LIMIT

OF A FUNCTION
The limit of a function 𝑓 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑝 is the number 𝐿 if the value of
the function gets closer and closer to 𝐿 as 𝑥 gets closer and closer to 𝑝.
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑝
“the limit of 𝑓 𝑥 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑝 is 𝐿”

Example: lim 𝑥 2 − 1 = 8
𝑥→3

𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 3 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡

𝑝 2.2 2.5 2.7 2.9 2.99 2.999 2.9999

𝑓(𝑝) 3.84 5.25 6.29 7.41 7.9401 7.9940 7.9994

𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 3 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑝 3.0001 3.001 3.01 3.1 3.5 3.7 4
𝑓(𝑝) 8.0006 8.0060 8.0601 8.61 11.25 12.69 15
One-sided limits are those that approach to a single real value from one side
of a function, either the left or the right.
left-sided or left-hand limit: 𝒍𝒊𝒎− 𝒇 𝒙
𝒙→𝒑
𝑒𝑥. 𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑥 2 − 1
𝑥→3

right-sided or right-hand limits: 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇 𝒙 𝑒𝑥. 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑥 2 − 1

𝒙→𝒑 𝑥→3

Note: The limit of a function exists if the left-hand and right-hand

limits exist and are the same.

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑥 exists and is equal to L iff the

𝑥→𝑝
𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
Example: By inspection, determine the lim 𝑥 2 − 1
𝑥→−3

lim − 𝑥 2 − 1 = 8
𝑥→−3

lim + 𝑥 2 − 1 = 8
𝑥→−3

Therefore,

𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 = 𝟖
𝒙→−𝟑
Example: Let us consider the function whose graph is shown below.

𝑎: 𝑓 1 = 3
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥→1

𝑏: 𝑓 −1 = 𝐷𝑁𝐸
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
𝑥→−1

𝑐: 𝑓 −3 = 1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑥→−3
LIMIT LAWS:
Law 1: Limit of a Constant
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐, where 𝑐 is a constant, then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒄
𝒙→𝒑

𝜋 𝝅
Example: (1) lim 7 = 𝟕 (2) lim =
𝑥→2 𝑥→−1 2 𝟐

Law 2: Identity Law of Limits

If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥, then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 = 𝒑
𝒙→𝒑

1
Example: (1) lim 𝑥 = 𝟑 (2) lim 𝑤=
𝑥→3 1
𝑤→ Τ2 2
For the Operational Laws for Limits, we let the lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀,
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝

Law 3: lim 𝑘 ∙ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘 ∙ lim 𝑓 𝑥

𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌 ∙ 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒌 ∙ 𝑳
𝒙→𝒑

Example: (1) lim 2𝑥 = 2 ∙ lim 𝑥 = 2 ∙ −2 = −𝟒

𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2

3𝑥 3 3 6 𝟑
(2) lim = ∙ lim 𝑥 = ∙ 2 = =
𝑥→2 4 4 𝑥→2 4 4 𝟐
For the Operational Laws for Limits, we let the lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀,
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝

Law 4: The limit of a sum or difference of two functions as 𝑥 approaches 𝑝

is equal to the sum or difference of their limits.

𝑙im 𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓 𝑥 ± lim 𝑔 𝑥

𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝

𝒍𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒙 ± 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑳 ± 𝑴
𝒙→𝒑

Example: (1) lim (4𝑥 − 3) = lim 4𝑥 − lim 3

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= 4 ∙ lim 𝑥 − lim 3
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
=4∙2−3
lim (4𝑥 − 3) = 𝟓
𝑥→2
For the Operational Laws for Limits, we let the lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀,
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
Law 5: The limit of a product of two functions as 𝑥 approaches 𝑝 is equal
to the product of their limits.
lim 𝑓 𝑥 ∙ 𝑔(𝑥 ) = lim 𝑓 𝑥 ∙ lim 𝑔 𝑥
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒙 ∙ 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑳 ∙ 𝑴
𝒙→𝒑

Example: (1) lim 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 2 = lim (𝑥 + 3) ∙ lim (𝑥 − 2)

𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1

= lim (𝑥 + 3ቁ lim (𝑥 − 2ቁ
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1

= lim 𝑥 + lim 3 lim 𝑥 − lim 2

𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1

= −1 + 3 −1 − 2
= 2 −3
lim 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 2 = −𝟔
𝑥→−1
For the Operational Laws for Limits, we let the lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀,
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝

Law 6: The limit of a quotient of two functions as 𝑥 approaches 𝑝 is equal

to the quotient of their limits.
lim 𝑓(𝑥ቁ
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑝 𝒇(𝒙) 𝑳
lim = then 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = , where 𝑀 ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑝 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥ቁ
𝑥→𝑝
𝒙→𝒑 𝒈(𝒙) 𝑴

2𝑥 − 3 lim 2𝑥 − 3 lim 2𝑥 − lim 3

Example: 1 lim = 𝑥→2 = 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
𝑥→2 𝑥 + 1 lim 𝑥 + 1 lim 𝑥 + lim 1
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

2 ∙ lim 𝑥 − lim 3 2∙2−3

𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= =
lim 𝑥 + lim 1 2+1
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

2𝑥 − 3 𝟏
lim =
𝑥→2 𝑥 + 1 𝟑
For the Operational Laws for Limits, we let the lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀,
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝

Law 7: The limit of an nth power of a function as 𝑥 approaches 𝑝 is equal

to the nth power of its limit.
𝑛 𝑛
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
𝒏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳𝒏
𝒙→𝒑
Example:
4
(1) lim 𝑥 4 = lim 𝑥 (2) lim 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 = lim 𝑥 3 − lim 2𝑥 2
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= 2 4 = lim 𝑥 3 − 2 ∙ lim 𝑥 2
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
3 2
4 = lim 𝑥 −2 lim 𝑥
lim 𝑥 = 𝟏𝟔
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
3 2
= 2 −2 2
lim 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 = 𝟎
𝑥→2
For the Operational Laws for Limits, we let the lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀,
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝
Law 8: The limit of an nth root of a function as 𝑥 approaches 𝑝 is equal to
the nth root of its limit.
𝑛
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑛
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ቁ
𝑥→𝑝 𝑥→𝑝

𝒏
1
𝒏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 𝒐𝒓 𝑳𝒏
𝒙→𝒑

Example:
3
3
lim 5𝑥 − 2 =
3 = 5∙2−2
𝑥→2
lim (5𝑥 − 2ቁ
𝑥→2 3
= 10 − 2
3
= lim 5𝑥 − lim 2 3
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 = 8
3
= 5 ∙ lim 𝑥 − lim 2 =𝟐
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
 Note: The lim 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑝 .
𝑥→𝑝
Examples:

3 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 9
(1) lim 2𝑥 3 = 2. 3 = 𝟓𝟒 (3) lim
𝑥→3 𝑥→−2 4𝑥 − 5
−2 2
− 7 −2 − 9
(2) lim 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥3 =
𝑥→2 4(−2) − 5
= 1 − 2(2) + 3(2)2 − 2 3 4 + 14 − 9
=
−8 − 5
=1−2 2 +3 4 − 8
𝟗
= 1 − 4 + 12 − 8 =
−𝟏𝟑
=𝟏
However, evaluating the limit by direct substitution is not always possible.
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14
Example: lim =
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14 0
Using direct substitution, lim = , the function indeterminate.
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 0
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14
It means that 2 is not in the domain of 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−2

𝑥 1.899 1.999 1.99999 2 2.00001 2.001

2.25
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14
8.899 8.999 8.99999 DNE 9.00001 9.001 9.25
𝑥−2
 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14
Example 1: lim =
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14 𝑥+7 𝑥−2
Solution: lim = lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2

= lim (𝑥 + 7ቁ
𝑥→2

=2+7
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 14
lim =𝟗
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

Note:: This method of evaluating a limit is called the dividing out technique.
 Dividing Out Technique

𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 12 𝑥 3 − 27
Example 2: lim 2 Example 3: lim 2
𝑥→−4 𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 8 𝑥→3 𝑥 − 9

