A Techno-Economic Analysis of A Cargo Ship Using F

Journal of
Marine Science
and Engineering
Article
A Techno-Economic Analysis of a Cargo Ship Using
Flettner Rotors
Gianluca Angelini *, Sara Muggiasca * and Marco Belloli *
Mechanical Engineering Department, Polytechnic University of Milan, Via La Masa 1, 20156 Milan, Italy
* Correspondence: gianluca.angelini@polimi.it (G.A.); sara.muggiasca@polimi.it (S.M.);
marco.belloli@polimi.it (M.B.)
Abstract: In the last twenty years, the global shipping transport demand has strongly increased
(around 4% per year since the 1990s), together with the request for new green propulsion technologies
to break down carbon emissions and face the costs deriving from the usage of conventional diesel fuels.
Flettner rotors (hereafter: FRs) have been identified by several researchers as a promising solution to
exploit wind energy on commercial ships, reducing fuel consumption. The present work presents a
six-degree-of-freedom (6DOF) ship performance model set up to evaluate the best way of using a pair
of Flettner rotors. The study analyses the performance of this propulsion system in consideration of
weather and sea conditions, evaluating the related reduction in fuel consumption. A discussion about
the economic and environmental advantages of the usage of FRs is provided, considering the costs
linked to their installation and the new emission restrictions. Relevant results have been obtained
for different routes, speed ranges and rotor dimensions while investigating the best Flettner rotor
arrangement to minimise both the emissions and the installation cost payback period.
Keywords: Flettner; rotors; ship; fuel saving; Matlab; 6DOF; simulation
1. Introduction
Shipping alone is estimated to have generated 3% of the total industrial world CO2
Citation: Angelini, G.; Muggiasca, S.; emissions in 2018, growing to 4.9% in 2021 [1]. The attention to the environmental im-
Belloli, M. A Techno-Economic plications has proportionally increased, with the pressure on the technology sectors to
Analysis of a Cargo Ship Using research new sustainable solutions becoming more and more considerable. In the last
Flettner Rotors. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 20 years, technical progress and research have received an important booster from the
11, 229. https://doi.org/10.3390/ restrictive regulations ratified by the majority of the more industrialised and, therefore,
jmse11010229 more polluting countries.
Academic Editors: Viacheslav The North Atlantic Treatment Organization (hereafter, NATO) has currently promoted
A. Rudko and Kostas Belibassakis several regulations and protocols about the usage of green energy, contributing to lower
fuel consumption and, consequently, to lower polluting gas inlets into the air. Among
Received: 22 November 2022 various types of alternative energy, wind has been considered the easiest to become a
Revised: 15 December 2022
potential source of energy for ships in the last 20 years.
Accepted: 10 January 2023
Different types of wind energy are under analysis in engineering research since inter-
Published: 16 January 2023
esting results can be obtained using rigid sails or cylindrical rotors, such as highlighted by
P. Zhang [2] and N. Ammar [3]. Relevant conclusions have been drawn by A. Schönborn
in his studies about the functioning of Darrius rotors [4], by A. Kramer regarding the
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
comparison between wing sails and Flettner rotors [5] and by M. Traut et al. concerning the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. usage of a kite on selected shipping routes [6]. Indeed, increasing fuel prices are shoving
This article is an open access article research towards new, alternative solutions to internal combustion engines for maritime
distributed under the terms and transportation; this is why all these wind-assisted systems are being seriously reconsidered.
conditions of the Creative Commons Although the widespread availability of studies about new cleaner alternative fuels [7] or
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// low-sulfur residue marine fuels [8], this paper will focus on the usage of Flettner rotors
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ as wind-assisted propulsion for maritime transportation due to the availability of a large
4.0/). experimental data campaign personally collected in the Politecnico di Milano Wind Tunnel.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11010229 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jmse

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 2 of 26
In order to investigate how FRs can be optimised for usage on board ships, a computer-
based study will be presented in the present work, as well as the deriving economic evalua-
tions and considerations. The aim is the implementation of simulation models written in
Matlab and simulating the behaviour of the ship while sailing, with the goal of minimising
fuel consumption. To make these calculations as real as possible, the code automatically
downloads the weather data from the web for all the simulations. Considering a cargo
ship as a case study and four different routes, several six-degree-of-freedom simulations
have been conducted to numerically evaluate the benefits coming from the usage of FRs
aboard. Mathematically, the code created for the estimation of the fuel reduction can be
considered as an alternative to the NAPA Voyage Optimisation software, available on the
web for academic studies and commercial use to predict and optimise ship routes and
fuel consumption. Indeed, the code discussed in the present work is built up to evaluate
simultaneously the intact stability and manoeuvrability criteria, hence the comparison with
the following specific tool provided by NAPA: the NAPA Stability software. As a matter of
fact, the present work differs from the one conducted by R. Lu et al. because of their choice
of a four-degree-of-freedom ship model [9], but even in this case, the results are comparable.
In the end, the most important parameters influencing the costs of the installation of FRs
aboard are discussed in the last paragraph in order to evaluate their economic impact on
the payback period of Flettner rotors.
2. The Importance of Simulations

Every industrial process, even when starting with not so clear and easily predictable
results, has guaranteed better results or predicted worse results if subjected to a computer
management process. As explained by D. Sandaruwan in his paper [10], a six-degree-of-
freedom simulation of ship motions allows the evaluation of different scenarios and how
the ship responds to external phenomena. Indeed, the implementation and operational
cost of a computer simulation system is only a fraction of the conventional trials involving
models and real ships. Especially in the naval field, where costs related to new model-based
experimental campaigns are often huge, the ability to perform simulations regarding the
behaviour of a ship when exposed to specific or generic external conditions represents a
very profitable advantage for the shipowner in terms of money and time. Other similar
works aiming to predict and simulate the ship motions in general external conditions are
provided by G. Taimuri [11] and G. Barauskis [12].
In the work presented in this paper, the benefits of the installation of FRs aboard
a cargo ship will be investigated through a code written to create a power prediction
program. By using computer technology offered by commercially available softwares—
specifically Matlab R2018b® and Maritime DelftShip v11.10® —the code has been conceived
to evaluate a ship operating on commercial trades while optimising the usage of this new
system in order to meet the requirements of annex VI of MARPOL. Thanks to Matlab® , the
equilibrium equations of the forces acting on the ship are solved in an iterative way, aiming
to find the best compromise between rotors’ contribution to forward speed and stability
criteria. Equally, the Maritime DelftShip® software has been essential to obtain the main
physical and geometrical properties of the cargo ship considered as a case study, such as
the inertial characteristics and the 3D position of the centre of buoyancy and gravity.
As no investment from an environmental perspective can be made without considera-
tion of its financial implications, the code ends with an economic estimation of the saved
money. Thanks to the provided optimisation of the route, the better and more widespread
the usage of rotors, the cheaper the shipping.
3. The Structure of the Code

The code is made of sub-routines, each one responsible for the solution of a specific part
of the FRs usage-related optimisation problem during navigation. While the geographic
setting of the problem is solved with the generation of a matrix necessary to cover the
track by sea, the physics and mathematics formulae describing the ship motions have
part of the FRs usage-related optimisation problem during navigation. While th
graphic setting of the problem is solved with the generation of a matrix necessary to
the track by sea, the physics and mathematics formulae describing the ship motion
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229
been divided into different sub-functions due to the complexity of the 6DOF 3 of 26
proble
the necessity to linearise the calculation of manoeuvrability and stability second-ord
rameters. All six motions are assumed to vary slowly and step-by-step and are
sented by theinto
been divided linear relations
different of forcesdue
sub-functions andtomotion components.
the complexity Indeed,
of the 6DOF the effects o
problem
andwater
low the necessity to linearise
are assumed to bethenegligible.
calculation of manoeuvrability and stability second-
order Similar models are availableassumed
parameters. All six motions are to vary slowly
in the literature [13],and step-by-step
realised and are the sh
to combine
represented by the linear relations of forces and motion components. Indeed, the effects of
noeuvrability
shallow water are with the latest
assumed Energetic Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) requireme
to be negligible.
the International
Similar modelsMaritime
are available Organization
in the literature(IMO) regulations.
[13], realised LiketheSprenger
to combine ship main his
the hydrodynamic
noeuvrability with thecomponents
latest EnergeticofEfficiency
the stillDesign
waterIndex
resistance
(EEDI) and manoeuvering
requirements by the deriv
International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations. Like
in calm waters have been considered in the present study, together with Sprenger in his work, the the eff
hydrodynamic components of the still water resistance and manoeuvering derivatives in
vessel drift and rudder angle when added resistance in waves is accounted for, a
calm waters have been considered in the present study, together with the effects of vessel
gested
drift andbyrudder
Tilligangle
and when
Ringsberg
added in their work
resistance [14].
in waves is accounted for, as suggested by
TilligSeveral parameters,
and Ringsberg such[14].
in their work as properties derived from the Maritime DelftShip®
lationSeveral
or theparameters,
velocity such
range, as properties
are variablederived
to from
users’theliking
Maritime order to® keep
in DelftShip calcula-the cod
tion or the velocity range, are variable to users’ liking in order to keep the code completely
pletely customisable.
customisable.
Figure
Figure 11represents
represents a flow
a flow chartchart highlighting
highlighting the mainthe main
steps steps by
performed performed
the code by th
asasfollows:
follows:
Figure
Figure 1. Codeflow
1. Code flow chart.
chart.
3.1. The Map

3.1. The Map
When the code starts, users are required to identify a departure and an arrival point
on a When the code
planisphere starts,
pop-up, users
as shown in are required
Figureto identify a departure and an arriva
2.
on a planisphere pop-up, as shown in Figure 2.
J.J.Mar.
Mar.Sci.
Sci.Eng. 2023,11,
Eng.2023, 11,229
x FOR PEER REVIEW 44 of
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26
Figure 2. Choosing the departure and arrival points on the map.
Figure 2. Choosing the departure and arrival points on the map.

