A LEVEL BIOLOGY HANDBOOK 2020

ST MARY REDCLIFFE AND TEMPLE

SCHOOL

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 WELCOME TO BIOLOGY
Welcome to the Salter’s Nuffield Advanced Biology (SNAB) course. This handbook is intended
to provide you with some essential information about the A level course and some other
necessary details about us. So read this through and keep it handy.

There are 3 good reasons why anyone should want to study Biology. They are:

1. You really like Biology and want to study it in greater depth.

2. You are good at Biology and want to develop your knowledge and understanding further.
3. You need Biology A level for future courses/jobs e.g. medicine, to be a vet, biological
studies (more career details on Moodle and at http://www.societyofbiology.org/home ).

What we Expect From You

1. You buy and use an A4 file for Biology work.
2. Prompt attendance at all lessons, with file, handbook, activity pack and textbook.
3. All work set to be completed and handed in on time.
4. That you develop self-study habits to follow-up and consolidate the work done in class. It
is suggested that you spend 5 hours per week on individual study.
5. If you get stuck - ALWAYS seek a solution from teacher or others in your class.

How We Monitor Your Progress

1. Various tasks are set and marked regularly. We may give you tasks such as reading,
note-taking, questions from past examination papers, Activity sheets, practical write-ups,
reviewing work, etc.
2. Model answers are available for self-checking. All activity answers are on Moodle.
3. There is an end of topic test which is graded. It is expected that you reach at least your
Target Grade.
4. You should receive a termly grade following a discussion of your progress.

What do I do to succeed at A level?

In the first instance see your Biology teacher but all teachers will offer help if you ask. The
teachers are Mr Charlie Whittaker (subject leader), Miss Anna Bayley, Ms Rhian Isaac, Ms
Rochelle Amos, Dr Darren Wilson, Mr Josh Kyme and Mr Nathan Freeman.

1. How do I prepare for lessons? a) Complete all GCSE reviews and tests set on SNAB
b) Pre-read textbook and mind map key ideas
c) Keep a glossary of new terms

2. How do I organise my work?
4. How do I make notes?
a) Keep all work in an A4 file in the order it is taught.
Including activity write on sheets etc.
b) Write neat titled notes/answers to activities
c) Draw diagrams to summarise processes.
a) Use Exam/coursework support 1 Taking notes
found in SNAB support.
b) Decide important points that need recording.
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 c) Use diagrams, colour, etc to emphasise key ideas.
d) Know what to read and what to look for.

5. How do I prepare for exams? a) Use the learning outcomes at end of this handbook
b) Learn how to answer A-level questions by practicing
answering past questions all found on Moodle.
c) Use revision resources on Moodle.

6. How do I find out more? a) Read around the subject. There are many books in
the library. There is a reading list for each topic on
Moodle as well as many biology articles you will
find interesting and highly relevant.

Where to find course materials

1. https://www.pearsonactivelearn.com/ has majority of important course resources
2. Moodle many resources including pdf copy of AS textbook, past exam papers, practical
skills resources, careers, reading more about biology resources.

Where to find Revision resources

1. Moodle contains a growing mass of revision materials
2. Pearson: Revise Salters Nuffield AS/A Level Biology Revision Guide. ISBN: 9781447992714
3. Pearson: Revise Salters Nuffield AS/A level Biology Revision Workbook ISBN: 978144799270
4. CGP: A-Level Biology: Edexcel A Year 1 & 2 Complete Revision & Practice with Online Edition
ISBN: 9781782942986

Important AS Exam Information

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 Unit Topics tested Assessment Exam Duration Weighting

Code Date & Marks

(%)
Paper 1:
1hr
Topics 1-2 30min
Both papers may include multiple-choice,
Lifestyle, May
short open, open-response, calculations
8BN0/01 Transport, and extended writing questions. 2021
Genes and 80 50
Health 10% minimum of the marks will be Marks
Paper 2: awarded for mathematics at Level 2 or
above. 1hr
Topics 3-4 June 30min
The paper will include questions that
8BN0/02 Development, 2021 50
target the conceptual and theoretical
Plants and the understanding of experimental methods. 80
Environment Marks

Important A Level Exam Information

Unit Unit Number Content Summary Exam Duration & Weighting
Code & Title Date Marks
(%)
Paper 1: The
Natural Questions draw on content from 2hr
9BN0/01 Environment Topics 1–4 and 5-6. May
and Species 2022 100 33.33
Survival Each question is set in a context. marks

Paper 2: Questions draw on content from 2hr

9BN0/02 Energy, Topics 1–4 and 7–8. June 33.33
Exercise and 2022 100
Co-ordination Each question is set in a context. marks

Questions draw on content from

Paper 3: across all topics, Topics 1–8. 2hr
9BN0/03 General and June 33.33
Practical Each question is set in a context. 2022 100
Applications marks
in Biology The paper will include synoptic
questions that may draw on two or
more different topics.

A pre-released scientific article will

underpin one section of the paper.

9BN0/04 Practical Internally assessed during the 2 May

Endorsement years during practical work. 2022 Pass/fail none

AS LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR REVISION

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 Make sure your notes cover the following points. The points are listed in the approximate order they appear within the topic. All the points
are covered in the Student Book, but where there is supporting information within the activities this is indicated.

There are suggestions on making notes and on revision in the Exam and Study Skill Support in the SNAB e-resource.

