History: Overview, The Holocaust, Migration Experiences

and Rights and Freedoms:

Overview - The Modern World & Australia:

Major Movements for Rights and Freedoms:

US Civil Rights Movement:
 1960s - African Americans led a movement for civil, political and legal rights
 Slavery ended in Civil War - African Americans still suffered segregation and
racism
 1955 - Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat for a white man on a bus -
sparked a boycott in Alabama
 Freedom Ride - activists took a bus from Washington to New Orleans to
protest against segregation
Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Civil Rights Movement:
 Aboriginal people have fought for legal, civil and political rights
 1924 - Fred Maynard formed to first Aboriginal Political rights group
 26th Jan 1938 - day of mourning for Aboriginal people with public demands
for civil and legal rights
 1967 Referendum - 90% YES to include in census
 1982 - Eddie Mabo challenged QLD Gov.’s claim to the Torres Strait Island -
in 1992 the High Court ruled in favour of Mabo
Women’s Liberation Movement:
 Late 19th century - early 20th century - first wave Feminist movement fought
to give women the right to vote
 Women participated in both World Wars
 1960s - second wave - protest to give women more work, women’s sexual
pleasure, racial equality, domestic violence
 Movement achieved legislative victories in AUS, including the Sex
Discrimination Act 1984

Australian and the Cold War and Beyond:

The Korean War:
 Initially fought between communist North Korea and democratic South Korea
 AUS joined US to support South Korea
 Condemned as an act of communist aggression
 Ceasefire agreed on 27th July, 1953.
The End of the Cold War:
 1985 - Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in USSR
 Wished to bring economic and political changes
 Between 1989-1900 the Eastern bloc began to crumble as many moved to
democracy - symbolised in November 1989 - fall of Berlin Wall
The Vietnam War:
 US opposition to communism a main factor
 Vietnam were a French colony and were given financial and military aid by US
 US sent troops in March 1965
 AUS helped South Vietnam until fall of Saigon - 60000 served, 521 died
The Gulf Wars and Afghanistan:
 First Gulf War began on 2nd August 1990 - until 28th February 1991
  War broke out when Iraq invaded Kuwait - Iraq surrendered after 42 days
 War in Afghanistan began on 7th October 2001, in response to 9/11
 2002 - US invaded Afghanistan to oust the government
 Government of Iraq was overthrown and Saddam Hussein executed in 2003
The Rising Influence of Asia:
 21st century - expected Asia will become a superpower
 60% of world population lives in Asia
 China’s economy has grown - exports all over the world

Continuing efforts post-WWII to achieve lasting peace and security in the

world, including AUS’s involvement in UN Peacekeeping:
From the beginning/Herbert Vere ‘Doc’ Evatt:
 AUS was one of the founding members of the UN.
 ‘Doc’ Evatt was the leader of AUS’s first delegation to the UN, who made a
significant contribution at the San Francisco Conference which drew up
policies, principles and powers
 1948 - Evatt presided over the general assembly.
Australia’s Contribution to the UN:
 Have key UN ambassadors in Vienna, Geneva and NY
 Mainly contribute through the General Assembly
 Promotes and aids programs, human rights and refugee issues
 Supports multilateral treaty system and contributes to encouraging
international action on global issues affecting AUS.
Australia’s UN Peacekeeping Role:
 Contributed to over 20 investigation claims of human rights violations,
provision of humanitarian aid
 Provided peacekeeping in Afghanistan, Iraq and Iran
 1999 - AUS sent 5000 military to East Timor
Australia and UN Conventions:
 The UN incorporated human rights into international law through a number of
treaties and conventions
 AUS has confirmed two of these - International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights
 Australian family law enshrines the principle of the ‘best interest of the child’ -
a reflection of AUS’s support for the UN Declaration of the Rights of the Child
Australia and UNESCO:
 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation
 Worked to promote international respect, understanding and diversity
 Communicates info about science, facilitates discussion of ethical issues,
works to end poverty and encourages sustainable development
 Gough Whitlam served as Ambassador to UNESCO form 1983-86
 He was a strong advocate of AUS fulfilling its commitment to supporting UN
initiatives in human rights, the environment and the preservation of our
heritage.
Australia and the UN from the 1990s:
 20th September 1999 - 28th February 2000 - AUS led by Major General Peter
Cosgrove involved in International Force for East Timor
 Labour - international
 Liberal - national
  1992 - mandatory detention for anyone who arrived without documents
 Mandatory detention contravened AUS’s commitment to upholding
Declaration of Human Rights

