the elders
by greeting them first, and shake everyone's hand individually.

•Iran observes the Islamic dress code, which calls for women to cover their hair, neck and arms. This
doesn’t mean you need to cover up your entire body with a chador (a black cloth that covers the whole
body), you simply need to cover your head and hair with a hijab or loose scarf.

•Since ancient Silk Days, Iranians have been accustomed to having travellers as guests. Wherever you
are, Iranians will come up to you and say “hello,” take pictures with you, and invite you to their home or
even offer you a free guided tour of their hometown.

°Iranian Cultural Modes of Communication

-Iranians tend to be quite indirect in their communication. They generally look towards non-verbal cues
and speak figuratively to make a point. This has the purpose of avoiding embarrassment or offence and
respecting the other person in the conversation.

°Rules and Regulations in Cultural Communication of Iran

Verbal

•Indirect Communication: Iranians tend to be quite indirect in their communication. They generally look
towards non-verbal cues and speak figuratively to make a point. This has the purpose of avoiding
embarrassment or offence and respecting the other person in the conversation. If you need clarification
on what is said, you can check several times and ask open-ended questions. It is common for
conversation to be drawn out as people take time to reach a full understanding.

•Language Style: Iranians can take quite a long time to get to their point as they often explain
themselves by using the example of a story, poem or traditional saying. Sometimes the ‘lesson’
embedded in these allegories is not immediately evident to a non-Iranian who is not familiar with the
cultural context. It is okay to flag this to Iranians you are close with and ask them to be clearer.

•Refusals: Direct refusals can be interpreted as rude and may indicate that the person wishes to end a
relationship. It is best to go about saying ‘no’ to requests in an indirect way, such as “I’ll see what I can
do”. This advice does not apply when it comes to the first initial refusals one makes to show politeness
(taarof) – see Etiquette for information on this.

Non-Verbal

There are public and private rules regarding non-verbal communication in Iran. When in public, people
generally have to behave more formally and keep a distinct distance from those of the opposite gender.
These customs loosen significantly when people are in private and surrounded by their close friends.
Iranian expats in Australia are likely to be a lot more informal with their body language than what is
described below.

•Physical Contact: It is okay for friends and family to touch in a friendly way (such as backslapping) when
in the confines of the home. However, in accordance with the public separation of men and women, it is
inappropriate to be physically affectionate with any person of the opposite gender when in public. Male
friends may walk whilst holding each other’s hands or kiss to greet one another. One may also see a
husband and wife holding hands. However, women in particular are generally not supposed to show
physical affection unless they are out of the public eye. Many push this boundary – especially among the
younger generation.

•Personal Space: Iranians tend to keep a fair amount of personal space; however, the average proximity
is still a little bit closer than the Western norm. For example, you may find public seating is quite
squishy. Try to give a generous amount of personal space between you and someone else of the
opposite gender.

•Eye Contact: When talking to people of the same age, gender or status, direct eye contact is expected.
This communicates friendly affection and sincerity. However, in accordance to Islamic principles, males
and females are expected to lower their gaze and avoid sustained eye contact with each other. This is
considered respectful and observant of the partition between genders. Younger people may also lower
their gaze when speaking to elders out of respect. Therefore, if an Iranian avoids eye contact during
interaction, consider that it is usually done as a defence mechanism to remain respectful and modest
and does not necessarily mean they are disinterested.

•Expressions: People tend to smile less whilst in public in Iran. To smile casually while passing a stranger
of the opposite gender on the street could easily be interpreted as provocative and escalate to
questions quickly. Therefore, try not to be intimidated by an Iranian’s apparent ‘serious’ demeanour. It
is not necessarily a reflection on you, but the social expectation.

•Gestures: Iranians are generally reserved in their body language and gesture much less than their Arab
neighbours. The thumbs-up gesture is considered rude and has the same connotation as raising one’s
middle finger for traditional Iranians.

•Pointing: It is considered rude to point your index finger at another person during conversation.

•Feet: Displaying the soles of one’s feet to another person is improper. Similarly, placing one’s feet on
top of the table is not acceptable.