Topic 1 summary
You should:
1. Understand why many animals have a heart and circulation (mass transport to overcome limitations of diffusion in meeting the
requirements of organisms). (Checkpoint question 1.1) (Activity 1.2)
2. Understand the importance of water as a solvent in transport, including its dipole nature. (Activity1.3)
3. Understand how the structures of blood vessels (capillaries, arteries and veins) relate to their functions. (Checkpoint question 1.2)
(Activities 1.6 and 1.7)
4. Know the cardiac cycle (atrial systole, ventricular systole and cardiac diastole). (Checkpoint question 1.3) (Activity 1.8)
5. Relate the structure and operation of the mammalian heart to its function, including the major blood vessels. (Activities 1.4 and
1.5)
6. Know how the relationship between heart structure and function can be investigated practically (Activity 1.4)
7. Understand the course of events that leads to atherosclerosis (endothelial dysfunction, inflammatory response, plaque formation,
raised blood pressure). (Activities 1.9 and 1.10)
8. Understand the blood clotting process (thromboplastin release, conversion of prothrombin to thrombin and fibrinogen to fibrin) and
its role in cardiovascular disease (CVD). (Activity 1.9)
9. Be able to analyse and interpret quantitative data on illness and mortality rates to determine health risks (including distinguishing
between correlation and causation and recognising conflicting evidence). (Activities 1.11 and 1.12)
10. Understand why people’s perceptions of risks are often different from the actual risks, including underestimating and
overestimating the risks due to diet and other lifestyle factors in the development of heart disease. (Checkpoint question 1.4)
(Activity 1.11)
11. Be able to evaluate the design of studies used to determine health risk factors, including sample selection and sample size used to
collect data that is both valid and reliable. (Checkpoint question 1.5) (Activity 1.13)
12. Know how factors such as genetics, diet, age, gender, high blood pressure, smoking and inactivity increase the risk of
cardiovascular disease (CVD). (Checkpoint question 1.7) (Age and gender – Activity 1.14. Genetic inheritance – Activity 1.23.
Blood pressure – Activities 1.15, 1.16 and 1.26. Diet – Activities 1.20, 1.21 and 1.24)
13. Know the difference between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides, including glycogen and starch (amylose and
amylopectin) and be able to relate their structures to their roles in providing and storing energy (β-glucose and cellulose are not
required in this topic). (Checkpoint question 1.6) (Activities 1.17)
14. Know how monosaccharides join to form disaccharides (sucrose, lactose and maltose) and polysaccharides (glycogen and amylose)
through condensation reactions forming glycosidic bonds, and how these can be split through hydrolysis reactions. (Activities 1.17
and 1.18)
15. Know how a triglyceride is synthesised by the formation of ester bonds during condensation reactions between glycerol and three
fatty acids, and know the differences between saturated and unsaturated lipids. (Activity 1.19)
16. Be able to analyse data on energy budgets and diet and understand the consequences of energy imbalance, including weight loss,
weight gain, and development of obesity. (Activities 1.20 and 1.21)
17. Be able to analyse and interpret data on the possible significance for health of blood cholesterol levels and levels of high-density
lipoproteins (HDLs) and low-density lipoproteins (LDLs). (Activity 1.22)
18. Know the evidence for a causal relationship between blood cholesterol levels (total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol) and CVD.
(Activity 1.22)
19. Core Practical: Investigate the vitamin C content of food and drink. (Activity 1.25)
20. Core Practical: Investigate the effect of caffeine on heart rate in Daphnia, and be able to discuss whether there are ethical
issues in the use of invertebrates in research. (Activity 1.27)
21. Understand how people use scientific knowledge about the effects of diet, including obesity indicators (BMI and waist-to-hip
ratio), exercise and smoking to reduce their risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). (Activities 1.21 and 1.29)
22. Know the benefits and risks of treatments for CVD (antihypertensives, plant statins, anticoagulants and platelet inhibitory drugs).

Topic 2 summary
1. Know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio, thickness of surface,
differences in concentration), understand how diffusion is dependent on these properties and can be calculated using Fick’s law,
and how the structure of the mammalian lung is adapted for rapid gas exchange. (Activities 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5) (Checkpoint question
2.1)
2. Know the structure of an amino acid (structure of specific amino acids is not required). (Activity 2.6)
3. Understand the formation of polypeptides and proteins (as amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds in condensation
reactions). (Activity 2.6)
4. Understand the significance of the protein’s primary structure in determining its 3D structure and properties (globular and fibrous
proteins, and types of bonds involved in 3D structure). (Activity 2.6) (Checkpoint question 2.2)