Developments and Challenges in Technology and the Environment:

Technology and its impact on standards of living:
Household Goods:
 After WWII, the prices of many labour-saving consumer goods fell
dramatically in price.
 Washing machines, vacuum cleaners, ovens and steam irons were now
affordable.
 These were important time-savers, providing opportunities for more leisure
time and paid work outside the home.
Cars:
 Made it easy and cheap for middle-class people to travel to work or leisure =
changing work opportunities.
 Led to expensive road and highway building.
Housing:
 Housing was extremely expensive before the war despite western countries
being very prosperous.
 Populations started increasing after servicemen started families and from
increased migration.
 Brought about a shortage of housing.
 Fibro, a thin cement sheet, became very popular for building cheap housing =
expansion of the suburbs.
 Affordable housing had the single greatest impact on standards of living.
Environmental Costs:
 Improved standards for millions of people have taken their toll on the
environment in the form of pollution.
 Industrial production release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere
 Results in an increase in the atmospheric temperature of the planet = climate
change.
 Negative effects on the environment such as floods and fires.
 Drastic changes in agricultural conditions, including rainfall levels, make it
hard to grow crops all year around.
 Pollution can be found in the air in the form of carbon monoxide, in water from
sewage and chemicals such as fertiliser and pesticides.
 Developed nations rely on non-renewable fossil fuels = these will soon be
exhausted, and there are moves to develop alternative forms of energy
generation such as biofuels.
 Unit 1 - The Holocaust:

What were the Motivations of the Nazis?

 The Nazis poor performance in the first world war was blamed on the Jewish
people, with a strong emphasis on anti-Semitism.
 The Jews were also blamed for the economic depression and situation, as
many Jews were very wealthy.
 Hitler and Nazi party convinced the German population of Jewish interference
with the progression and growth of Germany as a world power.
 Also, believed that removing Jews from society would ensure population
would be free from abnormality and disability.
 Lebensraum – living space for all the Aryan race.
 Gleichschaltung – the policy of reaching into all facets of life to ensure Nazi
values were supported.

How was the Holocaust implemented by the Nazis?

     Ghettos:
 Were city districts where enclosed Jewish communities were contained whilst
the Nazis decided on plans, with largest being Warsaw ghetto.
 Conditions were poor, with little food, medication or education, and anyone
who disobeyed orders was killed.
 When the ‘solution’ was introduced, Jews in ghettos were either killed or
transported to death camps.
    Concentration Camps:
 A concentration camp is a prison-like place where people are detained
harshly.
 Between 1933-45, they were built for slave labour, transit and death
purposes.
 After Nazis retreated (1944), many inmates participated in death marches,
where many would die in Winter due to coldness, exhaustion or guns.
 After allies found the camps, many were destroyed and filled with human
clothing and hair, with 1.1 million dying at Auschwitz.

    Einsatzgruppen:
 The Einsatzgruppen were led by Heinrich Himmler and were the most elite
Nazi soldiers, killing all enemies, disabled and gypsy people.
 They buried their bodies in mass graves or burnt them in crematoriums, and
were known as mobile killing squads.
 They originally used gas vans, but switched to death camps due to quicker
methods, many were considered responsible for the ‘Final Solution.’

      Expropriation:
 This is the act of dispossessing someone of property, which the Nazis seized
many Jewish homes and businesses, all under Nuremberg Laws.
 All Jews had to register assets over 5000 Reichsmark, and pressure was
placed on Jews to sell their businesses to make way for Lebensraum.
 After Kristallnacht, Nazis commenced confiscation of Jewish property, and
imposed taxes on their belongings.

    
 Nuremberg Laws:
 1935 Nuremberg rally - Nazis introduce laws regarding racial theories and
Nazi ideology.
 Excluded Jews from Reich citizenship and having a relationship with a
German.
 A Jew was defined as one who had Jewish ancestors or grandparents.
 All Jewish people had a red ‘J’ stamped on them, with men having the middle
name of Israel, and women having Sara.