2. Choosing the departure and arrival
Figure
When both the parameters latitude (LAT) andpoints on the map.
longitude (LONG) have been identi-
fied for the chosen points,
When the the
Whenboth
both program elaborates
theparameters
parameters latitude
latitude a(LAT)
400∗200
(LAT) and
and matrix,
longitude
longitude which
(LONG)
(LONG) identifies
havehave
been been all
identi-
identified
possible LAT-LONG fied
for combinations
thefor the chosen
chosen forprogram
the thethe
points,points, ship position
program on ∗the
elaborates
elaborates a 400 map
a 400∗200
200 during
matrix, its transfer
matrix,identifies
which which (an all
identifies
all possible
possible
LAT-LONG LAT-LONG combinations
combinations for
example of this matrix is provided in Figure 3). the shipfor the ship
position position
on the mapon the
duringmap
its during
transferits transfer
(an example(an
example
of of this
this matrix matrix is in
is provided provided in Figure 3).
Figure 3).
Figure 3. Example of navigable points of the route matrix.
The points belonging to the above-mentioned matrix represent—at this stage of the
Figure
Figure 3. Example of 3. Example
navigable of navigable
points pointsmatrix.
of the route matrix.
code—the totality ofofthe
thepossible
route geographical points for the case study. In fact, every
element of the matrix
The points represents
belonging the potential geographical
to the above-mentioned position the ship
matrix represent—at is eligible
this stage of theto
The points belonging
code—the to the of
take on. Furthermore,
totality above-mentioned
thepossible
the same importance matrix
geographicalneeds represent—at
to befor
points the casethis
accredited to thestage
study. links of the
among
In fact, the
every
aforementioned
code—the totalityelement
of theofpossible elements due
the matrixgeographical to the physical sense
points geographical
represents the potential they hold.
for the caseposition In fact,
study.the every
Inshipfact, matrix
every to
is eligible ele-
element of the matrix represents the potential geographical position the ship is eligibleshown
ment
take offers
on. a vectorialthe
Furthermore, link withimportance
same the eight surrounding
needs to be elements.
accredited These
to the eight
links links,
among tothe
in Figure 4, represent
aforementioned elements eight
duepossible steps for
to the physical the creation
sense they hold.of In
thefact,
bestevery
path;matrix
this is element
why the
take on. Furthermore, the been
code ahas
same importance needs to be accredited to6DOF
the links amongforthe
offers vectorialstructured
link with to thecompute the resistance
eight surrounding of the These
elements. ship model
eight links, shown every
in
aforementioned elements
single 4,
Figure step due toeight
in order
represent the physical
to calculate
possible the sense
stepsfinal they
for shortest
the hold.
path.
creation In fact,
of the every
best path; thismatrix
is why the ele-
code
ment offers a vectorial link
has been with the
structured eight surrounding
to compute the resistance elements.
of the 6DOFThese eightforlinks,
ship model everyshown
single step
in order to calculate the final shortest path.
in Figure 4, represent eight possible steps for the creation of the best path; this is why the
code has been structured to compute the resistance of the 6DOF ship model for every
single step in order to calculate the final shortest path.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 5 of 26
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 26
Figure4.
Figure 4. Overview
Overview on
onthe
thematrix
matrixelements.
elements.
When the
When the matrix
matrixhashasbeen
beengeographically set, the
geographically set,second step ofstep
the second the code
of theregards the
code regards the
identification of the weather environment. At this stage, users define a specificthe
identification of the weather environment. At this stage, users define a specific day of day of the
year,which
year, which the
the performance
performance prediction program
prediction program(hereafter, PPP) PPP)
(hereafter, uses touses
extrapolate the
to extrapolate the
intensity and the direction of the absolute wind on a global scale from the US
intensity and the direction of the absolute wind on a global scale from the US National National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) database available online in .grib2-
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) database available online in GRIB2
format files on https://nomads.ncep.noaa.gov.(accessed on 4 July 2022)
format files on https://nomads.ncep.noaa.gov (accessed on 4 July 2022).
Data Input = [Wmodule; Wdirection] (1)
Data Input = [Wmodule ; Wdirection ] (1)
where:
- Wmodule is the wind absolute intensity;
where:
-- Wdirection is the wind direction in global reference system.
W module is the wind absolute intensity;
- This operation
W is computed every time users want to upload the weather data taken
direction is the wind direction in global reference system.
into account by the code. The authors have chosen the US database, but other sources on
Thiscan
the web operation
offer theissame
computed
data onevery time
a global users
scale, want
such to weather
as the upload routing
the weather data taken
software
into
supplied by NAPA, a Finnish maritime software, service and data analysis provider. Once on the
account by the code. The authors have chosen the US database, but other sources
web
thesecan
dataoffer
havethebeen
same data on a global
downloaded, scale,
the code such them
arranges as theinweather
order torouting software
match every singlesupplied
by NAPA,
point of theaabove-mentioned
Finnish maritime software,
matrix serviceand
with a specific and data
real analysis
weather provider.
conditions Once these
and com-
data
pleteshave been
all the downloaded,
simulation the
steps by code arranges
considering them in
the weather orderthe
always tosame.
match Inevery single point
this study,
ofthe weather
the conditions ofmatrix
above-mentioned 4 July 2022
withhave been taken
a specific into weather
and real account, but if users want
conditions to
and completes
have
all theansimulation
updated calculation
steps byof the best route
considering thein weather
order to consider
always more updated
the same. Inweather
this study, the
data, a new
weather executionofof4the
conditions code
July 2022is always possible.
have been taken into account, but if users want to have
During simulations, the ship’s speed
an updated calculation of the best route in order and environmental
to consider conditions are assumed
more updated to data, a
weather
be constant for the whole navigation. Indeed, a maximum engine speed is always consid-
new execution of the code is always possible.
ered a superior limit of functioning. While sailing with particular adverse weather condi-
During simulations, the ship’s speed and environmental conditions are assumed to be
tions, if the engine break power exceeds this limit, the code equals the engine speed to this
constant for the whole navigation. Indeed, a maximum engine speed is always considered
value. This possibly results in later arrival times.
a superior limit of functioning. While sailing with particular adverse weather conditions, if
the
3.2.engine break power exceeds this limit, the code equals the engine speed to this value.
The Rotors
This possibly
A fluid—inresults in later
this case, air –arrival times.
striking a body tends to meet resistance when it impacts
the body and, due to the principle of continuity, it makes its previously separated fluid
3.2. Thecloser
fillets Rotors
behind the body, creating whirling phenomena and turbulence.
A
Thefluid—in this case,able
first researchers air –tostriking
predict athe
body tends to of
potentiality meet
thisresistance when it impacts the
physical phenomenon
were and,
body the German
due toengineers Flettner
the principle and Savonious
of continuity, in 1925 its
it makes [15]. Over the past
previously years, Flett-
separated fluid fillets
ner was
closer able tothe
behind usebody,
rotating cylinders
creating as a valid
whirling alternative to
phenomena andfuelturbulence.
for ship propulsion [16].
The first researchers able to predict the potentiality of this physical phenomenon were
the German engineers Flettner and Savonious in 1925 [15]. Over the past years, Flettner was
able to use rotating cylinders as a valid alternative to fuel for ship propulsion [16]. Flettner’s
results were mathematically confirmed by Prandtl’s studies on the Magnus effect [17]. In
fact, he theorised that if a cylindrical body, rather than stationary, is put into rotation, it
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 6 of 26