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5. Know the molecular structure of a globular protein and a fibrous protein and understand how their structures relate to their
functions (including haemoglobin and collagen).
6. Know the structure and properties of cell membranes and understand how models, such as the fluid mosaic model of cell
membranes, are interpretations of data used to develop scientific explanations of the structure and properties of cell membranes.
(Activity 2.7)
7. Core Practical: Investigate membrane structure practically, including the effect of alcohol concentration or temperature on
membrane permeability. (Activity 2.8)
8. Understand what is meant by osmosis in terms of the movement of free water molecules through a partially permeable membrane
(consideration of water potential is not required). (Activity 2.9)
9. Understand what is meant by passive transport (diffusion, facilitated diffusion), active transport (including the role of ATP as an
immediate source of energy), endocytosis and exocytosis, and understand the involvement of carriers and channel proteins in
membrane transport. (Activity 2.9)
10. Understand how the expression of a gene mutation in people with cystic fibrosis impairs the functioning of the gas exchange,
digestive and reproductive systems. (Activity 2.10)
11. Understand the mechanism of action and specificity of enzymes in terms of their 3D structure; understand that enzymes are
biological catalysts that reduce activation energy; know that there are intracellular enzymes catalysing reactions inside cells and
extracellular enzymes produced by cells catalysing reactions outside cells. (Checkpoint question 2.3 and 2.4)
12. Core Practical: Investigate the effect of enzyme and substrate concentrations on the initial rate of reaction. (Activity 2.11)
13. Know the basic structure of mononucleotides (deoxyribose or ribose linked to a phosphate and a base, including thymine, uracil,
cytosine, adenine or guanine). (Activities 2.12 and 2.15)
14. Know the structure of DNA and RNA (polynucleotides composed of mononucleotides linked through condensation reactions).
(Activities 2.12 and 2.15)
15. Know how complementary base pairing and the hydrogen bonding between two complementary strands are involved in the
formation of the DNA double helix. (Activities 2.12, 2.14 and 2.15)
16. Understand the nature of the genetic code as a non-overlapping, degenerate, triplet code. (Activity 2.14)
17. Know that a gene is a sequence of bases on a DNA molecule coding for a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
18. Understand the process of protein synthesis, including the role of RNA polymerase, transcription, translation, messenger RNA,
transfer RNA, ribosomes and the role of start and stop codons.
19. Understand the role of DNA template (antisense) strand in transcription, codons on messenger RNA and anticodons on transfer
RNA. (Activity 2.15)
20. Understand the process of DNA replication, including the role of DNA polymerase. (Activity 2.16)
21. Understand how Meselson and Stahl’s classic experiment provided new data that supported the accepted theory of replication and
refuted competing theories. (Activity 2.16)
22. Understand how errors in DNA replication can give rise to mutations and how cystic fibrosis results from one of a number of
possible gene mutations.
23. Know the meanings of the terms: gene, allele, genotype, phenotype, recessive, dominant, incomplete dominance, homozygote and
heterozygote. (Activity 2.17) (Checkpoint question 2.6)
24. Understand patterns of inheritance, including the interpretation of genetic pedigree diagrams in the context of monohybrid
inheritance. (Activities 2.17 and 2.18)
25. Understand the uses of genetic screening, including the identification of carriers, pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) and
prenatal testing, including amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling. (Activity 2.19)
26. Be able to identify and discuss the social and ethical issues related to genetic screening from arange of ethical viewpoints.
(Activity 2.19) (Checkpoint question 2.7)

Topic 3 summary
1. know that all living organisms are made of cells, sharing some common features.
2. know the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells, including cell wall, capsule, plasmid, flagellum, pili, ribosomes, mesosomes and
circular DNA. (Checkpoint question 3.1)
3. know the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells, including nucleus, nucleolus, ribosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(ER), mitochondria, centrioles, lysosomes and Golgi apparatus, and recognise these organelles from electron microscope images.
(Activity 3.1)
4. understand the role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) and the Golgi apparatus in protein transport within cells, including
their role in formation of extracellular enzymes. (Activity 3.2)
5. understand how mammalian gametes are specialised for their functions (including the acrosome in sperm and the zona pellucida in
the egg). (Activity 3.3) (Checkpoint question 3.2)
6. understand the role of meiosis in ensuring genetic variation through the production of nonidentical gametes as a consequence of
independent assortment of chromosomes and crossing over of alleles between chromatids (details of the stages of meiosis are not
required). (Activity 3.5) (Checkpoint question 3.3)
7. know that a locus (loci) is the location of genes on a chromosome.
8. understand the linkage of genes on a chromosome and sex linkage. (Activity 3.6)

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9. know the process of fertilisation in mammals, including the acrosome reaction, the cortical reaction and the fusion of nuclei.
(Activity 3.3)
10. understand the role of mitosis and the cell cycle in producing identical daughter cells for growth and asexual reproduction.
(Activities 3.7, 3.8 and 3.10)
11. Core Practical: prepare and stain a root tip squash to observe the stages of mitosis. (Activity 3.9) (Checkpoint question 3.4)
12. understand what is meant by the terms ‘stem cell, pluripotency and totipotency’ (Activity 3.11)
13. be able to discuss the way society uses scientific knowledge to make decisions about the use of stem cells in medical therapies
(Activity 3.12) (Checkpoint question 3.5)
14. understand how cells become specialised through differential gene expression, producing active mRNA leading to synthesis of
proteins, which in turn control cell processes or determine cell structure in animals and plants, including the lac operon. (Activities
3.13, 3.14 and 3.15) (Checkpoint question 3.6)
15. know how epigenetic changes, including DNA methylation and histone modification, can modify the activation of certain genes.
16. understand how the cells of multicellular organisms can be organised into tissues, tissues into organs and organs into systems.
17. understand how some phenotypes are affected by multiple alleles for the same gene at many loci (polygenic inheritance) as well as
the environment and how this can give rise to phenotypes that show continuous variation. (Activity 3.16)
18. understand how phenotype is the result of an interaction between genotype and the environment (Activities 3.17 and 3.18)
19. understand how epigenetic changes can be passed on following cell division.

