Applied Chemistry

Unit-2

WATER TREATMENT

Department of Applied Chemistry

Bhilai Institute of Technology, Durg (C.G.)
B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Chemistry; Unit-2
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 SYLLABUS
UNIT – II: Water Treatment CO2
Hard water and soft water, Types of hardness of water, Estimation of total hardness by EDTA
Method (numericals), Effect of hard water in Boiler operation: scale and sludge formation,
priming and foaming, caustic embrittlement and boiler corrosion, Softening of Water: Lime
Soda process (Principle), Zeolite process, Ion Exchange process, Reverse Osmosis process,
Electrodialysis, Numerical related to EDTA method, lime-soda process & Zeolite process.
[8Hrs]

Course Outcome:
CO2:Describe the boiler trouble, water treatment techniques and solve the related problems.

UNIT-2
WATER TREATMENT
Hardness of water: Hardness in water is that characteristic, which "prevents the lathering of
soap". This is due to presence in water of certain salts of calcium, magnesium and other
heavy metals dissolved in it. A sample of hard water, when treated with soap (sodium or
potassium salt of higher fatty acid like oleic, palmitic or stearic) does not produce lather, but
on the other hand forms a white scum or precipitate. This precipitate is formed, due to the
formation of insoluble soaps of calcium and magnesium. Typical reactions of soap (sodium
stearate) with calcium chloride and magnesium sulphate are depicted as follows:

2C17H35COONa CaCl 2 
 (C17H35COO)2 Ca  2NaCl
Sodiumstearate (Hardness) Calcium stearate
(Sodiumsoap) (Insoluble)

2C17H35COONa  MgSO 4 
 (C17H35COO)2 Mg  Na 2SO 4
Magnesiumstearate
(Insoluble)

Thus, water which does not produce lather with soap solution readily, but forms a while curd,
is called hard water. On the other hand, water which lathers easily on shaking with soap
solution, is called soft water. Such water, consequently, does not contain dissolved calcium
and magnesium salts in it.

(1) Temporary or carbonate hardness is caused by the presence of dissolved bicarbonates

of calcium, magnesium and other heavy metals and the carbonate of iron. Temporary
hardness is mostly destroyed by mere boiling of water, when bicarbonates are
decomposed, yielding insoluble carbonates or hydroxides, which are deposited as a
crust at the bottom of vessel. Thus:

Ca(HCO3 )2 Heat
 CaCO 3  H 2O  CO2 
Calcium Calcium
bicarbonate carbonate
(Insoluble)

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 Mg(HCO3 )2 Heat
 Mg(OH)2  2CO2 
Magnesium Magnesium
bicarbonate hydroxide

(2) Permanent or non-carbonate hardness is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates
of calcium, magnesium, iron and other heavy metals. Unlike temporary hardness,
permanent hardness is not destroyed on boiling.

Units of Hardness:

(1) Parts per million (ppm) is the parts of calcium carbonate equivalent hardness per 106
parts of water, i.e., 1 ppm = 1 part of CaCO3 eq. hardness in 106 parts of water.

(2) Milligrams per litre (mg / L) is the number of milligrams of CaCO3 equivalent
hardness present per litre of water.

1 mg / L = 1 ppm

(3) Clarke‟s degree (oCl) is number of grains (1 / 7000 lb) of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
per gallon (10 lb) of water. Or it is parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 70,000
parts of water. Thus:

1o Clarke = 1 grain of CaCO3 eq. hardness per gallon of water.

Or 1o Cl = 1 part of CaCO3 eq. hardness per 70,000 parts of water.

(4) Degree French (oFr) is the parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 105 parts of water.
Thus:

1o Fr = 1 part of CaCO3 hardness eq. per 105 parts of water.

Scale and sludge formation in boilers: In boilers, water evaporates continuously and the
concentration of the dissolved salts increases progressively. When their concentrations reach
saturation point, they are thrown out of water in the form of precipitates on the inner walls of
the boiler. If the precipitation takes place in the form of loose and slimy precipitate, it is
called sludge. On the other hand, if the precipitated matterforms a hard, adhering
crust/coating on the inner walls of the boiler, it is called scale.