     Deportation:
 Concentration camps were built near railway stations for efficiency.
 8000-10000 people were transported daily, with 110 in one carriage.
 Some were on the trains for over a day, as SS only worked half of Saturday
and had Sunday off.

     Final Solution:

 Zyklon B - cyanide based gas used in camps, many killed by this at
Auschwitz.
 Auschwitz – largest death camp (Birkenau) killed over 1 Million Jews.
 Wannsee Conference – confirmed final solution on 20 Jan 1942.
th

 Death Marches – Jews were sent on forced treks into Germany to kill them.

What were the experiences of those affected by the Holocaust?

 Appalling conditions whilst living ghettos and camps.
 Scarce food, medical supplies and education, and forced labour.
 Discriminated and treated unequally to other Germans.
 Mentally segregated, due to indoctrination.
 Persecuted against through use of propaganda.
 Killed and openly attacked in streets.
 Negative experience due to Nuremberg Laws.
 Refused many occupations and jobs.
 Attacked Jewish life - people, stores, property and synagogues (Kristallnacht).
 Marched in terrible conditions.
 Murdered and gassed (Zyklon B) by the SS and Einsatzgruppen.
 Transport - cramped, 110 per freight, 2 waste buckets per freight car.
What was aftermath of the Holocaust including Nuremberg War Crime Trials?
     Liberation of the Holocaust:
 Allies: when the allies freed the camps, they were shocked at the scenes.
 They viewed extermination facilities, crematoriums and mass graves.
 In April 1945, Hitler committed suicide.

     Why it was necessary to hold the Nuremberg trials:

 Nazi atrocities were part of official government policy, not random people’s
acts.
 Was hope if Nazis were convicted and examples were made of, it would never
occur again.
 As the UN was new body in 1945, it was hoped peaceful resolutions could
provide international justice and set the UN on a good path.
 It was necessary to show Germans what had happened in camps by SS, they
had to understand this had happened by a government they supported.
    21 leading Nazis were charged with four counts:
 Conspiracy to commit crimes against peace.
 Crimes against peace and humanity.
 War crimes.
 The trial was run by the four main allied powers – US, Russia, UK and
France.

    Responsibility for the Holocaust:

 Nazis: Hitler had a great deal of the responsibility as his orders were verbal,
and hatred towards Jews was so bad he spoke of ‘Jewish annihilation.’ Other
Nazis – Himmler/Goering were also responsible. Himmler ensured the
resources for final solution were there, whilst Heydrich ensured Hitler’s
actions were carried out.
 Germans: They were widely criticised for lack of action against the Jews.
Very few Germans criticised the Nazis, and if they did, were killed or jailed.
 Other Governments: Nazis asked allies to hand over Jews. The Danish tried
to protect the Jews, whilst the US and UK believed the gassing was an
exaggeration.
Unit 2 - Migration Experiences:

Size and Composition of Australia’s Population in 1945:

 1945 - Australia’s population was 7.4 million
 1947 census revealed that 0.51% of population was foreign
 Largest foreign groups in 1945 were British, Italians, Chinese and Greek

Main Waves of Migration to Australia following WWII:

1945 - 1949:
 Over 5.9 million people have migrated since 1945
 Thousands displaced across Europe after WWII
 AUS’s population was too small - if it did not increase industries would
collapse
 Department of Immigration created in 1945 by Chifley government
1950s - 1960s:
 1950 - Australia made agreements with Italy and Greece for migrants
 1955 - Over 88000 Italians and 33000 Greeks
 1960 - 90% of 260000 migrants were Europeans
1970s:
 1973 - Chilean government overthrown = influx in Chilean migrants
 1975 - Increased numbers from Indochina after Vietnam War - fleeing
communist government
 1976 - 50000 Vietnamese settled in AUS
1980s:
 1985 - Vietnamese were third largest migrant group
 During the 80s, increased numbers from China, Malaysia and Philippines
 Lebanese fleeing civil war also settled
1990s:
 Britain no longer largest migrant group – NZ biggest group of arrivals
2000s - Present:
 Large numbers of migrants from the Middle East fleeing unrest and repression
in Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq
 Over 100 languages spoken
 Ethnic media, businesses, new foods and diverse religious and cultural
activities enriched the lives of all Australians