Topic 4 summary
1. Understand the concept of a niche. (Activities 4.3 and 4.5)
2. Be able to discuss examples of adaptation of organisms to their environment (behavioural, physiological and anatomical).
(Checkpoint question 4.1) (Activities 4.4 and 4.5)
3. Understand how natural selection can lead to adaptation and evolution. (Checkpoint question 4.2) (Activity 4.6)
4. Understand how the Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to see if a change in allele frequency is occurring in a population over
time. (Activity 4.7)
5. Understand that reproductive isolation can lead to accumulation of different genetic information in populations, potentially leading
to the formation of new species.
6. Understand the terms biodiversity and endemism. (Activities 4.8 and 4.9)
7. Understand that classification is a means of organising the variety of life based on relationships between organisms using
differences and similarities in phenotypes and in genotypes, and is built around the species concept. (Activity 4.10)
8. Understand the process and importance of critical evaluation of new data by the scientific community, which leads to new
taxonomic groupings, including the three domains of life based on molecular phylogeny, which are Bacteria, Archaea, Eukaryota.
(Checkpoint question 4.3) (Activity 4.11)
9. Know how biodiversity can be measured within a habitat using species richness and within a species using genetic diversity, by
calculating the heterozygosity index. (Activities 4.12 and 4.14)
10. Understand how biodiversity can be compared in different habitats using a formula to calculate an index of diversity. (Activity
4.13)
11. Know the ultrastructure of plant cells (cell wall, chloroplasts, amyloplasts, vacuole, tonoplast, plasmodesmata, pits and middle
lamella) and be able to compare it with animal cells. (Checkpoint question 4.4) (Activity 4.15)
12. Be able to recognise the organelles in plants cells from electron microscope (EM) images. (Activity 4.15)
13. Understand the structure and function of the polysaccharides starch and cellulose, including the role of hydrogen bonds between β-
glucose molecules in the formation of cellulose microfibrils. (Checkpoint question 4.5) (Activity 4.16)
14. Core Practical: Identify sclerenchyma fibres, phloem sieve tubes and xylem vessels, and their location within stems through
a light microscope. (Activity 4.17)
15. Know the similarities and differences between the structures, position in the stem and functions of sclerenchyma fibres (support),
xylem vessels (support and transport of water and mineral ions) and phloem (translocation of organic solutes). (Checkpoint 4.7)
(Activities 4.18 and 4.20)
16. Understand how the arrangement of cellulose microfibrils and secondary thickening in plant cell walls contributes to the physical
properties of xylem vessels and sclerenchyma fibres in plant fibres, which can be exploited by humans. (Checkpoint question 4.6)
(Activities 4.16, 4.17 and 4.21)
17. Core Practical: Determine the tensile strength of plant fibres practically. (Activity 4.21)
18. Understand how the uses of plant fibres and starch may contribute to sustainability, including plant-based products to replace oil-
based plastics. (Activity 4.25)
19. Understand the importance of water and inorganic ions (nitrate, calcium ions and magnesium ions) to plants. (Activity 4.19)
20. Core Practical: Investigate plant mineral deficiencies practically. (Activity 4.19)
21. Understand the development of drug testing from historic to contemporary protocols, including William Withering’s digitalis soup,
double blind trials, placebo, three-phased testing. (Activity 4.23)
22. Understand the conditions required for bacterial growth. (Activity 4.22)
23. Core Practical: Investigate the antimicrobial properties of plants, including aseptic techniques for the safe handling of
bacteria. (Activity 4.22)
24. Know that over time the variety of life has become extensive, but is now being threatened by human activity. (Activity 4.25)
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 25. Be able to evaluate the methods used by zoos and seed banks in the conservation of endangered species and their genetic diversity,
including scientific research, captive breeding programmes, reintroduction programmes and education. (Checkpoint question 4.8)
(Activities 4.26, 4.27 and 4.28)