Flettner’s results were mathematically confirmed by Prandtl’s studies on the Magnus ef-
Flettner’s
fect [17]. Inresults
fact, hewere mathematically
theorised confirmedbody,
that if a cylindrical by Prandtl’s studies
rather than on the Magnus
stationary, is put into ef-
fect [17].itIntends
rotation, fact, to
he facilitate
theorisedthethat if a cylindrical
passage body, rather than stationary, is put into
tends to facilitate
rotation, it tends the
to passage the
facilitate of the fluidof
passage of
the fluid
fillets
the in
fluid
fillets
harmony
fillets
inwith
in
harmony
harmony
with its
its direction
with ofdirection
its rotation,
direction
of rotation,agenerating
generating decrease a the
in decrease
flow in the flow
density and density and consequently
consequently in pressure in pressure
with respect towith
the
of rotation,
respect to the generating
opposite a decrease
side. This in the flow
difference in density and
pressure consequently
between the two in pressure
sides of the with
body
opposite side. This
respect tophysically,
the opposite difference
side.fromin pressure
This the
difference between the
in pressure two
betweensidestheof the
two body produces,
sides of thefield,
body
produces,
physically, a shift fromaathe
shiftequilibrium equilibrium position
position towards towards
the the
overpressureoverpressure
field, as shown
produces,
as shown 5. physically,
in Figure 5. shift from the equilibrium position towards the overpressure field,
in Figure
as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Fluid
Figure 5. Fluid interaction
interaction with
with aa rotor.
rotor.
Figure 5. Fluid interaction with a rotor.
Consequently,
Consequently, the theeffect
effectgenerated
generatedisis aerodynamically
aerodynamically comparable
comparable to the
to the oneone gener-
generated
ated
by anby Consequently,
an airfoil
airfoil hit by hit the effect
by awhich
a fluid, generated
fluid, develops is
which develops aerodynamically
resistance resistance comparable
parallel parallel to the
to the direction
to the direction one
of the fluidgener-
of the
and
ateditand
lifts
fluid by anlifts
airfoil
transversely. hit by a fluid,
Furthermore,
it transversely. which develops
in his studies
Furthermore, in[18]resistance
his instudies parallel
collaboration
[18] to the
in with A. direction
Thom, with
collaboration of the
FlettnerA.
fluid and
analysed
Thom, liftsinfluence
the
Flettner it transversely.
analysed of Furthermore,
theseveral
influenceparameters
of several inonhis thestudies [18]
behaviour
parameters on the inofbehaviour
collaboration
rotating cylinders—with A.
of rotating
Thom,
i.e., FlettnerReynolds
endplates,
cylinders—i.e., analysed number
endplates, the influence
Reynolds (Re), of
number several
speed ratio
(Re), parameters
(SR) ratio
speed on the
and aspect
(SR) and behaviour
ratio of rotating
(AR)—pointing
aspect ratio (AR)—
cylinders—i.e.,
out that an
pointing outendplate endplates, Reynolds
reducedreduced
that an endplate number
the losses theoflosses(Re),
fluidof speed
and,
fluid ratio (SR)
consequently, and aspect
the lift the
and, consequently, ratio
decline (AR)—
of the
lift decline
pointing
rotating out
cylinderthat an
as endplate
follows reduced
[18]: he the losses
demonstrated of fluid
that theand,
bestconsequently,
of the rotating cylinder as follows [18]: he demonstrated that the best effect was achievable effect was the lift
achievable decline
with
of
the the
use rotating
of an cylinder
endplate as
havingfollows
1.5 [18]:
times he
the demonstrated
diameter of thethat the
cylinder.
with the use of an endplate having 1.5 times the diameter of the cylinder. In fact, several best effect
In fact, was achievable
several recent
with the
studies
recent use of
conducted
studies an byendplate
conducted T.J. by having
Craft
T.J. Craft1.5
[19], times
A.[19],
De theMarco
Marco
A. De diameter
[20] and ofand
W.
[20] theW.
Zhang cylinder.
[21] have
Zhang In fact,
[21] several
confirmed
have con-
recent
Flettner’s
firmed studies conducted
claims. claims.
Flettner’s by T.J. Craft [19], A. De Marco [20] and W. Zhang [21] have con-
firmedFor Flettner’s
For the
the cargo
cargoshipclaims.
shipusedusedininthetheresearch
research asasa case
a case study, it was
study, decided
it was decidedto simulate
to simulatetwo
rotors For the
installed cargo
in a ship used
longitudinal in the research
configuration as
and a case
with study,
a mutual
two rotors installed in a longitudinal configuration and with a mutual 15D distance, ac- it was
15D decided
distance, to simulate
according
two
to therotors
cording installed
schematic
to the in a representation
longitudinal
representation
schematic provided configuration
in Figurein6 Figure
provided and Table
and with a1 as
6 and mutual 115D
follows:
Table distance, ac-
as follows:
cording to the schematic representation provided in Figure 6 and Table 1 as follows:
Figure 6. Arrangement of the rotors.

Figure6.6.Arrangement
Figure Arrangementof
ofthe
therotors.
rotors.
Table 1. Rotors working parameters.
Table1.1.Rotors
Table Rotorsworking
workingparameters.
parameters.
Formula Description
Formula Description
Max thrustFormula
= 100 kN Maximum payable value of thrust
Description
Max thrust = 100 kN Maximum payable value of thrust
X = 40
Max thrust
aft m = 100 kN Longitudinal
Maximum payable aft
position of the rotor
value from aft
of thrust
Xaft X= 40=m40 m Longitudinal position
Longitudinal of the
position aft aft
of the rotor from
rotor fromaft
aft
aft
Xforward = 85 m Longitudinal position of the forward rotor from aft
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 7 of 26

With
With the
the Flettner
Flettner rotors
rotors on
on the
the diametral
diametral plane
plane of of the
the ship,
ship, no
no other
other measures
measures are are
Withtothe
required Flettner rotors on the diametral plane of the orship, noeffective
other measures are
required to increase the manoeuvring capabilities; no larger or more effectiverudders
increase the manoeuvring capabilities; no larger more rudders areare
required
needed; to increase appendages
the manoeuvring capabilities; no larger or more effective of rudders are
needed; additional
additional appendages donot
do not havetotobebeconsidered.
have considered. TheThe mass
mass of everyevery rotor
rotor has
needed;
has been additional
calculated appendages
considering do
eachnot have to be considered. The mass of every rotor has
been calculated considering each oneone of them
of them as empty
as empty cylinders—with
cylinders—with a thickness
a thickness of
of 1.3
been
1.3 calculated considering each one of them as empty cylinders—with a thickness of3 1.3
3
m—and made of carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRP, having density = 0.6 g/cm3 ). ).
m—and made of carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRP, having density = 0.6 g/cm
m—andA made of carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRP, having density
the =apparent
0.6 g/cmwind).
Aspecific
specificsub-function
sub-functionofof thethe
code has
code beenbeen
has developed to calculate
developed to calculate the apparent
A specific sub-function of the code has been developed to calculate
direction (the β angle of Figure 7) with respect to the ship bow based on the ship direction the apparent
wind direction (the β angle of Figure 7) with respect to the ship bow based on the ship
wind
and thedirection
real wind(the β angleand
direction of Figure
module. 7) A
with respect
similar to the ship
approach bow based
is suggested by DeonMarco
the shipin
direction and the real wind direction and module. A similar approach is suggested by De
direction and
his work [20]. the real wind direction and module. A similar approach is suggested by De
Marco in his work [20].
Marco in his work [20].
Figure 7. Representation of the forces acting on a rotor, reproduced from [22].

Figure 7. Representation of the forces acting on a rotor,
rotor, reproduced
reproduced from
from [22].
[22].
Thecoefficients
The coefficients CLift and CCDrag
Drag necessary for the evaluation of lift and
and dragdrag generated
generated
coefficients C
Lift and necessaryforforthe
theevaluation
evaluationof oflift
lift
The CLift and CDrag necessary and drag generated
bythe
therotors
rotorshavehavebeen been calculated through experimental tests in wind
the wind tunnel at PO-
by the rotors have been calculated through experimental tests in the wind tunnelPOLIMI.
by calculated through experimental tests in the tunnel at at PO-
LIMI. Appropriate
Appropriate comments comments
are are provided
provided by by Bordogna
Bordogna in his in his[23].
work work [23].
LIMI. Appropriate comments are provided by Bordogna in his work [23].
For reference, the above
For tests
abovetests were
testswere carried
werecarried
carried out
outby measuring CLift, CDrag and and
CM in an
For reference, the above out byby measuring
measuring CLiftC, Lift
CDrag, Cand
Drag CM inCanM
experimental
in an experimental data campaign
data with
campaign two
withrotors
two acting
rotors at different
acting at mutual
different distances.
mutual distances.
experimental data campaign with two rotors acting at different mutual distances.
Figure88 shows
Figure shows a configuration
configurationwhere
whererotors
rotorshad
had adistance
distancebetween
betweentheir theiraxes
axes of
of rotation
rotation
Figure 8 shows aa configuration where rotors had aa distance between their axes of rotation
equal to
equal to fifteen
fifteentimes
timestheir
theirdiameter
diameter(15D),
(15D),but
but3D3Dandand 7.5D
7.5D arrangements
arrangements have have also
also been
been
equal to fifteen times their diameter (15D), but 3D and 7.5D arrangements have also been
investigated during
investigated during windwind tunnel
tunnel tests.
tests. A flow with an altered value of SR SR among
among 1, 1.5,1.5,
investigated during wind tunnel tests. A flow with an altered value of SR among 1, 1.5,
and2,
and 2, respectively,
respectively,have havebeen
beenexamined,
examined,maintaining
maintainingthe thevalue
valueofofthe
theblowing
blowingwind windequal
equal
and 2, respectively, have been examined, maintaining the value of the blowing wind equal
to Re
to 1.0 ×
Re== 1.0 1055. .
× 10
to Re = 1.0 × 105.
Figure8.8. Rotors
Rotors in
in aa15D
15Ddistance
distanceconfiguration
configuration duringthe
the windtunnel.
tunnel.
Figure
Figure 8. Rotors in a 15D distance configuration during
during the wind
wind tunnel.
Values of
Values ofthe
thelongitudinal
longitudinalcoefficient
coefficientCCx and
and of of the
thetransversal
transversal coefficient
coefficientCCy have
have
Values of the longitudinal coefficient Cxx and of the transversal coefficient Cyy have
been obtained
been obtainedby bysumming
summingup upthe
theprojections
projectionsofoflift
liftand
anddrag
dragcoefficients
coefficients CLiftand
CLift andCC Drag
Drag
been obtained by summing up the projections of lift and drag coefficients C Lift and CDrag
along
alongthe
thelongitudinal
longitudinaland
andtransverse
transverseaxes,
axes,as
asexplicated
explicatedin inthe
thefollowing
followingformula:
formula:
along the longitudinal and transverse axes, as explicated in the following formula:
Cx = CDrag long · sin(β) + CLift long · cos(β) (2)
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 8 of 26
Cx = CDrag long ∙ sin(β) + CLift long ∙ cos(β) (2)