Post-War Migration:
World War II:
 Migration ceased towards the end of the war
 Department of Immigration created to rebuild Australia and protect borders
 Brought economic growth and high employment
The Cold War:
 End of WWII - two blocs - Eastern/Communist bloc by USSR and Western
bloc by US. = Nuclear threat, causing eruption of conflict;
The Vietnam War:
 Refugees arrived due to spread of communism, many displaced Vietnamese
 Australia supported South Vietnam and were obliged to accept refugees.
The Tiananmen Square Massacre:
 1989 - Chinese students protested for freedom of speech
 AUS PM Bob Hawke allowed 20000 Chinese students to stay in AUS
The Gulf War:
 1991 Persian Gulf War = increased migrants from Middle East
 Political and physical insecurity led many to seek refuge

Government Policies that restricted immigration to Australia and subsequent

policies:
Immigration Restriction Act:
 Describes Australia's previous approach to immigration which favoured
applicants from certain countries.
 23rd December 1901 - 1958
 Use of Dictation Test where applicants had to correctly write a passage in any
European language.
 Under “White Australia Policy” only Europeans, and then mainly northern
Europeans, could immigrate to Australia.
The Pacific Islander Labourers Act:
 Allowed Kanaka labourers to keep working on sugarcane plantations as
cheap labour
 Enforced deportation of any Pacific Islander workers unless they had lived in
Australia for 20 years or owned property

Explain why government attempted to attract migrants with reference to

Populate or Perish:
 After WWII, AUS’s population was 7 million and lost 35000 soldiers at war
 Arthur Calwell came up with ‘Populate or Perish’ slogan as Australian needed
a larger population after WWII and invasion threats from the Japanese
 “Australia needed to “…greatly increase our numbers…it is urgent and
imperative if we are to survive”.
 The government needed unskilled labour for construction projects to rebuild
Australia
 Major project was SMHES - needed 10000 migrants alone

Describe the hardships faced by Italian migrants upon arrival to Australia:

 Highly educated migrants discovered that their qualifications were not
recognised and were subsequently pushed towards unskilled labour such as
construction and manufacturing
 Families were separated upon arrival, with the men being sent to migrant
camps where they were kept for a minimum of two years
 Men and women, especially women, worked long hours with very little pay

Describe the impact of the Vietnam War on Australia’s migration policy:

 Vietnam War ended in 1975, the Fraser government relaxed their immigration
policies and allowed a significant number of Indochinese, particularly
Vietnamese refugees coming via boat, into the country.
 After an influx in Vietnamese ‘Boat People’, a Humanitarian Refugee Policy
was established in the last 1970s, to provide a more targeted and orderly
response to future refugee crises.
 This saw Australia accept many persecuted South Vietnamese and emerge
as a multicultural country.
 In 1976, the Department established the first immigration detention
processing centre near Sydney as a measure intended to better manage the
 arrival of people by boat. Between 1975 and 1985, the Department had
processed around 95,000 Indochinese refugees for resettlement in Australia.

Response of Australians to the arrival of refugees from Vietnam:\

 In June 1979, a Morgan poll of Australians found that 53 per cent said that
Australia should accept the refugees arriving by boat. Only 28 per cent said
that the boats should be put back to sea, and 19 per cent were undecided.
 In September 2001, a similar poll found that 68 per cent of Australians wanted
boats put back to sea. Only 20 per cent wanted Australia to accept the
refugees, and 12 per cent were undecided.

Experience of refugees on their journey to Australia and upon their arrival:

 For most Vietnamese boat people, the journey was horrendous. Regardless
of their final destination, the journey usually involved bribing of officials to
leave Vietnam. From sturdier craft that could hold 400, down to makeshift
rafts, Vietnamese took to a risk in order to create a better life for themselves.
 Before leaving Vietnam, families had to sell all their belongings, and any
money was usually converted to gold, which was easier to carry and easily
converted to cash. Unfortunately, that made the boats a prime target for
pirates, particularly from the coast of Thailand. Pirates became a major risk
for potential refugees, and added further danger to a voyage that was already
highly dangerous because of storms and rough seas.