Sludge is a soft, loose and slimy precipitate formed within the boiler. Sludge can easily be
scrapped off with a wire brush. It is formed at comparatively colder portions of the boiler and
collects in areas of the system, where the flow rate is slow or at bends. Sludges are formed by
substances which have greater solubility in hot water than incold water, e.g., MgCO3, MgCl2,
CaCl2, MgSO4, etc.

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 Fig. 1: Scale and sludge in boilers

Disadvantages of sludge formation:

(1) Sludges are poor conductor of heat, so they tend to waste a portion of heat generated.
(2) If sludges are formed along-with scales, then former gets entrapped in the latter and
both get deposited as scales.
(3) Excessive sludge formation disturbs the working of the boiler. It settles in the regions
of poor water circulation such as pipe connection, plug opening, gauge-glass
connection, thereby causing even choking of the pipes.

Prevention of sludge formation:

(1) By using well softened water.

(2) By frequently 'Blow-down operation', i.e., drawing off a portion of the concentrated
water.

Scales are hard deposits, which stick very firmly to the inner surfaces of the boiler. Scales are
difficult to remove, even with the help of hammer and chisel. Scales are the main source of
boiler troubles. Formation of scales may be due to:

(1) Decomposition of calcium bicarbonate:

Ca(HCO3 )2 
 CaCO3  H2O  CO2 
Scale

However, scale composed chiefly of calcium carbonate is soft and is the main cause of scale
formation in low-pressure boilers. But in high-pressure boilers, CaCO3 is soluble.

CaCO3  H2O 
 Ca(OH)2 (soluble)  CO2 

(2) Deposition of calcium sulphate: The solubility of calcium sulphate in water decreases
with rise of temperature. Thus, solubility of CaSO4 is 3,200 ppm at 15oC and it reduces to 55
ppm at 230oC and 27 ppm at 320oC. In other words, CaSO4 is soluble in cold water, but
almost completely insoluble in super-heated water. Consequently, CaSO4 gets precipitated as
hard scale on the heated portions of the boiler. This is the main cause of scales in high-
pressure boilers.

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(3) Hydrolysis of magnesium salts: Dissolved magnesium salts undergo hydrolysis (at
prevailing high temperature inside the boiler) forming magnesium hydroxide precipitate,
which forms a soft type of scale, e.g.,

MgCl2  2H2O 
 Mg(OH)2  2HCl 
Scale

(4) Presence of silica: (SiO2), even present in small quantities, deposits as calcium silicate
(CaSiO3) and / or magnesium silicate (MgSiO3). These deposits stick very firmly on the inner
side of the boiler surface and are very difficult to remove. One important source of silica in
water is the sand filter.

Disadvantages of scale formation:

(1) Wastage of fuel: Scales have a low thermal conductivity, so the rate of heat transfer from
boiler to inside water is greatly decreased. In order to provide a steady supply of heat to
water, excessive or over-heating is done and this causes increase in fuel consumption. The
wastage of fuel depends upon the thickness and the nature of scale:

Thickness of scale (mm) 0.325 0.625 1.25 2.5 12

Wastage of fuel 10% 15% 50% 80% 150%

(2) Lowering of boiler safety: Due to scale formation, over-heating of boiler is to be done in
order to maintain a constant supply of steam. The over-heating of the boiler tube makes the
boiler material softer and weaker and this causes distortion of boiler tube and makes the
boiler unsafe to bear the pressure of the steam, especially in high-pressure boilers.

(3) Decrease in efficiency: Scales may sometimes deposit in the valves and condensers of
the boiler and choke them partially. This results in decrease in efficiency of the boiler.

(4) Danger of explosion: When thick scales crack, due to uneven expansion, the water comes
suddenly in contact with over-heated iron plates. This causes in formation of a large amount
of steam suddenly. So sudden high-pressure is developed, which may even cause explosion
of the boiler.