Cy =
CyC=Drag
CDrag transv· ∙sin(β)
transv sin(β)++ C
CLift
Lift transv
transv · cos(β)
∙ cos(β) (3)
(3)
The
Theachieved
achievedresults
results are
are shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 9:
9:
Figure
Figure9.9.CCXXand
andCCYYcalculated
calculatedfrom
fromwind
windtunnel
tunneltests
testsininaa15D
15Darrangement
arrangementfor:
for:(a)
(a)SR
SR==11for
forboth
both
rotors; (b) SR = 1.5 for both rotors; (c) SR = 2 for both rotors.
rotors; (b) SR = 1.5 for both rotors; (c) SR = 2 for both rotors.
Subsequently, the
Subsequently, the PPP
PPP calculates
calculatesthe thelongitudinal
longitudinaland andtransverse
transverseforces
forcesgenerated
generatedby
by
rotors and acting on the ship using the following
rotors and acting on the ship using the following formulae: formulae:
Fx = ½ ∙ CX ∙ ρair ∙ Dcyl ∙ Lcyl ∙ VWind app2 (4)
1 2
Fx =Fy = ·½C∙XC· Yρ∙airρair· D
∙D · L
cylcyl ∙ Lcyl · V
cyl ∙ VWind 2
app (4)
2 Wind app (5)
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 9 of 26
1
Fy = · CY · ρair · Dcyl · Lcyl · VWind app 2 (5)
2
where:
- ρair is the air density;
- Dcyl is the rotor diameter;
- Lcyl is the rotor span;
- VWind app is the apparent wind velocity in the local reference system.
In these equations, it is assumed that the rotors operate in an undisturbed airflow. In
practice, the incoming airflow can be disturbed when the rotors are placed in proximity of
the cargo on deck, superstructures and other rotors. These effects are not taken into account
in this study. To prevent significant errors in the rotor force calculations, rotors should be
placed at a sufficient distance from objects obstructing the incoming airflow.
3.3. The Ship

Considering the trials and measures made by the German society ENERCON GmbH
about the E-Ship1 using a four-rotor configuration [24], the choice of a cargo ship with
main dimensions comparable to E-Ship10 s ones has been followed in this study, having the
main dimensions reported in Table 2.
Table 2. Main dimension of the Ro-Ro ship.
Properties Description
Lpp = 135 m Design length between perpendiculars
B = 22.5 m Design beam
D=7m Design draft
XMS = 65 m Midship location
CP = 0.6053 Prismatic coefficient
CB = 0.583 Block coefficient
The volume and waterplane properties, such as the lateral plane main dimensions, re-
quired by the code to geometrically identify the problem and to solve it, have been extracted
through the usage of the free-source external software DelftShip Maritime Software.
Finally, the hypothesis of the installation of two CAT endothermic engines—model
MAK VM32-C16—has been chosen for the present case study. They have been considered as
fitted on two different shaft lines with ηshaft equals to 0.98 and by two respective gearboxes,
having the following:
Ratioreduction = rpmshaft/ rpmengine = 1/5 (6)
where:
- rpmshaft is the shaft rotation speed per minute;
- rpmengine is the engine rotation speed per minute.
3.4. The Resistance Calculation

In analysing the free motion of a ship in the open sea, it is important to evaluate all the
types of forces acting on it in a general case. While the hypothesis of small variances from
the equilibrium position is still valid, according to which all the components are mutually
independent, the code computes the following expression for each ship velocity step and
for each vector of the matrix shown in Figure 4.
Rtot x = RAW + RModShip + RBow + RFriction · (1 + kfactor ) + Rwind_X + Rapp + Rwave + Rrough_hull + ∑ FRot (7)
where:
- Rrough_hull is the hull rough resistance;
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 10 of 26
- Rrough_hull is the friction resistance in calm seawater, calculated on the basis of the
analogy with the flat sheet, regulated by the ITTC’ 57;
- The form factor resistance is a damping force calculated as the product between
RFriction and a kfactor , estimated by following the formulas of Holtrop and Mennen in
their studies [25,26];
- Rapp is the appendages resistance, whose expressions for shafts, rudders and skeg are
suggested by DNV;
- Rwave takes into account the wave-making and the wave-breaking resistance, calcu-
lated with the approximated formulas suggested by Holtrop and Mennen in their
work [25], which consider the draught, the beam and the diffraction of waves on the
bulbous bow;
- Rbow is the additional resistance due to the presence of a bulbous bow, estimated by
using approximated formulas [25];
- RModShip represents the model-ship correlation resistance, which considers the wetted
surface of the ship;
- RAW is the added wave resistance obtained through the energetic equivalence between
waves, as mathematically explained by Liu et al. in their work [27];
- RWind_X is the air resistance acting on the ship structure above sea level and calculated
with Isherwood’s regression formula;
- ∑ FRot represents the contribution to thrust offered by the Flettner rotors.
To validate the effectiveness of Equation (7), a trial has been conducted by using the
Matlab code depicted in the present paper to evaluate the fuel consumption deriving from
the ship resistance for the case study described by R.J. Berendschot in his work [28].
Differences between the case study considered in the present paper and the one chosen
by Berendschot are related to stricter main dimensions of the ship, the presence of only one
rotor, as well as the route, as follows: in fact, in his work, he has considered a wider time
range and only the Rotterdam–Casablanca round-trip route. Despite these characteristics,
Equation (7) has shown a good match to the result presented by Berendschot differences of
7% and 4% on the Rotterdam–Casablanca travel with and without FR, respectively, and
a difference of 3% and 5% on the return route with and without FR, respectively, have
been obtained.
3.5. A 6-DOF Analysis

In order to make assessments on the ship’s stability and manoeuvrability while sailing,
the developed PPP performs a dimensionless analysis of the equations of motion also
considering a second-order linearised mutual influence among the parameters speed,
acceleration and rudder angle δRud . This part of the study has been conducted following
the nondimensional theory of derivatives proposed by Nomoto [29] and developed by
G. Tamiuri [11], which gave particular importance to the interaction between sway and
yaw motions. Therefore, the approximate formulas proposed by Clarke et al. [30] have
been used since a deterministic mathematical law describing the shapes of the hull and its
waterlines is not available.
Indeed, to perform an as close to reality as possible analysis, the code considers a six-
degree-of-freedom behaviour for the ship and contemporarily verifies if all displacements
and rotations satisfy the limits imposed by regulations.
To do this, small gradual variations from the initial position are iteratively assumed
for each of the degrees of freedom listed above and the intensity of each opposing force and
righting moment generated by the ship in every DOF have been calculated by applying
appropriate conversions through the following rotation matrix in an Eulerian reference
system pointed in the ship’s centre of gravity (CoG).
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 11 of 26
TRollPitchYaw (ϕ,ψ,χ) = TZ (χ) · TY (ψ) · TX (ϕ) = [(cχ · cψ , cχ · sψ · sϕ - sχ · cϕ , cχ · sψ · cϕ + sχ · sϕ );