A2 LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR REVISION

Topic 5 summary
You should be able to:
1. Understand the terms ecosystem, community, population and habitat.
2. Understand that the numbers and distribution of organisms in a habitat are controlled by biotic and abiotic factors. (Activity 5.1
and 5.2) (Checkpoint question 5.4)
3. Understand how the concept of niche accounts for distribution and abundance of organisms in a habitat. (Activity 5.1 and 5.2)
(Checkpoint question 5.1)
4. Core Practical: Carry out a study on the ecology of a habitat, such as using quadrats and transects to determine
distribution and abundance of organisms, and measuring abiotic factors appropriate to the habitat. (Activity 5.2)
5. Understand the stages of succession from colonisation to a climax community. (Activity 5.3) (Checkpoint question 5.2)
6. Understand the overall reaction of photosynthesis as requiring energy from light to split apart the strong bonds in water molecules,
storing the hydrogen in a fuel (glucose) by combining it with carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen into the atmosphere. (Activity
5.4 and 5.5) (Checkpoint question 5.3)
7. Understand how phosphorylation of ADP requires energy and that hydrolysis of ATP provides an immediate supply of energy for
biological processes. (Activity 5.4 and 5.5)
8. Understand the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, including how light energy is trapped by exciting electrons in
chlorophyll and the role of these electrons in generating ATP, reducing NADP in photophosphorylation and producing oxygen
through photolysis of water. (Activity 5.4 and 5.5)
9. Understand the light-independent reactions as reduction of carbon dioxide, using the products of the light-dependent reactions
(carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle, the role of GP, GALP, RuBP and RUBISCO). (Activity 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6)
10. Know that the products are simple sugars that are used by plants, animals and other organisms in respiration and the synthesis of
new biological molecules (polysaccharides, amino acids, lipids and nucleic acids). (Activity 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6)
11. Core Practical: Investigate photosynthesis using isolated chloroplasts (the Hill reaction). (Activity 5.5)
12. Understand the structure of chloroplasts in relation to their role in photosynthesis. (Activity 5.4)
13. Be able to calculate net primary productivity. (Activity 5.8)
14. Understand the relationship between gross primary productivity, net primary productivity and plant respiration. (Activity 5.8)
15. Know how to calculate the efficiency of biomass and energy transfers between trophic levels. (Activity 5.8)
16. Understand the different types of evidence for climate change and its causes (including records of carbon dioxide levels,
temperature records, pollen in peat bogs and dendrochronology), recognising correlations and causal relationships. (Activity 5.9,
5.10 and 5.11)
17. Understand the causes of anthropogenic climate change, including the role of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and methane) in
the greenhouse effect. (Activity 5.12 and 5.13)
18. Understand the way in which scientific conclusions about controversial issues, such as what actions should be taken to reduce
climate change or the degree to which humans are affecting climate change, can sometimes depend on who is reaching the
conclusions. (Activity 5.14 and 5.15)
19. Understand that data can be extrapolated to make predictions and that these are used in models of future climate change. (Activity
5.16)
20. Understand that models for climate change have limitations. (Activity 5.16)
21. Understand the effects of climate change (changing rainfall patterns and changes in seasonal cycles) on plants and animals
(distribution of species, development and life cycles). (Activity 5.17 and 5.21) (Checkpoint question 5.5)
22. Understand the effect of temperature on the rate of enzyme activity and its impact on plants, animals and microorganisms.
(Activity 5.18)
23. Core Practical: Investigate the effect of temperature on the initial rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction, to include Q10.
(Activity 5.18)
24. Core Practical: Investigate the effects of temperature on the development of organisms (such as seedling growth rate, brine
shrimp hatch rates). (Activity 5.19 and 5.20)
25. Understand how evolution (a change in the allele frequency) can come about through gene mutation and natural selection. (Activity
5.23) (Checkpoint question 5.6)
26. Understand the role of the scientific community (scientific journals, the peer review process, scientific conferences) in validating
new evidence, including proteomics and genomics, that supports the accepted scientific theory of evolution. (Activity 5.22 and
5.24)
27. Understand how isolation reduces gene flow between populations, leading to allopatric or sympatric speciation. (Activity 5.25)
28. Understand how knowledge of the carbon cycle can be applied to methods to reduce atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide.
(Activity 5.26)
29. Understand how reforestation and the use of sustainable resources, including biofuels, are examples of the effective management of
the conflict between human needs and conservation (Checkpoint question 5.7).

Topic 6 summary
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You should:
1. Know how DNA can be amplified using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). (Activity 6.1)
2. Core Practical: Use gel electrophoresis to separate DNA fragments of different lengths. (Activities 6.2 and 6.3)
3. Know how DNA profiling is used for identification and determining genetic relationships between organisms (plants and animals).
(Activities 6.2, 6.4 and 6.5) (Checkpoint question 6.1)
4. Understand how to determine the time of death of a mammal by examining the extent of decomposition, stage of succession,
forensic entomology, body temperature and degree of muscle contraction. (Activity 6.5) (Checkpoint question 6.2)
5. Know the role of micro-organisms in the decomposition of organic matter and the recycling of carbon.
6. Be able to compare the structure of bacteria and viruses. (Activity 6.6) (Checkpoint question 6.3)
7. Understand the non-specific responses of the body to infection, including inflammation, lysozyme action, interferon and
phagocytosis. (Activity 6.7) (Checkpoint question 6.4)
8. Understand the roles of antigens and antibodies in the body’s immune response, including the involvement of plasma cells,
macrophages and antigen-presenting cells. (Activity 6.8) (Checkpoint question 6.5)
9. Understand the differences between the roles of B cells (B memory and B effector cells) and T cells (T helper, T killer and T
memory cells) in the body’s immune response (Activity 6.8) (Checkpoint question 6.5)
10. Understand how Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infect human cells, causing a
sequence of symptoms that may result in death. (Activities 6.9, 6.11 and 6.17) (Checkpoint question 6.6)
11. Understand how one gene can give rise to more than one protein through post-transcriptional changes to messenger RNA (mRNA).
(Activity 6.12 and 6.13)
12. Know the major routes pathogens may take when entering the body and understand the role of barriers in protecting the body from
infection, including skin, stomach acid, and gut and skin flora. (Activity 6.14)
13. Understand how individuals may develop immunity (natural, artificial, active, passive). (Checkpoint question 6.7)
14. Core Practical: Investigate the effect of different antibiotics on bacteria. (Activity 6.15)
15. Understand the difference between bacteriostatic and bactericidal antibiotics. (Activity 6.16)
16. Understand how the theory of an ‘evolutionary race’ between pathogens and their hosts is supported by the evasion mechanisms
shown by pathogens. (Activity 6.17)
17. Know how a understanding of the contributory causes of hospital-acquired infections have led to codes of practice regarding
antibiotic prescription and hospital practice that relate to infection prevention and control. (Activity 6.17)