Contribution of Migration to the Australian Identity:

Australia’s National Identity:
 2013 - Population was 23 million with 6.4 million born overseas
 UK, NZ, China and Vietnam among the largest groups
 Migrants have brought culture, beliefs and values
 Create a rich and vibrant society - support economic growth
Impact of Australia’s International Relationships:
 Multiculturalism has had a positive effect on foreign relationships
 Brought AUS closer to Asian countries
 Migration = economic + political + cultural benefits
Contribution to the economy:
 Goal of migration was to strengthen economy
    Skilled Workers:
 Contribute to the supply of goods and services
 Bring new skills to workforce at little cost
    Time to Integrate:
 Recently arrived migrants find themselves unemployed in economic hardship
 Takes 4-5 years to establish a life - rely on government-funded services
    Migrant’s Profiles:
 Contribute to farming, mining, construction, education, overseas trade
 Built many private and public buildings
Social & Cultural Contribution:
 Cultural lifestyle is the greatest impact
 New foods, beverages, fashion, literature, language, music, sports etc
 Migrants have become successful academics, professionals, politicians
Unit 3 - Rights and Freedoms:
 
The Origins and Significance of the UDHR, including Australia’s involvement
in the development of the declaration:
The Purpose of the United Nations:
 Founded in June 26th 1945 in the aftermath of WWII, due to the need for an
International Organisation to minimise the chance of conflict.
 Maintain peace and security, foster positive relationships and promote human
rights.
Origins of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR):
 Was established after the horrific violation of human rights in WWII -
International community determined to avoid this happening again.
Australia’s role in the development of the UDHR:
 Dr Evatt headed every Australian delegation to the General Assembly.
 Became a strong advocate for a proposed human rights treaty (UDHR)
Why is UDHR Significant?
 Focused on the social, economic, civil and political rights of individuals,
regardless of race.
 Meant that all member nations would be accountable for upholding them.
 First step in the creation of the International Bill of Rights
 Emphasises that human rights are universal - they hold for all people at all
times.
 
Background to the struggle of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People for
rights and freedoms before 1965, including the 1938 Day of Mourning and the
Stolen Generations:
The Australian Aborigines League (AAL):
 Founded in 1932 by William Cooper - to gain active support from White
Australians.
 1937 - sent the federal government a petition with 2000 signatures to send to
King George VI - requested legal legislation and a representative in
parliament to advocate Aboriginal rights.
The 1938 Day of Mourning:
 A protest organised by the Aborigines Progressive Association.
 Message - for 150 years Aborigines had been denied basic human rights - the
ADoM marked 150 years of White Settlement
 Included a mark through Sydney
 
Experiences of the Stolen Generations:
 Forceful removal which could not be spoken about
 Kept in government reserves = physical abuse, water pollution and ration
packs
 Boys trained as labourers
 Girls trained as domestic servants
 Doug Nicholls - “The whole fear of you’ll be next”.
Assimilation Policy and its Impact:
 Dressed as westerners
 Dispossession of land and culture
 Citizenship given out to those who abandoned their Aboriginal culture
  Break the cycle of segregation and be accepted = excel in sport, join the
military or entertainment.
 
The US Civil Rights Movement and its Influence on Australia:
Aims and Methods of the USCRM:
 Activist groups demanded an end to racial inequality and aimed to gain equal
access to education, politics and the economy.
 Methods included legal means, negotiations, petitions, boycotts, non-violent
protests.
Australia inspired by the US:
 Media coverage of the USCRM had a significant effect on Australia’s anti-
discrimination movement.
 Student Action for Aborigines started by protesters against African American
discrimination - designed a campaign to expose poverty and racial
discrimination of Aborigines.
Impact of NSW Freedom Rides:
 Publicised nationally = raised awareness of deep-seated racism
 Provided reason to support Aboriginal rights movement
 Showed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people change was possible =
did not have to put up with discrimination.
 Perkins and his group placed Indigenous rights on the political agenda =
inspired young Indigenous people to fight for greater rights and freedoms.