(sχ · cψ , sχ · sψ · sϕ + cχ · cϕ , sχ · sψ · cϕ − cχ · sϕ ); (8)
(−sψ , cψ · sϕ , cψ · cϕ )]
where:
- TZ (χ) is the yaw rotation matrix;
- TY (ψ) is the pitch rotation matrix;
- TX (ϕ) is the roll rotation matrix;
- c represents the cosine function;
- s stays for the sine function;
- χ is the yaw motion;
- ψ is the pitch motion;
- ϕ is the roll motion.
As regards the roll and the pitch, the heeling moments given by the rotors, by the
wind impacting the ship structure above the waterline and by the rudders, were calculated,
considering the maximum values of ϕ < 10◦ and ψ < 15◦ .
The previous effects given by the pitching and rolling motions must be added to the
pure motion of the yaw χ < 15◦ . Furthermore, in addition to external forces such as air
resistance and forces generated by the rotors, the contribution provided by the sway motion
discussed and calculated during the study of the ship manoeuvrability was taken into
account for the calculation of the maximum yaw motion.
Indeed, as a consequence of the simultaneous presence of a non-zero inclination, both
in the roll and in the yaw, the vertical components of rotors and wind forces represent the
main contribution to the heave motion due both to the oblique functioning of the rotors
and to the heeling action of the wind, together with the hydrodynamic effect offered by
the rudder.
For this motion, a maximum value of ε < 2 m has been considered, while a limit of
ς < 20 m has been chosen for the sway. This degree of freedom represents the core of the
manoeuvrability study conducted by using the aforementioned nondimensional analysis.
Indeed, for the sway motion only, the equilibrium interferences generated by the rolling
and pitching have been neglected, given the irrelevance of the relative contributions.
3.6. Fuel Consumption

Once the mathematical problem relating to the forces and moments generated on a
cargo ship that uses FRs has been solved, whether it has been considered in a 6DOF case
or, in a more expeditious manner, in a 1DOF case, the technical analysis must necessarily
embrace the environmental implications deriving from the use of these alternative systems.
Currently, NATO has promoted several regulations and protocols (Vienna, Montreal,
Kyoto), becoming more and more restrictive over the last 50 years to protect the environ-
ment by reducing the emissions of the following greenhouse gases:
• Carbon dioxide (CO2 );
• Methane (CH4 );
• Nitrous oxide (N2 O);
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC);
• Perfluorocarbons (PFC);
• Sulfur hexafluoro (SF6 ).
In 2005, 161 IMO member countries signed the MARPOL agreements (the green
onesshown in Figure 10).
J.J. Mar.
Mar. Sci. Eng.
Eng. 2023,
2023, 11,
11, x229
FOR PEER REVIEW 1212ofof 26
26
Figure
Figure 10.
10. Countries
Countries having
having signed
signed MARPOL
MARPOL agreements.
agreements.
At this
At this stage,
stage, the
the code
code incorporates
incorporates the
the technical
technical data
data of
of the
thespecific
specific fuel
fuelconsumption
consumption
SFC of
SFC ofthe
theMAK
MAKVM32-C16
VM32-C16 installed
installed engines
engines andand of the
of the specific
specific production
production ofX NO
of NO sup-X
supplied
plied by manufacturer
by the the manufacturer following
following factory
factory teststests shown
shown in Table
in Table 3: 3:
Table 3. MAK VM32-C16 emissions parameters.
Properties
Properties Description
Description
SFC = 179 ÷ 195 g/kWh
SFC = 179 ÷ 195 g/kWh SpecificSpecific
fuel oilfuel
consumption
oil consumption
NOX =NO1.6Xg/kWh
= 1.6 g/kWh SpecificSpecific
NOX emissions
NOX emissions
With regardto
With regard tonitrogen
nitrogenoxide
oxide(NO
(NO),X),the
the MARPOL
MARPOL Annex
Annex VI VI provides
provides for increas-
for increasingly
X
ingly stringent
stringent rules.rules.
To allow usersto
To allow users tosimulate
simulateanyanymaritime
maritime transport
transport route
route andand
thethe
casecase study
study cargo-
cargo-ship
ship to be able to navigate in any sea, the engine type considered in our PPP
to be able to navigate in any sea, the engine type considered in our PPP falls into the Tier falls into the
Tier III category (1.6 g/kWh released against 2.3 g/kWh) required
III category (1.6 g/kWh released against 2.3 g/kWh) required as max limit). as max limit).
In
In order
order to
to optimise
optimise emissions,
emissions, therefore,
therefore, the
the PPP
PPP performs
performs the
the following
following calculations
calculations
for
for each
each element
element ofof the
the vectors
vectors of
of the
the route
route matrix:
matrix:
-- For
For each
each value
value of
of the
the required
required speed
speed range,
range, itit calculates
calculates the
the power
power necessary
necessary toto move
move
the
the ship
ship forward
forward andand computes
computesthe theratio
ratiobetween
betweenthe theportion
portionof of power
power guaranteed
guaranteed by
by the rotors while contemporary working with the engines and
the rotors while contemporary working with the engines and the power considering the power consid-
ering only endothermic
only endothermic enginesengines working;
working;
-- ItIt locates the highest value of this
locates the highest value of this ratioratioidentifying
identifyingthe thespeed
speedatatwhich,
which, while
while respect-
respecting
ing
the the manoeuvrability
manoeuvrability andand stability
stability criteria,
criteria, thethe functioning
functioning of the
of the rotors
rotors is optimal
is optimal in
in relation
relation to to weather
weather and and
seasea conditions
conditions encountered
encountered bybythethe ship.
ship.
𝑃 𝑉 1 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝
PEngines (Vth = 1st step)
 
𝑃
⎛  PEngines+Rotors 𝑉 1 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝
st ⎞
(Vth = 1 step) 
⎜  ⋮ . ⎟
.
⎜  ⋮ . ⎟
 

⎜ 𝑃 𝑉 .. 𝑖 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 ⎟

𝐵𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 max ⎜  .
⎟ (9)
𝑃 PEngines 𝑉(Vth = 𝑖ith step 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝

)
⎜ 
Best working conditions = max
 ⎟ (9)
PEngines+ Rotors⋮ (Vth = ith step) 
⎜   ⎟
⋮ ..
⎜  ⎟

 .
𝑃 𝑉 𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 
.. 
⎝𝑃  𝑉 . 𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 ⎠
 
where:
 P (V = nth step)
Engines th

PEngines+ Rotors (Vth = nth step)
- PEngines is the brake power required by the ship using only the diesel engines;
- Pwhere:
Engines+Rotors is the brake power considering the use of FRs;
-- VPthEngines
is theisi-th
thevelocity
brake power
of therequired
range; by the ship using only the diesel engines;
J.J.Mar.
Mar.Sci.
Sci.Eng.
Eng.2023,
2023,11,
11,x229
FOR PEER REVIEW 1313ofof26
26
-- nPis the number of elements in the speed range.