ISRAEL
°Quick History of Israel Language.

-Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. Canaanite languages are a branch of the
Northwest Semitic family of languages. According to Avraham Ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken
language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during the period from about 1200 to 586 BCE.

°Language in Israeli

-Hebrew

°Israelis Norms and Role

•Family

Israelis consider family to be a very important aspect of their life. However, since Israeli society contains
a blend of both individualistic and collectivistic cultures, there are many different family structures.1 For
example, while it is common to find small families that focus on the parent-children relationship, there
are also many Israeli families that maintain strong ties with their extended families. In turn, an
individual’s sense of loyalty, duty and responsibility differs depending on whether their family comes
from a culture that leans more towards individualism or collectivism.

•Household Structure

The most common family unit is the nuclear family. Some households may have more relatives (such as
grandparents) living in the same home. In other cases, the nuclear family unit may live near their
extended family. In these arrangements, grandparents, aunts and uncles often help in raising the
children. Grandparents are greatly respected. In Sephardi families, grandparents often look forward to
the honour of their grandchild being named after them.
The number of children in a family unit varies largely depending on the couple’s religious and ethnic
background. Secular (Hiloni) Jewish couples tend to have one to three children, traditional (Masorti) and
religious (Dati) Jewish families usually have three to six, and ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) families often have
seven or more.

The bar mitzvah (for boys) or bat mitzvah (for girls) is an important ceremony for many Jewish children
that marks their transition into adulthood, taking place when the boy turns thirteen and when the girl
turns twelve. In most cases, children live at home until they reach the age of compulsory military
conscription. The child-parent bond tends to remain strong well after children move out of their parents’
home. Some children return to their family home after their military service to live while they complete
their university studies.

•Gender Roles

Among secular (Hiloni) Jews, women and men are generally considered equal and have access to the
same opportunities. Women are able to work in all sectors of society, and are treated equal before the
law. Women make up a significant portion of Israel’s workforce. Though women’s compulsory active-
duty time in the IDF is less than that of men, women are able to serve in any role.

Within conservative religious communities, women and men tend to have defined gender norms they
are expected to uphold. Women are expected to manage household affairs and care for the children. In
religious (Dati) and ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) families, it is often considered a holy act for a woman to
bear many children. Meanwhile, men are expected to study Jewish laws and traditions in Talmudic
schools. Thus, it is the father’s responsibility to pass on Jewish values and rituals to their children.

Traditionally, the father is the head of the family and the breadwinner. Among younger secular families,
both women and men may financially support the household, tend to housekeeping tasks and
participate in decision-making. In ultra-Orthodox families, the wife tends to be responsible for financially
supporting the family since the husband usually earns a modest stipend while undertaking his Jewish
studies. However, the rising cost of living has pushed ultra-Orthodox men into the workforce, which has
altered family dynamics.

•Dating and Marriage

Marriage is highly valued in Israeli society, and most Israelis hope and expect to marry. For most of the
Israeli population, dating is quite common and usually begins in mid to late teenage years. People tend
to meet prospective partners at school and parties, through family members, during their military
service, or via online dating platforms. It is socially acceptable for either the male or female to initiate
the dating process. Popular first dates include meeting at a cafe or restaurant, and other social activities,
such as the cinema. Israelis who are secular or more liberal may choose to marry later in life after
completing their military service, finishing their university education and establishing their careers.

Those from religiously conservative families, such as ultra-Orthodox Jews, usually meet prospective
partners through informal or professional matchmaking or at Shabbat dinners. Matchmakers may be
relatives, family friends or a professional service. Official meetings will be set up by the family, and dates
may be supervised or under certain restrictions. During the matchmaking process, the families of the
couple will learn about one another to ensure the families are compatible. This process may begin as
early as seventeen for those from ultra-Orthodox communities. Marriage may occur soon after. Indeed,
it is common for couples from more Orthodox families to marry in their early- to mid-twenties. Due to
Israel’s legal system, personal matters such as marriage, divorce, adoptions and inheritance fall under a
religious community’s jurisdiction.