Topic 7 summary
You should:
1. Know the way in which muscles, tendons, the skeleton and ligaments interact to enable movement, including antagonistic muscle
pairs, extensors and flexors. (Activity 7.1)
2. Know the structure of a muscle fibre. (Activity 7.2)
3. Understand the process of contraction of skeletal muscle in terms of the sliding filament theory, including the role of actin, myosin,
troponin, tropomyosin, calcium ions (Ca2+), ATP and ATPase. (Activity 7.2) (Checkpoint question 7.1)
4. Understand the overall reaction of aerobic respiration as splitting of the respiratory substrate, including glucose, to release carbon
dioxide as a waste product, and reuniting of hydrogen with atmospheric oxygen with the release of a large amount of energy.
(Activities 7.4, 7.5 and 7.6)
5. Understand that respiration is a many-stepped process, with each step controlled and catalysed by a specific intracellular enzyme.
(Activities 7.4 and 7.6)
6. Understand the roles of glycolysis in aerobic and anaerobic respiration, including the phosphorylation of hexoses, the production of
ATP, reduced coenzyme, pyruvate and lactate (details of intermediate stages and compounds are not required). (Activities 7.4, 7.6
and 7.8) (Checkpoint question 7.2)
7. Understand the role of the link reaction and the Krebs cycle in the complete oxidation of glucose, and formation of carbon dioxide
(CO2), ATP, reduced NAD and reduced FAD (names of other compounds are not required), and why these steps take place in the
mitochondria, unlike glycolysis, which occurs in the cytoplasm. (Activities 7.4, 7.5 and 7.6)
8. Understand how ATP is synthesised by oxidative phosphorylation associated with the electron transport chain in mitochondria,
including the role of chemiosmosis and ATP synthase. (Activities 7.5 and 7.6)
9. Core Practical: Investigate rate of respiration practically. (Activity 7.7)
10. Understand what happens to lactate after a period of anaerobic respiration in animals. (Activity 7.8) (Checkpoint question 7.2)
11. Be able to calculate cardiac output, and understand how variations in ventilation and cardiac output enable rapid delivery of
oxygen to tissues and the removal of carbon dioxide from them, including how the heart rate and ventilation rate are controlled,
and the roles of the cardiovascular control centre and the ventilation centre in the medulla oblongata. (Activities 7.9, 7.10, 7.13 and
7.14) (Checkpoint question 7.4)
12. Know the myogenic nature of cardiac muscle and understand how the normal electrical activity of the heart coordinates the heart
beat, including the roles of the sinoatrial node (SAN), the atrioventricular node (AVN), the bundle of His and the Purkyne fibres.
(Activities 7.11 and 7.12) (Checkpoint question 7.3)
13. Understand how the use of electrocardiograms (ECGs) can aid the diagnosis of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and other heart
conditions. (Activity 7.12)
14. Core Practical: Investigate the effects of exercise on tidal volume, breathing rate, respiratory minute ventilation and
oxygen consumption using data from spirometer traces. (Activity 7.13)
15. Understand the structural and physiological differences between fast and slow twitch muscle fibres. (Activity 7.15)
16. Understand the principle of negative feedback in maintaining systems within narrow limits.
17. Understand what is meant by negative feedback and positive feedback control. (Activities 7.16 and 7.17) (Checkpoint question 7.5)
18. Understand homeostasis and its importance in maintaining the body in a state of dynamic equilibrium during exercise, including
the role of the hypothalamus and the mechanisms of thermoregulation. (Activities 7.16 and 7.17)

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 19. Understand the analysis and interpretation of data relating to possible disadvantages of exercising too much (wear and tear on
joints, suppression of the immune system), and exercising too little (increased risk of obesity, CVD and diabetes), recognising
correlation and causal relationships. (Activities 7.18 and 7.19) (Checkpoint question 7.6)
20. Understand how medical technology, including the use of keyhole surgery and prostheses, is enabling those with injuries and
disabilities to participate in sports. (Activity 7.20) (Checkpoint question 7.5)
21. Understand how genes can be switched on and off by DNA transcription factors, including hormones. (Activity 7.21) (Checkpoint
question 7.7)
22. Be able to discuss different ethical positions relating to whether the use of performance-enhancing substances by athletes is
acceptable. (Activity 7.23) (Checkpoint question 7.8)

Topic 8 summary
You should:
1. Know the structure and function of sensory, relay and motor neurones including the role of Schwann cells and myelination.
(Activities 8.2 and 8.3) (Checkpoint 8.1)
2. Understand how the nervous systems of organisms can cause effectors to respond to a stimulus. (Activity 8.1)
3. Understand how the pupil dilates and contracts. (Activity 8.1)
4. Understand how a nerve impulse (action potential) is conducted along an axon including changes in membrane permeability to
sodium and potassium ions, and the role of the myelination in saltatory conduction. (Activities 8.2 and 8.3) (Checkpoint 8.2)
5. Know the structure and function of synapses in nerve impulse transmission including the role of neurotransmitters, including
acetylcholine. (Activity 8.4) (Checkpoint 8.3)
6. Understand how co-ordination is brought about through nervous and hormonal control in animals. (Checkpoints 8.4 and 8.5)
7. Understand how the nervous systems of organisms can detect stimuli, with reference to rods in the retina of mammals, the roles of
rhodopsin, opsin, retinal, sodium ions, cation channels and hyperpolarisation of rod cells in forming action potentials in the optic
neurones. (Activities 8.6 and 8.7) (Checkpoint 8.6)
8. Understand how phytochrome and IAA bring about responses in plants to environmental cues, including their effects on
transcription. (Activities 8.5, 8.8 and 8.9)
9. Know the location and functions of the cerebral hemispheres, hypothalamus, cerebellum and medulla oblongata in the human
brain. (Activities 8.10, 8.11 and 8.12)
10. Understand how magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), positron emission
tomography (PET) and computed tomography (CT) scans are used in medical diagnosis, and the investigation of brain structure
and function. (Activity 8.12)
11. Understand what happens during the critical period so that mammals can develop their visual capacities to the full. (Activity 8.13)
12. Understand the role animal models have played in the research into human brain development and function, including Hubel and
Wiesel’s experiments with monkeys and kittens. (Activity 8.13)
13. Core Practical: Investigate habituation to a stimulus. (Activity 8.16)
14. Understand how animals, including humans, can learn by habituation. (Activity 8.17)
15. Be able to discuss moral and ethical issues relating to the use of animals in medical research from two ethical standpoints. (Activity
8.18)
16. Understand the methods used to investigate the contributions of nature and nurture to brain development, including evidence from
the abilities of new-born babies, animal experiments, studies of individuals with damaged brain areas, twin studies and cross-
cultural studies. (Activities 8.15 and 8.19)
17. Understand how imbalances in certain, naturally occurring brain chemicals can contribute to ill health, including dopamine in
Parkinson’s disease and serotonin in depression, and to the development of new drugs. (Checkpoint 8.7)
18. Understand the effects of drugs on synaptic transmissions, including the use of L-Dopa in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease and
the action of MDMA in Ecstasy. (Activity 8.20)
19. Understand how the outcomes of genome sequencing projects are being used in the development of personalised medicine and the
social, moral and ethical issues this raises.
20. Know how drugs can be produced using genetically modified organisms (plants, animals and microorganisms). (Activity 8.21)
21. Understand the risks and benefits associated with the use of genetically modified organisms. (Activity 8.22) (Checkpoint 8.8)