Engines+Rotors is the brake power considering the use of FRs;
- This Vth ismethod
the i-thhas been chosen
velocity by the author to emphasise the focus on the local opti-
of the range;
misation
- n is of
thethe functioning
number of the rotors.
of elements Once the
in the speed best ship speed has been found for each
range.
element of the vectors of the route matrix,
This method has been chosen by the author to a Dijkstra’s algorithm
emphasise [31]the
is applied
focus on to evaluate
the local
the best succession
optimisation of the of the singleof
functioning steps analysed,
the rotors. Oncewiththethe
bestaimship tospeed
bring hasthe been
ship found
from thefor
departure
each element to the of arrival pointofchosen.
the vectors A similar
the route matrix,approach
a Dijkstra’s hasalgorithm
been used[31] by P.is Silveira
applied et to
al. in their work [32] to identify a potential safe route for ships,
evaluate the best succession of the single steps analysed, with the aim to bring the ship by using the information
contained in the messages
from the departure to thebroadcasted
arrival point bychosen.
ships and recorded
A similar by the coastal
approach traffic
has been service
used by P.
centres.
Silveira et al. in their work [32] to identify a potential safe route for ships, by using the
information contained in the messages broadcasted by ships and recorded by the coastal
4.traffic
Economic
service Aspects
centres.
Regardless of the route covered by a ship, every day of stop in port represents a dou-
4. Economic
ble economic Aspectsdisadvantage for the shipowner as follows: on one hand, the costs for the
usageRegardless
of the quay ofincrease—proportionally
the route covered by a ship, to every
aboutday of stop in
15 k€/day as port represents
theorised by G.a Muso-
double
economic
lino et al. indisadvantage
their paper for the shipowner
[33]—and, on the as follows:
other hand,on one
the hand, of
periods theavailability
costs for thefor usage
the
of the quay
transport of increase—proportionally
material at sea, representing to about 15 k€/day
the main sourceas oftheorised
income ofby G.shipping
the Musolinocom- et al.
in their
pany, paper [33]—and,
decrease. Furthermore, on the other
even hand,navigation,
during the periodsifofthe availability
cargo shipfor the transport
takes more days of
material at sea, representing the main source of income of the shipping
than what expected, according to the contract with the client, there are penalties for the company, decrease.
Furthermore,
delay in delivery. even during navigation, if the cargo ship takes more days than what expected,
according to
Therefore, thethe contract
technicalwithandtheeconomic
client, there are penalties
importance of the forelaborated
the delay in codedelivery.
is evident.
Therefore,
In addition the technical
to reducing and economic importance
the environmental impact, theof the elaborated
installation code
of FRs andis evident.
the use of In
addition to reducing the environmental impact, the installation
this calculation code optimise commercial routes, endorsing the usage of propulsion sys- of FRs and the use of this
calculation
tems codetooptimise
alternative diesel. commercial routes, endorsing the usage of propulsion systems
alternative to diesel.
While always taking into account the stability and manoeuvrability criteria—which
cannot While always taking
be disregarded into account
to ensure the stability
the safety and manoeuvrability
of the navigation—it criteria—which
is clear that minimising
cannot be disregarded to ensure the safety of the navigation—it
the travel time of a section implies an increase in the mean value of ship velocity is clear that minimisingand,
consequently, an increase in the fuel consumption and in the costs associated with and,
the travel time of a section implies an increase in the mean value of ship velocity the
consequently, an increase in the fuel consumption and in the costs associated with the
transfer of the ship. At this point, the code calculates how much diesel has been consumed
transfer of the ship. At this point, the code calculates how much diesel has been consumed
and, accordingly, how much it has been spent ($) to cover the route during the simulation.
and, accordingly, how much it has been spent ($) to cover the route during the simulation.
Furthermore, the cost of the heavy fuel oil (HFO) used for engines varies, and the
Furthermore, the cost of the heavy fuel oil (HFO) used for engines varies, and the
trends of the global raw materials market influence its value. Because of this, and in order
trends of the global raw materials market influence its value. Because of this, and in order
to provide users with likely updated data, the code automatically searches on the page
to provide users with likely updated data, the code automatically searches on the page
https://shipandbunker.com/prices (accessed on 4 July 2022) for the values that the raw
https://shipandbunker.com/prices (accessed on 4 July 2022) for the values that the raw
materials are traded at on the American stocks and downloads them.
materials are traded at on the American stocks and downloads them.
In Figure 11, the trends of the HFO market value are presented to highlight fuel sav-
In Figure 11, the trends of the HFO market value are presented to highlight fuel
ings relevance because of the increase in its price.
savings relevance because of the increase in its price.
Figure11.
Figure HFOprice
11.HFO pricetrend
trendfrom
fromJanuary
January2020
2020to
toJuly
July2022.
2022.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 14 of 26
Among the various parameters available to define the cost of fuel, the Global 20 Ports
Average was used, which represents the average price of the 20 largest bunkering ports
worldwide.
At this point, the code calculates how much diesel has been consumed and, con-
sequently, how many millions of dollars have been spent to cover the route during the
simulation. In addition to this, it also provides an estimate of how much money would be
saved by using Flettner rotors to their full capacity.
It should be noted that the percentage of NOX indicated by the code is proportional
to the percentage of CO2 omitted from the environment since both parameters have been
considered constant as the load of the engines varies. Moreover, from a technical point of
view, this percentage value can also be considered a performance parameter as follows: it
represents, in fact, how much the propulsive capacity of the ship has been improved.
Without a doubt, the optimisation of the use of Flettner rotors to reduce the emissions
of CO2 , NOX e SOX gives significant results in terms of environmental awareness, but
it also represents a substantial and stimulating goal from an economic point of view. In
fact, the decrease in the fuel consumption certainly represents an advantageous immediate
economic return and is directly proportional to the time of use of the Flettner rotors; yet
the improvement of the economic profile is not limited to the sole use of new sources of
energy alternative to coal. As a matter of fact, the Norwegian government is proposing
new specific taxes proportional to the tons of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere by ships
sailing in her waters [34].
In fact, in order to control the emissions of polluting gases in its territory, in 2005,
the European Union created the emission trading system (EU ETS) [35]. By making this
system mandatory in 2013 and progressively reducing the maximum number of certificates
in circulation—which is equivalent to reducing the total amount allowed emissions of
polluting gases on an annual basis—the EU has achieved important milestones reaching
the CO2 emissions reductions expected by 2030 already in 2020 [36]. On the other hand, the
unit price of the certificates has also increased, going from $8 in 2018 to $32 in 2020, while it
currently stands at around $90 [37].
The Formula
It may be useful, at this point, to summarise the various economic parameters dis-
cussed in the following general formula with the aim to create an investment plan for
shipowners who want to evaluate the installation of rotors on board their fleet:
rotorsbenefits = −rotorcost ·nrotors − drydockcosts − rotormaintenance ·nrotors − refittingtime −

(10)
rotorworking ·nrotors + fuelsaved + fuelcost + emissioncertificates + carbontaxes + enginemaintenance
where:
- NROTORS is the number of rotors installed aboard;
- ROTORCOST is the cost of the purchase of each rotor;
- DRYDOCKCOSTS represents all the costs related to the quay stop;
- ROTORMAINTENANCE is the parameter describing the rotor periodic maintenance;
- FUELCOST is the cost of the fuel at the moment of the usage of the code;
- FUELSAVED is the amount of fuel saved thanks to the use of the Flettner rotors;
- ROTORWORKING is the electrical power absorbed by the rotor;
- REFITTINGTIME is the cost related to the days of stop in shipping;
- EMISSIONCERTIFICATES represents the cost of emitted polluting gases at a company’s
disposal on an annual and limited-edition basis;
- CARBONTAXES represents the cost of the amount of CO2 emitted in the air;
- ENGINEMAINTENANCE represents the cost of the maintenance plans associated with
the engines.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 15 of 26
InFormula
In Formula(10),(10),the
thenegative
negativeparameters
parametersshow showthe thecosts
costsrelated
relatedtotothe
theinstallation
installationofof
the rotors and the energy they absorb to rotate, while the positive ones
the rotors and the energy they absorb to rotate, while the positive ones show all savings show all savings
the
the rotors generate while
rotors generate while working. working.
Thecost
The costfor
forthe
theacquisition
acquisitionofofthethetowers
towersisisfixed,
fixed,and
andthe
thegoal
goalof ofthe
theshipowner,
shipowner,who who
embracesthis
embraces thistype
typeofofalternative
alternativepropulsion,
propulsion,isistotorecover
recoverthe
theinvestment
investmentover overtime.
time.
AAdiscussion
discussionaboutaboutthe theparameters
parametersenlisted
enlistedininthe
theprevious
previousexpression
expressionisisprovided
provided
here below.
here below.
-- TheTherotor
rotorfunctioning
functioninghas has a double
a double effect
effect in terms
in terms of fuel
of fuel savingsaving as follows:
as follows: firstly,
firstly, the
number of tonnes of consumed fuel is proportionally lower while using rotors rotors
the number of tonnes of consumed fuel is proportionally lower while using than
thanengine
with with engine propulsion
propulsion only; secondly,
only; secondly, constantconstant
growth growth in fuel
in fuel price price empha-
emphasises the
sises thederiving
benefits benefits from
deriving
the from
use ofthe
anuse of an alternative
alternative energy In
energy source. source.
fact, a projection
Inthe
of fact, a projection
fuel price trendofwas the made,
fuel price trend was
analysing made, analysing
the variation the variation
in the average cost ofinfuelthe
average cost of fuel over the years. In particular, it was calculated
over the years. In particular, it was calculated with a regression formula derived from with a regression
formula
the average derived
valuefrom
of thetheBrent
average
fuelvalue of the Brent
fluctuations overfuel
the fluctuations
last 10 yearsover the last 10
downloaded
from the web page https://tradingeconomics.com (accessed on 4th July 2022)on
years downloaded from the web page https://tradingeconomics.com (accessed 4th
and
July 2022)inand
presented presented
Figure 12. TheinredFigure 12. The
line tends red line tends
to represent to represent
the average valuethe average
of the fuel
valuefluctuation
price of the fuelover
pricethe
fluctuation
years. over the years.
Figure12.
Figure 12.Crude
Crudeoil
oilBrent
Brentprice
pricefrom
from1997
1997toto2022.
2022.
The
Theformula
formulabelow
belowhas
hasbeen
beenconsidered
consideredtotohypothesise
hypothesisethe
thefuture
futurefuel
fuelprice
pricefollowing
following
the red line trend:
the red line trend:
y = (0.75 · x + 35) · z (11)
y = (0.75 ∙ x + 35) ∙ z (11)
where x represents months, y is 1k $, and z are the tonnes of produced CO2 .
-where x represents
A relevant months,
aspect y is 1k $, and
is characterised z are
by the the tonnes
increasing of shipowners
costs produced CO 2.
have to bear for
- A relevant
carbon aspectrestrictions
emission is characterised by thewhich
and taxes, increasing
have costs
been shipowners have to
ratified by every bear in
nation for
carbon emission restrictions and taxes, which have been ratified by every
recent years, as explained in the previous paragraphs and shown in Figure 13. nation in
recent years, as explained in the previous paragraphs and shown in Figure 13.
In fact, both emission certificates and carbon taxes have been considered in this paper
through the creation of mathematical models simulating the growth in their value from
2012, which the code also contemplates calculating the earnings deriving from the usage
of FRs
With regards to the emission taxes, the created mathematical model follows a more
than linear and almost parabolic trend, which has grown over the last 5 years with a
rather steep trend. This parameter—presented with the red line in Figure 14 and related
to the data downloaded from the web page https://tradingeconomics.com (accessed on
4 July 2022)—has been approximated with the following expression:
y = [ 0.05 · (x · 12)1.5 ] · z/1000 (12)

Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 26
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 16 of 26
Figure 13. “Global depiction

Figure of rules
13. “Global and taxes
depiction implemented
of rules at July 2022”,
and taxes implemented reproduced
at July from [36].
2022”, reproduced from [36].
In fact, both emission certificates and carbon taxes have been considered in this paper
through the creation of mathematical models simulating the growth in their value from
2012, which the code also contemplates calculating the earnings deriving from the usage
of FRs
With regards to the emission taxes, the created mathematical model follows a more
than linear and almost parabolic trend, which has grown over the last 5 years with a rather
steep trend. This parameter—presented with the red line in Figure 14 and related to the
data downloaded from the web page https://tradingeconomics.com (accessed on 4 July
2022) —has been approximated with the following expression:
Figure
Figure 14.14.CO
CO 2 emissions
2 emissions permitsprice
permits priceininlast
lastdecade.
decade.
y = [ 0.05 ∙ (x ∙ 12)1.5 ] ∙ z/1000 (12)
where x represents months, y is 1k $, and z are the tonnes of produced CO2.