This means that only religious marriage ceremonies are legally held in Israel. Wedding ceremonies are
very diverse in Israel and vary depending on the couple’s religious and cultural background. Jewish
weddings are officiated by a rabbi, Muslim weddings are officiated by a qadi, and Christian weddings are
officiated by a member of the clergy. Israelis also have the option to be in a de facto relationship (also
known as ‘common law marriage’). Divorce is similarly subject to religious laws of the community the
couple belong to. If a Jewish couple wishes to divorce,Orthodox Jewish law applies (regardless if they
themselves identify as Orthodox Jews). In general, though, divorce is becoming more commonplace.

Those who seek an interreligious marriage or same-sex marriage often travel abroad for their wedding
(usually to Cyprus). The Israeli government recognises marriages performed outside of the country. A
common law spouse status is available for couples who cannot or do not wish to travel abroad to wed,
though this status entails fewer legal rights than marriage. Though interreligious marriages occur, they
are not always socially accepted. For instance, it is somewhat rare for a very religiously observant Jew to
marry a secular Jew.

°Israelis Cultural Modes of Communication

-Israelis tend to communicate in an expressive manner, accompanied with many hand gestures. They
often speak quite loudly and at a fast pace, which can give an impression that they are yelling or
irritated. However, it is most likely their usual tone of communicating.

°Rules and Regulations in Cultural Communication of Israel

Verbal

Direct Communication: Israelis usually communicate in a direct, straightforward and informal manner.
This is in part due to the grammatical structure of Hebrew, which is quite a direct language. The direct
communication style of Israelis is known as ‘dugriut’, which refers to a forthright and unapologetic
directness in communicating. Interests and desires are often expressed through direct phrases such as “I
want...” or “I need…” as opposed to indirect phrases such as “would it be possible...”.

•Communication Style: Israelis tend to communicate in an expressive manner, accompanied with many
hand gestures. They often speak quite loudly and at a fast pace, which can give an impression that they
are yelling or irritated. However, it is most likely their usual tone of communicating. Israelis also tend to
have overlapping speech patterns, which means one person may speak over someone before they have
finished their point. Therefore, interruptions during conversation are common.

•Emotions: Israelis can become quite emotive when communicating, particularly on topics they are
passionate about. Anger in Israeli communication patterns often represents passion, and in some
situations, people can become heated or impassioned quickly. If this occurs in a public setting,
bystanders often make an effort to calm the situation.

•Humour: Humour features quite prominently in Israeli communication. A common aspect of Israeli
humour is chizbat, which refers to humorous anecdotes and tall tales.

Yiddish: Among Ashkenazi Jews, some popular phrases and slang come from the Yiddish language. For
instance, the common word ‘nu’ is used to urge someone to hurry up or get to

a point when speaking indirectly (e.g. ‘nu, what are we waiting for?’).

Non-Verbal

Physical Contact: Israelis may lightly touch or tap their counterpart while speaking. Contact between
men is quite common as a sign of friendship and affection. Some common examples include a light
punch on the arm or throwing one’s arm around their counterpart’s shoulders. Religiously observant
Israelis usually avoid physical contact with the opposite gender.

•Personal Space: Israelis usually stand less than an arm’s distance from one another while talking. It can
be considered rude to back away from someone while they are speaking. Among religiously observant
men and women, it is more common to stand farther apart. However, it is common for people to stand
very close together in public spaces, such as supermarket queues.

•Eye Contact: Direct eye contact is customarily expected and reflects a sense of interest and respect in
the person. Some women who are religiously observant may divert their gaze when speaking to
someone of the opposite gender.

•Gestures: Gestures are very common in Israeli communication. People often ‘talk with their hands’ and
seem quite lively. They may animate their whole body when emphasising or expressing a particular
point.

SAUDI

°Quick History of Saudi Language.