Removal of scales:

(1) With the help of scraper or piece of wood or wire brush, if they are loosely adhering.
(2) By giving thermal shocks (i.e., heating the boiler and then suddenly cooling with cold
water), if they are brittle.
(3) By dissolving them by adding them chemicals, if they are adherent and hard. Thus,
calcium carbonate scales can be dissolved by using 5-10% HCI. Calcium sulphate
scales can be dissolved by adding EDTA (ethylene diamine tetra acetic add), with
which they form soluble complexes.
(4) By frequent blow-down operation, if the scales are loosely adhering.

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Caustic Embrittlement: Caustic embrittlement is a type of boiler corrosion, caused by using
highly alkaline water in the boiler. During softening process by lime-soda process, free
Na2CO3 is usually present in small proportion in the softened water. In high pressure boilers,
Na2CO3 decomposes to give sodium hydroxide and carbon dioxide,

Na2CO3 + H2O 
 2 NaOH + CO3

and this makes the boiler water “caustic”. The NaOH containing water flows into the minute
hair-cracks, always present in the inner side of boiler, by capillary action. Here water
evaporates and the dissolved caustic soda concentration increases progressively. This caustic
soda attacks the surrounding area, thereby dissolving iron of boiler as sodium ferrvate. This
causes embrittlement of boiler parts, particularly stressed parts (like bends, joints, rivets,
etc.), causing even failure of the boiler. Caustic cracking can be explained by considering the
following concentration cell:

The iron surrounded by the dilute NaOH becomes the cathodic side; while the iron in contact
with rather concentrated NaOH becomes anodic part, which is consequently dissolved or
corroded.

Caustic embrittlement can be avoided:

(1) By using sodium phosphate as softening reagent, instead of sodium carbonate;

(2) By adding tannin or lignin to boiler water, since these blocks the hair-cracks, thereby
preventing infiltration of caustic soda solution in these;
(3) By adding sodium sulphate to boiler water: Na2SO4 also blocks hair-cracks, thereby
preventing infiltration of caustic soda solutions in these.

Boiler corrosion: Boiler corrosion is decay of boiler material by a chemical or electro-

chemical attack by its environment. Main reasons for boiler corrosion are:

(1) Dissolved oxygen: Water usually contains about 8 mL of dissolved oxygen per litre at
room temperature. Dissolved oxygen in water, in presence of prevailing high temperature,
attacks boiler material:

2Fe  2H 2O  O2 
 2Fe(OH)2 

4Fe(OH)2  O2 
 2[Fe2O3 .2H 2O] 
(Ferrous hydroxide) (Rust)

Removal of dissolved oxygen:

(i) By adding calculated quantity of sodium sulphite or hydrazine or sodium sulphide. Thus:

2Na 2SO 3  O2 
 2Na 2SO 4

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 N H  O2 
2 4  N 2  2H 2O
(Hydrazine)

Na 2S  2O2 
 Na 2SO 4

(ii) By mechanical de-aeration, i.e., water spraying in a perforated plate-fitted tower,

heated from sides and connected to vacuum pump.

(2) Dissolved carbon dioxide: (CO2) is carbonic acid,

CO2 +H2O 
 H2CO3

which has a slow corrosive effect on the boiler material. Carbon dioxide is also released
inside the boiler, if water used for steam generation contains bicarbonate, e.g.,

Mg(HCO3 )2 
Δ
 MgCO3 +H2O+CO-2

Removal of CO2:

(i) By adding calculated quantity of ammonia. Thus:

2NH4OH  CO2 
(NH4 ) 2 CO3  H 2O

(ii) By mechanical-deaeration process along with oxygen

(3) Acids from dissolved salts: Water containing dissolved magnesium salts liberate acids
on hydrolysis, e.g.,

MgCl2 +2H2O 
 Mg(OH)2 ¯+2HCl

The liberated acid reacts with iron (of the boiler) in chain-like reactions producing HCl again
and again. Thus:

Fe+2HCl 
 FeCl2 +H2 
FeCl2 +2H2O 
 Fe(OH)2  +2HCl

Consequently, presence of even a small amount of MgCl2 will cause corrosion of iron to a
large extent.