𝑥+4 𝑥−3 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 9൯

= lim = lim
𝑥→−4 𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 + 2 𝑥→3 𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 3
𝑥−3 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 9൯
= lim = lim
𝑥→−4 𝑥 + 2 𝑥→3 𝑥+3
3 2 +3 3 +9
−4 − 3
= =
−4 + 2 3+3
−7 9 + 9 + 9 27
= = =
−2 3+3 6
𝟕 𝟗
= =
𝟐 𝟐
 Rationalizing Technique
The next examples can be done by rationalizing the numerator or the
denominator to get rid of the radical signs and make the dividing out
technique possible.
Example 4:
𝑥−2 𝑥−2 𝑥2 − 4 𝑥2 − 4
lim = lim ∙ = lim
𝑥→2 𝑥2 −4 𝑥2 − 4 𝑥→2 𝑥 + 2
𝑥→2 𝑥2 − 4
𝑥−2 𝑥2 − 4 2 2−4
= lim 2 =
𝑥→2
𝑥2 − 4 2+2
𝑥 − 2 𝑥2 − 4 4−4
= lim =
𝑥→2 𝑥2 − 4 4
𝑥 − 2 𝑥2 − 4 0
= lim =
𝑥→2 𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2 4
=𝟎
 Rationalizing Technique

Example 5:
𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝑥2 + 3 + 2 𝑥2 + 3 + 2
lim = lim ∙ = lim
𝑥→1 𝑥2 +3−2 𝑥→1 𝑥2 +3−2 𝑥2 +3+2 𝑥→1 𝑥+1
𝑥−1 𝑥2 + 3 + 2 1 2 +3+2
= lim 2 =
𝑥→1
𝑥2 +3 − 2 2 1+1
𝑥−1 𝑥2 + 3 + 2 4+2
= lim =
𝑥→1 𝑥2 + 3 − 4 2
𝑥−1 𝑥2 + 3 + 2 2+2
= lim =
𝑥→1 𝑥2 − 1 2
𝑥−1 𝑥2 + 3 + 2 4
= lim = =𝟐
𝑥→1 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1 2
Limits at Infinity
To describe the behavior of a function as 𝑥 increases or decreases without
bound defines the limit of a function at infinity.
𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇(𝒙) or 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→+∞ 𝒙→−∞

Some properties of the limits at infinity:

1 1
1 lim = 0 (3) lim 𝑛 = 0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

1 1
(2) lim 𝑛 = 0 (4) lim 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑐
where 𝑐 > 0, 𝑐 is any real number
Some properties of infinite limits:

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 then for every 𝑐 and 𝐿 that are real,
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

5 lim 𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

(6) If 𝐿 > 0 then lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

(7) If 𝐿 < 0 then lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥) = −∞

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐
8 lim = =0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑓(𝑥 ) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐
 1 1
Example 1: Let us observe the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = and find the lim
𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞− 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞+
𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥
-3 -0.33333 3 0.33333
-2 -0.5 2 0.5
-1 -1 1 1
-0.5 -2 0.5 2
-0.25 -4 0.25 4
-0.10 -10 0.10 10
Example 2: Example 3:

