UNIVERSITY OF THE CORDILLERAS

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Civil Engineering Department

Hydro 1 – Hydraulics
MODULE 1.0. Introduction to Hydraulics

Fundamentals of Hydrostatics – Part 1

A. Pressure (Unit Pressure, Intensity of Pressure)
• The normal force per unit area in fluids
𝐝𝐏
𝐩=
𝐝𝐀

• The unit pressure is the same at every point on any area A, on which total pressure is P.
𝐏
𝐩=
𝐀
Notes: The higher the normal force, the higher the pressure. The higher the area, the lower the pressure.

Units: SI: N/m2 = Pa, English: lbs/ft2, lbs/in2 (psi)

B. Pascal’s Principle
Pascal’s Principle
• The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions
• In a static & closed system of fluids, a pressure change in one part is transmitted throughout the
system without loss to every portion of the fluid and its container walls.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/Pascals-principle#/media/1/445445/170703
C. Pressure Measurement
1. Barometer – used to measure atmospheric pressure

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Prinzip_Torricelli.jpg

2. Bourdon
– measures pressure by sensing the deflection of a coiled tube
– measure gage pressure only where no applied pressure on system gage pointer is calibrated to
zero.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/pascal-unit-of-energy-measurement#/media/1/445401/150221

3. Piezometer – vertical tube usually transparent in which a liquid rises in response to a positive gage
pressure

Source: https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-e4e41fe7ac57f426cbdda5581f6d175f
4. Manometer –A tube, usually bent in a form of a U, containing a liquid of known specific gravity,
the surface of which moves proportionally to changes of pressure.
• Open Manometer

Source: https://media.cheggcdn.com/media/34e/34ee9ed4-ab6c-4ae8-812d-0acf66f7fd3a/CL-21399V_image_004.png
• Differential Manometer

Source: https://media.cheggcdn.com/media/250/25022ee9-f943-4806-81a7-6ecfeed9a173/CL-21399V_image_005.png

D. Absolute, Atmospheric, and Gage Pressure

1. Atmospheric Pressure and Vacuum
• Atmospheric Pressure
• Sometimes referred to as barometric pressure.
• Pressure exerted by an atmospheric pressure

Notes: Atmospheric Pressure vs. Elevation: The higher the elevation, lower the atmospheric pressure, or
vice versa.
Standard atmospheric pressure @ sea level
patm = 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 760 mm Hg = 14.7 psi
Activity:
**What is the atmospheric pressure at sea level in inches of mercury? (ans. patm,msl = 29.92 in of Hg)

• Vacuum
• a space that has less value than the atmospheric pressure.
2. Gage Pressure – pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure and can be measured by
pressure gages & manometer.
• Pressure gage can be positive or negative (vacuum).

3. Absolute Pressure – the intensity of pressure measured above absolute zero.

Note: Absolute pressure is always positive (+).
𝐩𝐚𝐛𝐬 = 𝐩𝐠 + 𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐦
where: pabs = absolute pressure
pg = gage pressure
patm = atmospheric pressure

Note: The term “pressure” used in the succeeding lessons refer to gage pressure unless otherwise
specificied.

E. Pressure Variation in a Liquid

Derivations
Consider two points (1 & 2) in a homogeneous fluid at rest. Assume that the points lie at the ends of an
elementary prism of the fluid, having a cross-sectional area (dA) and length (dL). Since the prism is at
rest, all the forces acting on it must be in equilibrium.