Removal of acids:

(i) By using softened water.

Priming and Foaming: When a boiler is steaming (i.e., producing steam) rapidly, some
particles of the liquid water are carried along-with the steam. This process of „wet steam‟
formation is called priming. Priming is caused by:

(i) The presence of large amount of dissolved solids;

(ii) High steam velocities;

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 (iii) Sudden boiling;

(iv) Improper boiler design, and

(v) Sudden increase in steam-production rate.

Foaming is the production of persistent foam or bubbles in boilers, which do not break easily.
Foaming is due to presence of substances like oils (which greatly reduce the surface tension
of water).

Priming and foaming, usually, occur together. They are objectionable because:

(i) Dissolved salts in boiler water are carried by the wet steam to super-heater and
turbine blades, where they get deposited as water evaporates. This deposit reduces
their efficiency;

(ii) Dissolved salts may enter the parts of other machinery, where steam is being used,
thereby decreasing the life of the machinery;

(iii) Actual height of the water column cannot be judged properly, thereby making the
maintenance of the boiler pressure becomes difficult.

Priming can be avoided by:

(i) Fitting mechanical steam purifiers;

(ii) Avoiding rapid change in steaming rate;

(iii) Maintaining low water levels in boilers, and

(iv) Efficient softening and filtration of the boiler-feed water.

Foaming can be avoided by:

(i) Adding anti-foaming chemicals like castor oil, or

(ii) Removing oil from boiler water by adding compounds like sodium aluminate.

Softening methods: Water used for industrial purposes (such as for steam generation) should
be sufficiently pure. It should, therefore, be freed from hardness-producing salts before put to
use. The process of removing hardness-producing salts from water, is known as softening of
water. In industry, main three methods employed for softening of water are:

(1) Lime-soda process: In this method, the soluble calcium and magnesium salts in
water are chemically converted into insoluble compounds, by adding calculated
amounts of lime [Ca(OH)2] and soda [Na2CO3]. Calcium carbonate [CaCO3] and
magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2], so-precipitated, are filtered off.

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 Fig. 2. Continuous cold lime-soda softener

Fig. 3. Continuous hot lime-soda softener

(2) Zeolite or permutit process: Chemical structure of sodium zeolite may be

represented as: Na2O.Al2O3.x SiO2.y.H2O where x = 2 – 10 and y = 2 – 6. Zeolite is
hydrated sodium alumino silicate, capable of exchanging reversibly its sodium ions
for hardness-producing ions in water. Zeolites are also known as permutits. Zeolites
are of two types:

(i) Natural zeolites are non-porous. For example, natrolite,

Na2O.Al2O3.4SiO2.2H2O.

(ii) Synthetic zeolites are porous and possess gel structure. They are prepared by
heating together china clay, faldspar and soda ash. Such zeolites possess
higher exchange capacity per unit weight than natural zeolites.

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Process: For softening of water by zeolite process, hard water is percolated at a specified rate
through a bed of zeolite, kept in a cylinder (see Fig. 4). The hardness-causing ions (Ca2+,
Mg2+, et.) are retained by the zeolite as CaZe and MgZe; while the outgoing water contains
sodium salts. Reactions taking place during the softening process are:

Na 2 Ze  Ca(HCO3 ) 2 
 CaZe  2NaHCO3

Na 2 Ze  Mg(HCO3 ) 2 
 MgZe  2NaHCO3

Na 2 Ze  CaCl 2 (or CaSO 4 ) 

 CaZe  2NaCl(or Na 2SO 4 )

Na 2 Ze MgCl2 (or MgSO 4 ) 

 MgZe  2NaCl(or Na 2SO 4 )
(Zeolite) (Hardness)

Fig. 4. Zeolite softener

Regeneration: After some time, the zeolite is completely converted into calcium and
maginesium zeolites and it ceases to soften water, i.e., it gets exhausted. At this stage, the
supply of hard water is stopped and the exhausted zeolite is reclaimed by treating the bed
with a concentrated (10%) brine (NaC1) solution.