The savings on the due carbon taxes, instead, have been considered as expected to be
similar to a mathematical law that is more than linear and can be resumed as follows:
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 17 of 26
The savings on the due carbon taxes, instead, have been considered as expected to be
similar to a mathematical law that is more than linear and can be resumed as follows:
y = [ 0.1 · (x · 12)1.2 ] · z/1000 (13)

- For the purchase of each rotor with dimensions similar to those considered for the
cargo ship used as a case study, about 400 ÷ 500k $ costs, including assembly outlays,
have been considered. As a matter of fact, further models that can be folded down
or equipped with flaps to help reduce vortex phenomena are being more and more
preferred [19,38]; therefore, a cost of 500 k$ is consistent for the acquisition of each
rotor. Indeed, for the installation of the rotors, it is necessary to carry out invasive
mechanical work both on the hull and on the electrical system on board, given the
need to create adequate structural reinforcements on the cross-section to soften the
dynamic effects of their operative behaviour in the open sea and bad weather, and the
need to electronically configure their operation in couple with the main diesel engines
already installed on board. These processes require a stop for the ship and can only be
carried out in the drydock.
- Following Apostolidis’s works [39,40], the hypotheses enlisted in Table 4 have been
made. In addition, a stop in the dock lasting about 20 days with teams working 24/7
for their installation on board, making use of rotors positioned on prebuilt bases by
the manufacturer, has been considered as follows:
Table 4. Drydock cost for the installation of the rotors.
Costs [k$] Description

10.00 Keel Blocks Plan
9.35 Drydock Entrance
9.35 Drydock Exit
7.15 Drydock occupation
0.50 Water pumps
0.20 Lights and electricity
For the installation work, a total drydock cost of 190 k $ has been calculated for the
installation of nr. 2 rotors.
- The modernisation of ship propulsion is also linked to the lack of the possibility to
transport and deliver commercial materials and, consequently, to the lost earnings.
In fact, a 30 k$/day parameter has been considered as costs related to the stop of the
ship for the refitting;
- Another factor that has a positive result from the use of FRs is the shortening of
the usage periods of endothermic engines and the consequent time expansion of
the maintenance plans associated with them, and the consequent shifting of their
deadlines forward over time. For this aspect, 100 k$/year as savings deriving from
the expansion of the mean time between engine maintenance interventions;
- A direct consequence of the lower use of the engines is the necessity to maintain
the rotors regularly. With regard to this, a parameter of 50 k$/year as costs for the
maintenance of the rotors has been considered. Indeed, the power absorbed by rotors
while working has been calculated through the formula suggested by Pearson in his
work as follows [22]:
1
· CM_cyl · ρair · ωcyl 3 · Rcyl 4 · Lcyl
Pcyl = (14)
2
where CM is, together with CLift and CDrag , one of the data measured during the wind
tunnel campaign [23].
nance of the rotors has been considered.
Indeed, the power absorbed by rotors while working has been calculated through the
formula suggested by Pearson in his work as follows [22]:
Pcyl = ½ ∙ CM_cyl ∙ ρair ∙ ωcyl3 ∙ Rcyl4 ∙ Lcyl (14)

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 18 of 26
where CM is, together with CLift and CDrag, one of the data measured during the wind tunnel
campaign [23].
Standing to the recent studies about gas emission reduction systems available on the
Standing to the recent studies about gas emission reduction systems available on the
market [41] aiming to meet the Tier III restrictions provided by MARPOL Annex IV, a rate
market [41] aiming to meet the Tier III restrictions provided by MARPOL Annex IV, a rate
of 0.4 has been considered between kWh and kg of CO2.
of 0.4 has been considered between kWh and kg of CO2.
This is why, considering all the parameters described above, it is possible to create a
This is why, considering all the parameters described above, it is possible to create
forecast based on the number of navigations made on the considered route as well as on
a forecast based on the number of navigations made on the considered route as well as
the annual consumption and the relative earnings and to verify the times linked to the
on the annual consumption and the relative earnings and to verify the times linked to the
return
return on
oninvestment
investmentregarding
regardingthethework
workcarried
carriedout
outfor
forthe
theship
shipundergoing
undergoingthe therefitting.
refitting.
As
As visible in Figure
visible in Figure15,
15,the
theearnings
earningsderiving
deriving from
from thethe saved
saved fuelfuel represent
represent the ma-
the majority
jority of the savings as follows: this is the reason why shipping mobility through
of the savings as follows: this is the reason why shipping mobility through green energy green
energy has the potential to become
has the potential to become significant.significant.
Figure 15. Savings estimation.

Figure 15. Savings estimation.
As a matter of fact, the created code can provide shipowners with the following
veryAs a matter decision
important of fact, the created
factor: code can
whether theprovide shipowners
installation with the
of the rotors onfollowing very
a ship, which
important decision factor: whether the installation of the rotors on a ship, which
has already been in line for several years, is cost-effective before the performance decay has al-
ready
of its other equipment or not, and therefore it is better to focus on other solutionsits
been in line for several years, is cost-effective before the performance decay of of
other equipment
sustainable or not, and therefore it is better to focus on other solutions of sustainable
mobility.
mobility.
To give a more heterogeneous evaluation of the return on investment related to the
usage of FRs aboard cargo ships, several simulations have been conducted by matching
different tracks with different speed range rotor dimensions, permuting the data available
in Table 5. The arrangement of the rotors is the only parameter kept unaltered (15D in a
longitudinal manner).
Table 5. Simulations executed.
Routes Distances
Barcelona (ESP)–Alexandria (EGP) 1615 Nautical Miles
Tokyo (JAP)–Sidney (AUS) 4629 Nautical Miles
Singapore–San Francisco (USA) 7435 Nautical Miles
New York (USA)–Lagos (NGA) 5010 Nautical Miles
Rotors Diameter Aspect Ratio
5m 6
3m 6
3m 8
From 0 to 20 knots
Velocity Range From 9 to 10 knots
From 13 to 14 knots
5m 6
3m 6
3m 8
From 0 to 20 knots
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229
Velocity Range From 9 to 10 knots 19 of 26
From 13 to 14 knots
5. Results
5. Results
These results have been obtained by conducting a 6DOF analysis and investigating
These results have been obtained by conducting a 6DOF analysis and investigating all
all the different values of SR available from the wind tunnel test data.
the different values of SR available from the wind tunnel test data.
These simulations have shown relevant data, which are depicted in Figures 16–19.
These simulations have shown relevant data, which are depicted in Figures 16–19.
16. 6DOF
Figure 16.
Figure 6DOF simulation
simulationfor
foraaroute
routefrom
fromBarcelona
Barcelona to to
Alexandria in different
Alexandria rotor
in different configurations:
rotor configura-
(a) D =(a)
tions: 5mD =and
5 mAR = 6;
and AR (b) D (b)
= 6; = 3Dm =and
3 mARand= AR
8; (c) D (c)
= 8; = 3Dm=and
3 mAR
and=AR6. = 6.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 20 of 26
Figure 16. 6DOF simulation for a route from Barcelona to Alexandria in different rotor configura-
tions: (a) D = 5 m and AR = 6; (b) D = 3 m and AR = 8; (c) D = 3 m and AR = 6.
Figure 17.17.6DOF
Figure 6DOFsimulation
simulationfor for aa route
route from Tokyo to
from Tokyo to Sidney
Sidney in
indifferent
differentrotor
rotorconfigurations:
configurations:(a)
(a)DD==55mmand
andAR
AR==6;6;(b)
(b)DD= =3 3mmandandAR
AR= =
8;8;
(c)(c)
DD= 3= m
3m and
and ARAR = 6.
= 6.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 21 of (a)
Figure 17. 6DOF simulation for a route from Tokyo to Sidney in different rotor configurations: 26
D = 5 m and AR = 6; (b) D = 3 m and AR = 8; (c) D = 3 m and AR = 6.
Figure 18. 6DOF simulation for for aa route