∑ Fx = p1 dA − p2 dA − wLdA cos θ = 0
Since L cos θ = h, the equation reduces to
𝐩𝟏 − 𝐩𝟐 = 𝛄𝐡
• In any homogeneous fluid at rest, the difference in pressure between any two points is the product
of the unit weight of the fluid and the difference in elevation of the points.
• In any continuous homogeneous fluid at rest, the pressures at all points in a horizontal plane are
the same (h = 0, p1 = p2).
• If point 2 lies at the free surface, the pressure p2 becomes patm. Hence, at any depth h, the absolute
pressure is
𝐩𝐚𝐛𝐬 = 𝛄𝐡 + 𝐩𝐚
• Thus, the corresponding gage pressure is
 𝐩𝐠 = 𝛄𝐡

F. Pressure Head, h
- The height “h” of a column of homogeneous liquid of specific weight, γf, that will produce
pressure.
𝐩
𝐡=
𝛄
where: p = pressure
γ = specific weight of the fluid
• The higher the pressure, the higher the pressure head or vice versa.
• The lower the unit weight, the higher the pressure head or vice versa.

** How to convert of pressure head of two fluids (A and B) with the same pressure?
hA ≠ hB, pA = pB
Recall:
P
p = = γh
A
γA hA = γB hB
𝛄𝐀
𝐡𝐁 = 𝐡
𝛄𝐁 𝐀
In terms of the density?
Since
γ = ρg
ρA g
hB = h
ρB g A
𝛒𝐀
𝐡𝐁 = 𝐡
𝛒𝐁 𝐀
In terms of the specific gravity?
Since
γf
sg f = or γf = sg f x γw
γwater
sg A x γw
hB = h
sg B x γw A
𝐬𝐠 𝐀
𝐡𝐁 = 𝐡
𝐬𝐠 𝐁 𝐀
G. Pressure on Layers of Liquids and Manometer
For the pressure below layers of different liquids
𝐩𝐛𝐨𝐭 = ∑ 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝𝐬
2 Types of Manometer
1. Open Manometer

Source: https://media.cheggcdn.com/media/34e/34ee9ed4-ab6c-4ae8-812d-0acf66f7fd3a/CL-21399V_image_004.png
2. Closed/Differential Manometer

Source: https://media.cheggcdn.com/media/250/25022ee9-f943-4806-81a7-6ecfeed9a173/CL-21399V_image_005.png

𝐩𝐀 + (∑ 𝐩𝐦 ) = 𝐩𝐁
where: pm = pressures calculated from the manometer based on the heads involved.
𝐩𝐀 − 𝐩𝐁 = ∑ 𝐩𝐦

Sign convention:
Downwards (+), upwards (-)
Downwards (-), upward (+)
Sample Problems:
1. What is the pressure 12.5 m below the ocean? Use sg = 1.03 for salt water.
Solution:
p = γh
p = 9.81(1.03)(12.5)
𝐩 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟑𝟎𝟒 𝐤𝐏𝐚

2. If the pressure 23 meter below a liquid is 338.445 kPa, determine its unit weight, mass density, and
specific gravity.
Given:
p23 = pressure at 23 m below the liquid = 338.445 kPa
Solution:
a. Specific weight, γ
p = γh
338.445 = γ(23)
𝟑𝟑𝟖. 𝟒𝟒𝟓
𝛄= = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕𝟏𝟓 𝐤𝐍⁄ 𝟑
𝟐𝟑 𝐦

b. Mass density, ρ
kg − m
kN 1000 N 1 s2
γ 14.715 m3 x 1 kN x 1N
ρ= = m
g 9.81 2
s
𝐤𝐠
𝛒 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟑
𝐦

c. Specific gravity, sg
γfluid 14.715
sg = =
γwater 9.81
𝐬𝐠 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎

3. If the pressure in the air space above an oil (sg = 0.83) surface in a closed tank is 110 kPa absolute,
what is the pressure 2m below the surface?
Given:
Oil:
sg = 0.83
Air:
pair = 110 kPa
Req’d:
p2 = gage pressure 2m below the surface of the oil.
Solution:
Determine the gage pressure of air,
pbottom = psurface + γh
psurface = pbottom – γh
psurface = 110 – 101.3
psurface = 8.7 kPa
Determine the gage pressure at the bottom of the oil.
pbottom,oil = 8.7 + 9.81(0.83)(2)
pbottom, oil = 24.985 kPa