CaZe (or MgZe) 2NaCl 

 Na Ze  CaCl 2 (or MgCl2 )
2
(Exhausted zeolite) (Brine) (Reclaimed zeolite) (Washings)

The washings (containing CaCl2 and MgCl2) are led to drain and the regenerated zeolite bed
thus-obtained is used again for softening purpose.

Ion exchange or de-ionization or de-mineralization process: Ion-exchange resins are

insoluble, cross-linked, long chain organic polymers with a microporous structure, and the
"functional groups" attached to the chains are responsible for the ion-exchanging properties.
Resins containing acidic functional groups (–COOH, –SO3H, etc.) are capable of exchanging
their H+ions with other cations, which comes in their contact; whereas those containing basic
functional groups (–NH2 = NH as hydrochloride) are capable of exchanging their anions with
other anions, which comes in their contact.
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Cation exchange resins (RH+) are mainly styrene-divinyl benzene copolymers, which on
sulphonationor carboxylation, become capable to exchange their hydrogen ions with the
cations in the water.

Anion exchange resins (ROH ) are styrene-divinyl benzene or amine-formaldehyde

copolymers, which contain amino or quaternary ammonium or quaternary phosphonium or
tertiary sulphonium groups as an integral part of the resin matrix. These, after treatment with
dil. NaOH solution, become capable to exchange their OH– anions with anions in water.

Electrodialysis is a method in which the ions (of the salts present) are pulled out of the salt
water by passing direct current, using electrodes and thin rigid plastic membrane pair (natural
or synthetic). When direct electric current is passed through saline water, the sodium ions
(Na+) start moving towards negative pole (cathode). While the chloride ions (Cl–) start
moving towards the positive pole (anode), through the membrane. As a result, the
concentration of brine decreases in the central compartment; while it increases in two sides
compartments. Desalinated brine (or pure water) is removed from the central compartment
from time to time; while concentrated brine (in the side compartments) is replaced by fresh
brine / sea water.

An electrodialysis cell consists of a large number of paired sets of rigid plastic membrances.
Saline water is passed under a pressure (of about 5-6 kg m–2) between membranes.

Fig. 5: Electrodialysis cell

Pairs and an electric field is applied perpendicular to the directionof water flow. Just as
magnets of like charges repel each other, the fixed positive charges inside the membrane
repel positively charged ions(Na+), yet permit negatively charged ions (Cl–) to pass through.
Similarly, thefixed negative charges inside the other type of membrane repel negatively
charged ions (Cl–), yet permit positively charged ions (Na+) to passthrough. Therefore, water
in one compartment of the cell is deprived of its salts: while the salt concentration in adjacent
compartments is increased. Thus, we get alternate streams of pure water and concentrated
brine.

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Reverse osmosis: When two solutions of unequal concentrations are separated by a semi
permeable membrane (which selectively does not permit the passage of dissolved solute
particles, i.e., molecules, ions, etc.), flow of solvent takes place from dilute to concentrated
sides, due to osmosis. If, however, a hydrostatic pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is
applied on the concentrated side, the solvent flow reverses, i.e., solvent is forced to move
from concentrated side to dilute side across the membrane. This is the principle of reverse
osmosis. Thus, in reverse osmosis (R.O.) methods, pure solvent (water) is separated from
itscontaminates, rather than removing contaminants from the water. This membrane filtration
is sometimes also called “super-filtration” or “hyper-filtration”.

Method: In this process, pressure (of the order 15 to 40 kg cm–2) is applied to the sea-
water/impure water (to be treated) to force its pure water out through the semi-permeable
membrane; leaving behind the dissolved solids (both ionic as well as non-ionic). The
principle of reverse osmosis, as applied for treating saline/sea water, is illustrated in Figure.
The membrane consists of very thin films of cellulose acetate, affixed to either side of a
perforated tube. However, more recently superior membranes made of polymethacrylate and
polyamide polymers have come into use.

Fig. 6: Reverse osmosis cell

Example 1: Calculate the quantity of lime and soda required for softening 50,000 litres of
water containing the following salts per litre: Ca(HCO3)2 = 8.1 mg; Mg(HCO3)2 = 7.5 mg;
CaSO4 = 13.6 mg; MgSO4 = 12.0 mg; MgCl3 = 2.0 mg; and NaCl = 4.7 mg.