-“Some say Arabic script originated from Al Hirah (fourth-to-seventh-century Mesopotamia) in the
north, while others say it originated from the south of Arabia, from Himyar (110 BC to AD 525),” Al
Naboodah. “The origin of Arabic is a highly debated topic, with new discoveries still happening.”

°Language in Saudi

-Arabic

°European's Norms and Role

•Alcohol is banned.

•Women should wear an Abaya in public, but headscarves are not compulsory any longer.

•You should refrain from holding hands and public displays of affection. This is also applicable in the UAE
and the GCC.

•Gambling is banned in KSA as well as in the UAE.

•Look out for the family sections of cafes and restaurants; if you are a male who is alone, don't go in.

•Certain beaches in Jeddah are expat only and you can wear swimwear and shorts. This is not the case
in public beaches elsewhere.

•Only shake Muslim females' hand if offered by her, otherwise a simple hello or hold your hand over
your heart.

•Only use your right hand for shaking hands or for handing anything. It’s considered rude to use your
left hand in Islam.

•Respect the religion. Shops, cafes, etc. will close for a short while during prayer times.

•Shops and many services are closed on Fridays, the holy day. The working week is Sunday-Thursday.

•Ramadan is the Holy Month where Muslims fast during daylight hours.

•Do not have any water or food visible in public during this time, even in your car, or you risk fines.

•No dress code exists for children.

°Europe Cultural Modes of Communication

-In general, most Arabs tend to stand closer to their communication partner of the same sex. It is not
uncommon for men to set their hands on each other's shoulders, or for two females engaging in
conversation to stand within close proximity and use gestures including touching the other's hand
during conversation.

°Rules and Regulations in Cultural Communication of Europe

Indirect Communication: Saudi Arabians generally have an indirect communication style. It is common
for people to understate their opinion in an effort to save face and remain polite. You may have to make
assumptions about what is not said. For example, if you offend a Saudi person, you may not be made
aware that you have done so in the moment. They may become silent or cold towards you later on (e.g.
perhaps becoming hard to contact or disagreeing with more of your ideas). Other communicative cues,
such as body language and eye contact, often convey meaning. As a broad generalisation, Saudi women
tend to be more indirect and reserved communicators than Saudi men.

•Conversation Style: When conversing with one another, Saudis generally strive to maintain group
harmony by avoiding individual attention or singling out a specific person. It is common for Saudis to
range from subject to subject while conversing, taking a long time before getting to the point. They may
make their point in a long, roundabout way to avoid embarrassment or offence. For example, a
conversation may begin at descriptions of the weather and move onto a discussion of business. To
some, this may appear to indicate that the conversation is going ‘off-topic’. However, appreciate that
there is a more relaxed attitude to time that allows conversation to unfold more slowly in Saudi culture.
The best way of reaching an understanding is to ask open-ended questions that allow a Saudi to reach
their answer in their own time whilst giving agreeable responses as they talk.

•Hierarchy: People’s communication patterns can differ depending on the context. Generally, when
speaking in a business setting or with someone who is more familiar to the person, it is common to
speak in a more direct manner (e.g. openly disagreeing with others). However, people tend to be very
indirect and respectful to their seniors, such as elders or professionals. When the eldest person speaks,
everybody is expected to listen and pay their full attention as a sign of respect.

•Requests: If you ask a Saudi to do something for you that is within their means, they will often respond
with “I’ll see what I can do”, “perhaps” or something to that effect. If the task is not a high priority or is
dependent on their availability, Saudis often reply with “Inshallah”, meaning ‘if God wills it’ (i.e. perhaps,
but it is the fate of God if it doesn’t happen). This could mean that they may not complete it for some
time (or at all) unless prompted. It is best to follow up several times to check on their progress if the
matter is urgent.

•Criticism: Personal criticism or advice should always be approached sensitively and privately. It can
quite easily be mistaken for mild personal offence unless presented in an indirect way. Therefore, try to
offer any suggestion of improvement with praise at the same time.

•Volume: Saudi men may speak loudly with a rising tone. This is seen as a positive characteristic rather
than a negative one. Indeed, ‘shouting’ can indicate sincerity and engagement in the conversation, not
necessarily anger or hostility. Saudi women are expected to be quieter and more reserved.