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Name of practical and
independent & dependent
variables
Effect of caffeine on Daphnia
heart rate
Independent: caffeine
concentration
Dependent: heart rate of
Daphnia
Measuring the content of
Vitamin C in fruit juice
Independent: fruit juice
Dependent: volume of juice
required to decolourise 1cm3 of
DCPIP
The effect of temperature on cell
membranes
Independent: temperature of
water
Dependent: % transmission of
light through resulting solution
The effect of changing enzyme
concentration on rate of
reaction.
Independent: concentration of
enzyme
dependent: time taken for
enzyme to break down substrate
CORE BIOLOGY PRACTICALS
Other variables to Other equipment Method and outcome Possible evaluation issues
be controlled
Temperature Microscope, counter, Method: Remove 1 Daphnia and place in cavity slide. Remove pond water and Ensuring Daphnia were same size
Volume of solutions cavity slide, dropping replace with distilled water. Leave for 5mins to acclimatise then observe & count If left too long under microscope, temp
Stress of Daphnia pipettes, stop clock, heart rate under microscope for 30s, multiply number by 2 to calculate beats/min. increases (due to lamp) = increased heart rate
Size of Daphnia distilled water, test Repeat with 2 more Daphnia. Repeat again, this time with small concentration of Ensuring enough data is collected
Time of tubes, stop clock caffeine solution in place of distilled water. Carry out for 5 concentrations of caffeine Too high concentration of caffeine kills
acclimatisation = 3 repeats at 3 concentrations. Daphnia
Outcome: as caffeine concentration increased, heart rate increased Counting of heart beat can be inaccurate
Method: first standardise method by pipetting known concentration Vit C soln (1%) in a
burette to set volume (1cm3) and conc (1% ) of blue DCPIP drop by drop. Shake tube gently
Temperature 1% DCPIP solution, 1% after each drop. Continue until the blue colour just disappears. Difficulty in controlling temperature
Concentration of vitamin C solution, range Record volume of solution needed to decolourise the DCPIP. Amount of shaking (too much adds oxygen
Repeat further 2 times and calculate mean result.
DCPIP solution (1%) of fruit juices, test Repeat procedure with different fruit juices. which will slightly restore the DCPIP to blue)
Shake each tube tubes/conical flasks, End point difficult to judge as needs to be just
same number of beakers, pipette Calculations: 1cm3 of 1% vitamin C solution contains 10mg Vitamin C, therefore mass when blue colour disappears especially in
3
times accurate to 1cm , in 1cm3 = 10mg x volume of 1% vitamin C to decolourise 1cm3 of DCPIP. highly coloured juices
Same end point burette, safety goggles Mass in sample = mass of vitamin C to decolourise 1cm3 DCPIP X volume of sample Some loss of solution when transferring from
colour. i.e. until the required to decolourise 1cm3 DCPIP one beaker to another
blue colour of DCPIP Accuracy of measuring equipment
just disappears
Volume of distilled Raw beetroot, size 4 Method: using cork borer and knife, cut pieces of beetroot into 1 cm length Some beetroot may have skin on affecting
water cork borer, white tile, cylinders. Place in distilled water overnight to remove any dye released on surface area.
Time left in water knife, ruler, beaker, preparation. Wash and blot dry. Place 8 boiling tubes of distilled water into 8 water Difficulty in maintaining temperature
Size of beetroot forceps, water baths, baths of different temperature. Once at temperature, add a piece of beetroot to Accurate reading of the colorimeter
piece boiling tubes, each and leave for 30 mins. Remove beetroot and shake tubes to disperse dye. Set Accurate size of beetroot
thermometer, colorimeter to % absorbance on blue/green filter. Calibrate using distilled water in a From the different parts of the root
colorimeter & cuvettes, cuvette first then add 2cm3 of beetroot solution from the first temp to a new Ensuring same amount of time at the
stop clock, distilled cuvette. Place into colorimeter to read % absorbance. Repeat for all other pieces. different temperatures
water, syringe Calculations & outcome: to calculate % transmission = 100-%absorbance.
As temperature increased, % transmission slightly increased to a point at which it
greatly increased due to membrane molecules gaining more heat energy, vibrating
more to a point where the vibrations caused large gaps in the membrane enabling the
release of dye also proteins in membrane denatured leaving large pores.
Temperature Protease e.g.1% trypsin, Method: make up different concentrations of enzyme using distilled water. Ensure Maintaining constant temperature
Volume of enzyme casein solution, small different syringes for different chemicals to prevent cross contamination. Set up Accurately making up the different
Volume of beakers, thermometer, water bath for temperature to keep constant. Place 1 test tube of 5cm3 casein concentrations
3
substrate distilled water, syringes, solution into water bath alongside second tube containing 2cm of 0.2% trypsin. Identifying end point consistently
Concentration of stopclock, large beaker Allow to acclimatise for 3 mins so that at same temperature then add trypsin to Difficult to see the cross through the solution
substrate casein, start stop clock. Time how long it takes for casein solution to turn transparent.