Solution: Calculation of CaCO3 equivalents:

Constituent Multiplication factor CaCO3 equivalent

100
Ca(HCO3)2 = 8.1 mg/L 100 / 162 8.1  5.0 mg/L
162
100
Mg(HCO3)2 = 7.5 mg/L 100 / 145 7.5   5.14 mg/L
145
100
CaSO4 = 13.6 mg/L 100 / 136 13.6   5.0 mg/L
136

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 Constituent Multiplication factor CaCO3 equivalent
100
MgSO4 = 12.0 mg/L 100 / 120 12.0   10.0 mg/L
120
100
MgCl2 = 2.0 mg/L 100 / 95 2.0   2.11 mg/L
95

Lime requirement for 50,000 L water

74
 [Ca(HCO3 ) 2  2Mg(HCO3 ) 2  MgSO 4  MgCl2 as CaCO 3 eq]  Volume of water
100

74
 [5.0  2  5.14  10.0  2.11] mg/L  50,000 L
100

74
 [27.39 mg/L ]  50,000 L  10,13,430 mg
100

 10,13,430 mg 106 kg/mg  1.0134 kg.

Soda requirement for 50,000 L water

106
 [CaSO 4  MgSO 4  MgCl2 as CaCO 3 eq ]  Volume of water
100

106
 [5.0  10.0  2.11] mg/L  50,000 L
100

106
 [17.11 mg/L]  50,000 L  9,06,830 mg
100

 9,06,830 mg 106 kg/mg  0.9068 kg.

Example 2: A water sample contains the following impurities: Ca2+ = 20 ppm, Mg2+ = 18
ppm, HCO3  183 ppm and SO 24  24 ppm. Calculate the amount of lime and soda needed
for softening.

Solution: Conversion into CaCO3 equivalents:

Constituent Multiplication factor CaCO3 equivalent

Ca2+ = 20 ppm 100 / 40 100
20   50 ppm
40
Mg2+ = 18 ppm 100 / 24 100
18   75 ppm
24
HCO3  183 ppm 100 / 122
183 
100
 150 ppm
122

74
Lime requirement  [Mg2  HCO3 as CaCO 3 eq]
100

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 74
 [75  150] ppm  166.5 ppmor mg/L
100

106
Soda requirement  [Ca 2  Mg2  HCO2 as CaCO 3 eq]
100

106
 [50  75  150] ppm  Negative or nil.
100

Example 3: A water sample on analysis gave the following data:

Ca2+ = 30 mg/L; Mg2+ = 24 mg/L; CO2 = 24 mg/L; HCl = 50 mg/L; K+ = 10 mg/L.

Calculate the quantities of lime (90% pure) and soda (94% pure) required for softening one
million litres of water sample.

Solution: Conversion in CaCO3 equivalents:

Constituent Multiplication factor CaCO3 equivalent

100
Ca2+ = 30 mg/L 100 / 40 30   75.0 mg/L
40
100
Mg2+ = 24 mg/L 100 / 24 24   100.0 mg/L
24
100
CO2 = 24 mg/L 100 / 44 24   54.5 mg/L
44
100
HCl = 50 mg/L 100 / 73 50   68.5 mg/L
73

Lime requirement

74  100 
 [Mg2  CO 2  HCl as CaCO 3 eq]  Volume of water   
100  % purity 

74  100 
 [(100  54.5  68.5) mg/L] 106 L   
100  90 

 100  (74  223 10 )

6
 74 100[223 mg/L] 106 L     mg
 90  90

 1.834 108 mg  1.834 102 kg  183.4 kg.

Soda requirement

106  100 
 [Ca 2  Mg2  HCl as CaCO 3 eq ]  Volume of water   
100  % purity 

106  100 
 [(75  100  68.5) mg/L] 106 L   
100  94 
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  100  (106  243.5 10 )
6
106
 [243.5 mg/L] 106 L    mg
100  94  94

 2.946 108 mg  2.946 102 kg  294.6 kg.