•Language Style: Poetry is a regular feature of Saudi communication, most commonly used for deep
praise or insults. People use poetic citations for preaching, greetings and speeches. Saudi/Arabic
expressions and language can be very emotive. The structure of the language encourages repetition and
exaggeration.
•Humour: Saudi Arabians tend to have quite self-deprecating humour. People are often comfortable
poking fun at themselves. However, some may be sensitive about being embarrassed and laughed at. It
is inadvisable to tease another person and/or poke fun at things. It is very offensive to make a joke that
involves a man’s female family members, the government or sexuality. Be aware that blasphemy is
punishable in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, all jokes about religion are strictly prohibited.

•Blessings: Blessings are said on a daily basis in Saudi Arabia. These are short Arabic expressions that
wish for God’s intervention depending on the situation (e.g. “May God give you health”). Blessings are
often said instead of a ‘Thank you’.

•Swearing: Swearing is very uncommon in Saudi culture and thought to indicate a lack of decorum. If
someone does swear, it is usually said in the form of a curse (e.g. “May God curse your family”).

Non-Verbal

Physical Contact: People are usually comfortable hugging and touching friends of the same gender. It is
common for two men to hold hands in public when they are sitting or walking somewhere as a gesture
of friendship. However, physical contact between people of the opposite gender should be avoided
altogether out of respect and politeness (unless they are family).

•Personal Space: Saudi standards of personal space differ depending on the context. If the person is a
friend of the same gender, the distance is often smaller than what Westerners are used to in public. For
example, two friends may nestle together when sitting. However, it may be bigger in instances when
there is a difference of authority or when the other person is from the opposite gender. It is best to keep
at least a metre distance between you and a Saudi person to respect the modesty of the other person if
you do not know them well.

•Eye Contact: When talking to people of the same age, gender or status, direct eye contact is expected.
Strong eye contact indicates sincerity and trust, especially in business. However, males and females are
expected to lower their gaze and avoid sustained eye contact with each other. Some men may look at
the ground to avoid observing a female altogether. This is considered respectful and observant of the
partition between genders. Younger people may also lower their gaze when speaking to elders out of
respect.

•Beckoning: It is impolite to beckon with a single index finger or the left hand. Instead, place the right
palm downwards and use a clawing motion with fingers to indicate a “come here” request.

•Pointing: It is considered very rude to point with the index finger. Instead, Saudis raise their chin and
look in the general direction of the object they wish to “point out”.

•Feet: It is considered insulting to show or expose the soles of your feet to other people. Avoid pointing
your feet towards other people when sitting down or crossing your legs around elders.
Gestures

There is a saying that “to tie an Arab’s hands while he is speaking is tantamount to tying his tongue”.
Saudi Arabians tend to use a range of motions and many gestures whilst speaking. These emphasise,
exaggerate and/or demonstrate the point of their words, and also give further meaning when little is
said. Some common gestures are listed below:

•Disagreement: People may indicate “no” by shaking their head or disagreement/disapproval by quickly
tilting their head back whilst clicking their tongue.

•Patience: If a Saudi person needs someone to wait, they may touch their thumb, forefinger and middle
finger together and motion to the person they wish to ask to be patient. For example, this action may be
performed by someone who is speaking on the phone to another person approaching them.

•Sincerity: Placing the palm of the right hand on one’s chest shows respect or sincerity when saying
something earnest (such as an apology).

•Agreement: To touch the other’s shoulder with one’s right hand can indicate agreement.

•Obscenity: Hitting one’s right fist into the left hand and lightly rubbing it in the open palm indicates
obscenity or contempt. The symbol for ‘Okay’ (with the forefinger and the top of the thumb meeting to
form a circle, with the other fingers stretched out) has an offensive meaning, although the Western
meaning is becoming more common. Holding the hand up (as if to say ‘stop’) with the middle finger
down is the equivalent of giving someone ‘the finger’ in Western culture.