pH (mark a ‘X’ on the other side of tube, as soon as seen through solution stop clock).
Repeat a further 2 times then repeat for next concentration.
Calculations & outcome: rate = 1 time
As concentration of enzyme increases, rate of reaction increases until a plateau point
where all enzyme has metabolised all substrate immediately.
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 Name of practical and
IV and DVs
Observing Mitosis
Chromosomes stained blue using
orcein ethanoic stain
The strength of plant fibres
Independent: source and type of
fibre
Dependent: mass that can be
held
Investigating plant mineral
deficiencies
Independent: minerals present
Dependent: physical
characteristics of the plant
Effect of garlic and mint on
bacterial growth
Independent: presence of garlic
or mint
Dependent: zone of inhibition
around disc
Other variables to Other equipment Method and outcome Possible evaluation issues
be controlled
Garlic roots, sharp knife, Resolution of microscope
1M hydrochloric acid, ice- Method: place test tube of 2cn3 1M HCl into 60˚C waterbath. Cut off 1-2cm of root Human error in counting numbers of cells
cold Enough time in the solutions to enable
tip from garlic root. 5 mins to soften middle lamellae. Then cool in ice bath.
Toluidine Blue successful maceration or staining.
Transfer 1 tip to watch glass, cut 4-5mm from growing tip (site of mitosis) and keep the tip
distilled water, water
Add Toluidine Blue for 3 mins to stain DNA. Put stained tip on a slide and
bath @ 60˚C, 2 watch
Gently break up (macerate) with mounted needle. Add coverslip and blot with filter paper.
glasses, test tube, 2
pipettes, microscope
View under microscope and identify the stages of mitosis.
slides, forceps, mounted
Calculations: percentage of cells in each stage of mitosis
needle, filter paper,
Mitotic index: number of cells containing visible chromosomes total number of
microscope with mag
x100 & x400
Length of fibre Stems of stinging nettles Method: plant material should be left to soak in a bucket of water for about a week in Maintaining length of fibres
Ensuring consistency when twisting or
Size of each or celery, bucket, gloves, order for the fibres to be easily extracted (called retting). Or celery stalks should be plaiting
Using fibres of the same age (as they get
individual mass paper towels, clamp left in beaker of coloured water in order for fibres to be easily seen and pulled out. older
stands, slotted masses Once fibres removed, connect between 2 clamp stands and gradually add mass in the they become more brittle)
and holders, white tile, middle until the fibre snaps. Try with individual fibres from different plants and Extracting whole fibres that are useful
sharp knife different ways of combining fibres eg twists and plaits. Can also compare stem to
individual fibres.
Outcome: the more fibres combined together the stronger it is.
Ensuring accurate measurement of
Volume of mineral Mexican hat plantlets or Method: half fill a tube with the ‘all nutrients present’ solution. Cover the top of the solutions
No air bubble caught in xylem of
solution geranium leaves, 7 test tube with foil or paraffin and push down on covering so that there is a well in the geranium
possible microorganism growth in
Species of plant tubes, test tube holder, centre. Gently push the geranium stem/roots of Mexican hat plantlet through the nutrient
Size of container different mineral hole so it is in solution below. Repeat with solutions lacking in nitrogen or phosphate solution insufficient time to see an effect.
Amount of light solutions:- each lacking or potassium or magnesium or calcium or lacking all. Wrap all tubes in aluminium foil
received 1 nutrient and 1 and place in tube holder on sunny window sill. Observe regularly.
containing all, Outcome: the ‘all nutrients present’ plant will look healthy whereas the others will all
aluminium foil have some abnormality. Make sure you know what nutrient deficiencies affect plants.
Growth of unwanted microbes on agar
concentration of Agar plate seeded with Method: make plant extract by crushing 3g of plant material with 10cm3 industrial plates
plant material bacteria, plant material denatured alcohol. Shake occasionally for 10 mins. Pipette 0.1cm3 of extract onto due to bad aseptic techniques
Not shaking extract enough to ensure
lawn of bacteria on e.g. garlic & mint, pestle sterile paper disc. Allow to dry on sterile petri dish. Meanwhile label agar plates with enough
petri dish & mortar, 10cm3 date and split into 4 sections. 1 for each type of plant extract. Place 1 disc of each active ingredient
Inconsistency when adding plant extract
contamination of industrial denatured extract in each quadrant of the agar plate, close and tape with hazard tape. Leave to to
petri dish by other alcohol, sterile pipette, incubate over night and observe zone of inhibition. Carry out controls with just paper discs.
microbes paper discs, sterile petri distilled water on discs. Contaminating controls
same volume of dish, sterile forceps, Outcome: the control discs completely covered with bacteria, some plant extracts will Using wrong species of bacteria for lawn
plant material on hazard tape, marker create larger zones of inhibition than others, meaning they are more effective at
each disc pen. lower concentrations.
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