route from
fromSingapore
Singaporeto toSan
SanFrancisco
Franciscoinindifferent
differentrotor
rotorconfigura-
configu-
rations:
tions: (a)(a)
DD = =5 5mmand
and AR
AR = =6;6;(b)
(b)DD= =3 3mmand
andARAR==8;8;(c)
(c)DD==33mmand
andARAR==6.6.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229
Figure 18. 6DOF simulation for a route from Singapore to San Francisco in different rotor configu-
22 of 26
rations: (a) D = 5 m and AR = 6; (b) D = 3 m and AR = 8; (c) D = 3 m and AR = 6.
Figure 19.6DOF
Figure19. 6DOFsimulation
simulationforfor
a route fromfrom
a route NewNew York York
to Lagos in different
to Lagos rotor configurations:
in different rotor configurations
(a)
(a)DD==55mmand
andAR
AR= 6; (b)(b)
= 6; D =D3=m3and AR =
m and AR8; (c)
= 8;D(c)
= 3Dm=and
3 mAR
and= 6.
AR = 6.
In these graphs, the bars represent the difference between costs and savings deriving
from the constant usage of the rotors during navigations, while the lines highlight the
savings with reference to the left y-axis. Each chart shows the same data for each year o
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 23 of 26
In these graphs, the bars represent the difference between costs and savings deriving
from the constant usage of the rotors during navigations, while the lines highlight the
savings with reference to the left y-axis. Each chart shows the same data for each year of
work and for each one of the routes enlisted in Table 5, but with different rotor dimensions.
The results highlight the following considerations:
- If ships are free to move in the 0–20 knots range of speed, the difference between
earnings and costs decreases more rapidly when compared to ships with a stricter
range of speed. This behaviour is particularly evident in the case study of the ship
travelling from New York to Lagos;
- In the tracks crossing an ocean, the ship encounters more constant and deep winds, if
compared to the Mediterranean Sea;
- The Atlantic Ocean is windier than the Western Pacific one, so dimensions proportion-
ally influence the number of years necessary for the return on investment. This result
can find the same evidence in the paper by Traut et al. [42], where a simulation of a
ship sailing the Atlantic Ocean is analysed;
- For the crossing of the Pacific Ocean, a ship spacing within a wider speed range
(0–20 knots) retrieves the initial investments in almost half the time if compared to
the same ship when obliged within a thinner speed range, independently from the
dimensions of the rotors;
- For ships operating in calm and closed seas such as the Mediterranean one and obliged
to have a mean speed of 14 knots, rotors having D = 3 m and AR = 8 are eligible, while
if no restrictions on the speed are imposed, the simulation using the wider speed
range suggests the 5m x 6 configuration as the best one;
- In the Tokyo-to-Sidney route, the 13–14 knots speed range guarantees the shortest
period for the return on investment.
6. Conclusions
This work shows how FRs are a valid solution in terms of CO2 emission reduction
in the environment, and they represent an always more interesting field for shipping
companies and military fleets [43], considering the almost free-of-charge use of the wind
power and the consequent fuel savings.
The created power prediction program was tested only with the weather data of
4 July 2022. Given the heterogeneity of weather and sea conditions a ship can encounter
during a voyage, the results could be affected by a consistent percentage of correction if
specific picks of wind and wave values are recorded and analysed. Nevertheless, this PPP
aims to optimise the effectiveness of the rotating towers as an alternative propulsion while
preserving the ship 6DOF stability and manoeuvrability during the route by solving the
force and moment balance equations.
The code presented in this paper is a valid tool, alternative to the NAPA Voyage
Optimization software, to provide users with a techno-economic analysis for the calculation
of the best route and simulating costs and savings related to the usage of Flettner rotors.
As eligible in Figures 16–19, the solution offered by these towers to the economic
problem linked to the shipping environment binomial is certainly interesting, especially if
we consider a return on the initial investment and an increase in profit margins compared
to the use of endothermic combustion engines starting from approx. 10 to 12 years after
installing the rotors.
Important conclusions are as follows:
- The relevance of the geographical area where the ships sail in, while using wind
propulsion. In fact, significant results have been obtained in terms of return on
investment for a ship sailing in oceans since they offer better wind conditions to be
exploited for the work of the rotors if compared to the Mediterranean Sea;
- For the Mediterranean route (Barcelona to Alexandria), the payback period is the
same when rotors are considered in all three configurations if the speed range is kept
wider (0–20 knots) or low (9–11 knots). This can be ascribed to the less intensive winds
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229 24 of 26
characterising the closer seas and the difference in thrust, which the FRs having D = 3
and AR = 6 would provide to maintain the shipping speed between 13 and 14 knots;
- For the route from New York to Lagos as well as for the one from Singapore to San
Francisco, the wider range of 0–20 knots of available speed range returns for a better
optimisation of the FRs, due to the wider spectrum of wind and waves, which can
be encountered;
- Calculations regarding the Singapore-to-San Francisco, as well as the New York-to-
Lagos routes, shows that the smaller configuration of FRs does not fully exploit the
potential of wind-assisted propulsion, if compared to the other configurations and
especially when the 13–14 knots speed is required;
- Particular mention is deserved by the simulation regarding the route from Tokyo to
Sydney since the weather data were especially favourable and allowed the best usage
of FRs in the highest speed range available, guaranteeing contemporarily the shortest
travelling time (it is interesting to notice that for the configuration with smaller rotors,
the number of years necessary to cover the difference between savings and costs
widely exceeds 18 years).
Furthermore, the calculations have led to the following additional conclusions: the
further the arrival point, the stricter the time in years necessary to cover the initial invest-
ment and the bigger the rotor diameter, the more effective the rotor contribution to the
ship propulsion.
In conclusion, the potential of Flettner rotors as a marine propulsion system highlight
that drag and lift can provide a positive contribution to the thrust for a wide range of
wind angles, reducing the ship resistance up to 25%. Surely further studies should be
conducted to validate the assumptions and the results related to the fuel-saving benefits an
FR installation may imply.
Considering the evident benefits highlighted in the present study about Flettner rotors
and considering the actual focus of the International Classification Societies and Flag
Authorities on CO2 emission reductions, it might be interesting to check the earnings
and transport volumes of the next 5, 10, and 20 years of companies deciding to embrace
this wind propulsion solution today and to compare them with those of the companies
adopting other alternative energy solutions or new exhaust gas treatment systems for
endothermic engines.
Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, G.A. and S.M.; methodology, G.A.; software, G.A.; valida-
tion, G.A., S.M. and M.B.; formal analysis, G.A.; investigation, G.A.; resources, G.A.; data curation,
S.M.; writing—original draft preparation, G.A.; writing—review and editing, G.A.; visualization,
S.M.; supervision, M.B.; project administration, M.B.; funding acquisition, S.Muggiasca. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analysed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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A Techno-Economic Analysis of A Cargo Ship Using F

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A Techno-Economic Analysis of A Cargo Ship Using F

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Keywords: Flettner; rotors; ship; fuel saving; Matlab; 6DOF; simulation

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 229. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11010229 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jmse

2. The Importance of Simulations

3. The Structure of the Code

3.1. The Map

Figure 2. Choosing the departure and arrival points on the map.

Figure 2. Choosing the departure and arrival points on the map.

Figure 3. Example of navigable points of the route matrix.

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Figure 6. Arrangement of the rotors.

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Xforward = 85 m Longitudinal position of the forward rotor from aft

Figure 7. Representation of the forces acting on a rotor, reproduced from [22].

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Cx = CDrag long ∙ sin(β) + CLift long ∙ cos(β) (2)

3.3. The Ship

Table 2. Main dimension of the Ro-Ro ship.

Ratioreduction = rpmshaft/ rpmengine = 1/5 (6)

3.4. The Resistance Calculation

3.5. A 6-DOF Analysis

TRollPitchYaw (ϕ,ψ,χ) = TZ (χ) · TY (ψ) · TX (ϕ) = [(cχ · cψ , cχ · sψ · sϕ - sχ · cϕ , cχ · sψ · cϕ + sχ · sϕ );

3.6. Fuel Consumption

Table 3. MAK VM32-C16 emissions parameters.

-- nPis the number of elements in the speed range.

rotorsbenefits = −rotorcost ·nrotors − drydockcosts − rotormaintenance ·nrotors − refittingtime −

y = [ 0.05 · (x · 12)1.5 ] · z/1000 (12)

where x represents months, y is 1k $, and z are the tonnes of produced CO2 .

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 26

Figure 13. “Global depiction

y = [ 0.05 ∙ (x ∙ 12)1.5 ] ∙ z/1000 (12)

where x represents months, y is 1k $, and z are the tonnes of produced CO2.

y = [ 0.1 · (x · 12)1.2 ] · z/1000 (13)

where x represents months, y is 1k $, and z are the tonnes of produced CO2 .

Table 4. Drydock cost for the installation of the rotors.

Costs [k$] Description

Pcyl = ½ ∙ CM_cyl ∙ ρair ∙ ωcyl3 ∙ Rcyl4 ∙ Lcyl (14)

Figure 15. Savings estimation.

Table 5. Simulations executed.

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Figure 18. 6DOF simulation for for aa route

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