Example 4: The hardness of 50,000 litres of a sample was removed by passing it through a
zeolite softener. The softener then required 200 litres of NaCl solution, containing 125 g /
litre of NaCl for regeneration. Calculate the hardness of the sample of water.

Solution: 200 L of NaCl solution

(25,000  50)
 200 L 125 g/L  25,000 g NaCl 
585 g CaCO 3 eq.

= 21,368 g CaCO3 eq.

 Hardness of 50,000 L water = 21,368 g CaCO3 eq.

21,368
Or hardness of 1 L water   0.4274 g CaCO 3 eq.
50,000

= 427.4 mg CaCO3 eq.

Hence, hardness of water = 427.4 mg/L (or ppm).

Example 5: 0.5 g of CaCO3 was dissolved in HCl and the solution made upto 500 mL with
distilled water. 50 mL of the solution required 48 mL of EDTA solution for titration. 50 mL
of hard water sample required 15 mL of EDTA and after boiling and filtering required 10 mL
of EDTA solution. Calculate the hardness.

Solution: 500 mL of SHW = 0.5 g or 500 mg CaCO3 eq.

 1 mL SHW = 1 mg CaCO3

Now 48 mL of EDTA solution = 50 mL SHW = 50 mg CaCO3 eq.

 1 mL of EDTA solution = 50 / 48 mg CaCO3 eq.

(i) Calculation of the total hardness of water:

 50 
50 mL hard water = 15 mL EDTA  15    mg CaCO 3 eq.
 48 

= 15.625 mg CaCO3 eq.

15.625 1,000
 1,000 mL of hard water  mg CaCO 3 eq.
50

= 312.5 mg / L CaCO3 eq.

Hence, total hardness = 312.5 mg / L or 312.5 ppm.

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Chemistry; Unit-2
15
(ii) Calculation of non-carbonate hardness:

50 mL boiled hard water  10 mL EDTA solution

 50 
 10    mg CaCO 3 eq.
 48 

= 10.417 mg CaCO3 eq.

10.417 1000
 1,000 mL boiled hard water  mg CaCO 3 eq.
50

= 208.3 mg CaCO3 eq.

 Non-carbonate hardness = 208.3 mg / L or 208.3 ppm

Hence, carbonate hardness = (312.5 – 208.3) = 104.2 ppm.

Questions:

1. Define hardness with its types.

2. Differentiate between ion exchange and zeolite process of water softening.
3. Explain lime soda process of water treatment in detail.
4. Write short notes on Electro dialysis.
5. Explain caustic embrittlement in detail.
6. Name all types of boiler troubles and discuss Scale and Sludgein detail.
7. Discuss process of Reverse Osmosis.
8. The hardness of 1000 L of a water sample was completely removed by a zeolite
softener. The zeolite had required 30 L of NaCl solution containing 1500 mg/L of
NaCl for regeneration. Calculate the hardness of water sample.
9. Calculate the quantity of lime and soda required for softening 50000 litters of water
containing the following results per litre. Ca (HCO3)2 = 8.1 mg, CaSO4 = 13.6 mg,
MgCl2 = 2 mg, Nacl = 4.7 mg.
10. 50 mL of a standard hard water containing 1 mg of pure CaCO3 per mL consumed 20
mL of EDTA. 50 mL of a water sample consumed 25 mL of same EDTA solution,
using Erio-T indicator. Calculate the total hardness of water sample is ppm.

Text Book:

1. A Text book of Engineering, Chemistry, P. C. Jain and Monika Jain, 16 th Edition 2013,
Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company (P) LTD, New
2. Engineering Chemistry O. G. Palanna, 1st Edition 2011, Mc Graw Hill, Education (India),
Private Limited, Chennai.
3. A Text book of Engineering, Chemistry S. S. Dara, 1st Edition 2010, S. Chand & Company
Ltd., New Delhi

♦♦♦

B.Tech. First / Second Semester, BIT Durg, Applied Chemistry; Unit-2

16
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