lim 4𝑥 = 4 lim 𝑥 1 1
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ lim 3 + 𝑥 = lim 3 + lim 𝑥
𝑥→∞ 3 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 3
=4∙∞
=3+0
lim 4𝑥 = ∞ 1
𝑥→∞
lim 3 + 𝑥 =𝟑
𝑥→∞ 3
 X X
Example 4: but we cannot subtract
lim 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 = lim 3𝑥 3 − lim 2𝑥 = ∞ − ∞ infinities!!!
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
Because infinity is
not a number.
Solution:
lim 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 = lim 𝑥 3 3 − 2𝑥 −2
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
3
2
= lim 𝑥 3− 2
𝑥→∞ 𝑥
2
= lim 𝑥3. lim 3 − 2
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
2
= li m 𝑥 3 lim 3 − lim 2
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
=∞ 3−0
lim 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 = ∞
𝑥→∞
 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 𝑥 4 𝑥 −2 − 5𝑥 −3 − 3𝑥 −4
Example 5: lim = lim
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 4 2 + 3𝑥 −1
𝑥 −2 − 5𝑥 −3 − 3𝑥 −4
= lim
𝑥→∞ 2 + 3𝑥 −1
1 5 3
𝑥 2 − 𝑥3 − 𝑥4
= lim
𝑥→∞ 3
2+
𝑥
1 5 3
lim − lim 3 − lim 4
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
=
3
lim 2 + lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
0−0−0 0
= =
2+0 2
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3
lim =𝟎
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3
Limits involving Trigonometric Functions
Example 1:
4 Basic Limits Properties: sin 𝑥 lim sin 𝑥
𝑥→0
lim =
𝑥→0 cos 𝑥 − 3 lim cos 𝑥 − 3
𝑥→0
1 lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑝
𝑥→𝑝 lim sin 𝑥
𝑥→0
(2) lim cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑝 =
𝑥→𝑝 lim cos 𝑥 − lim 3
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
sin 𝑥
(3) lim =1 sin 0
𝑥→0 𝑥 =
cos 0 − 3
1 − cos 𝑥
(4) lim =0 0
𝑥→0 𝑥 =
1−3
sin 𝑥
lim =𝟎
𝑥→0 cos 𝑥 − 3
 1 lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑝
𝑥→𝑝
Example 2: (2) lim cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑝
𝑥→𝑝
sin 𝑥
2 sin 3𝑥 sin 3𝑥 (3) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
=1
lim = 2 ∙ lim =2∙1 =𝟐
𝑥→0 3𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥 1 − cos 𝑥
(4) lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥

Example 3:
1
sec 𝑥 − 1 −1 1 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 1
lim = lim cos 𝑥 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ∙ lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝒙→0 𝒙 𝑥→0 cos 𝑥

1 − cos 𝑥 1
=0∙
= lim cos 𝑥 cos 0
𝑥→0 𝑥
=0∙1
1 − cos 𝑥 1
= lim ∙ = 𝟎
𝑥→0 cos 𝑥 𝑥
Example 4: 1 lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑝
𝑥→𝑝

(2) lim cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑝

𝑥→𝑝
sin 5𝑥 sin 5𝑥 5 sin 𝑥
(3) lim =1
lim = lim ∙ 𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 5 1 − cos 𝑥
(4) lim =0
5sin 5𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
= lim
𝑥→0 5𝑥
sin 5𝑥
= 5 ∙ lim
𝑥→0 5𝑥

=5∙1
sin 5𝑥
lim =𝟓
𝑥→0 𝑥
Home Work #3A : Limits of Algebraic Functions

A. Complete the table of values ang give the limit of the given functions.

𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2
lim − 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = ________ lim+ = ________
𝑥→−2 𝑥→1 𝑥−1
x f(x) x f(x)
-3 2
-2.75 1.75
-2.50 1.50
-2.25 1.25
-2.10 1.001
-2.001 1.0001
-2.0001 1.000001
B. Given the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥), fill in the table with the missing values.

a. 𝑓(0) =
b. 𝑓(2) =
c. 𝑓(3) =
d. 𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→0
e. 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→0
f. 𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→3
g. 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→3
Home Work #3B:

Evaluate the limit of the given functions.

1 1
−
𝑎 lim 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 (𝑒) lim 𝑥 5
𝑥→2 𝑥→5 𝑥 − 5

𝑥 2 − 25 𝑥+4−3
(𝑏) lim 2 (𝑓) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 5 𝑥→5 𝑥−5
3
7𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 3 𝑥−1
(𝑐) lim 2 𝑔 lim
𝑥→1 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1 𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1

𝑥2 + 7 − 3 𝑥+1
(𝑑) lim (ℎ) lim
𝑥→3 𝑥+3 𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 + 1
Home Work #3:

cos 𝑥
(𝑖) lim 3−𝑥 + 2 (𝑚) lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 − 3

9𝑥 2 sin 3𝑥
(𝑗) lim (𝑛) lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 + 2 𝑥→0 2𝑥

2𝑥 2 − 5 1 − cos 𝑥
(𝑘) lim 3 (𝑜) lim
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥
sin 5𝑥 − sin 3𝑥
(𝑙) lim 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 (𝑝) lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥
𝛼−𝛽 𝛼+𝛽
𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑡: sin 𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = 2 sin 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2