NEW ERA UNIVERSITY

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MODULE 1 – INTRODUCTION TO THEORY OF STRUCTURES

This module consists of topics stated below:

1. Introduction to theory of structures

2. Theory of structures and structural design
3. Types of structures
4. Classification of structures
5. Loading of structures
6. Types of supports in theory of structures
7. Types of structural analysis

Learning Outcomes:

Having successfully completed this module, student will be able to explain the terms related to theory of structures.

1 INTRODUCTION

The study of the effects of loads, also known as actions, on structures is the focus of the academic discipline known as the
theory of structures. In this context, the term "structure" refers to an arrangement of connected elements that are able to
withstand the weight of a load. As a result of this, theory of structures can also be found in some programs under the name
structural analysis.

National Stadium, Beijing Bird's Nest

In practice, the theory of structures is typically concerned with the computation of the deformations (displacements),
internal forces, stresses, stability, support reactions, velocity, and accelerations of structures when they are under load.

In order to accomplish this goal, it is customarily necessary to make use of the fundamentals derived from the fields of applied
mathematics, applied sciences (including physics and mechanics), and materials science. The findings of the analysis are
used to analyze the behavior of a structure under the load, with the only objective of certifying the integrity of the structure
when it is utilized. This is done in order to ensure that the structure will not fail when it is put to use. Because of this, the theory
of structures, often known as structural analysis, plays an important role in the engineering design of structures.

1.1 Theory of structures and structural design

Structures such as buildings, bridges, and towers are all excellent illustrations of how the theory of structures may be applied
in civil engineering. Other areas of engineering include the framing of ships and aircraft, as well as the construction of tanks,
pressure vessels, mechanical systems, and electrical support structures.

When designing civil engineering structures for public use, the engineer is responsible for taking a number of factors into
consideration, including safety, stability, serviceability, functionality, aesthetics, as well as monetary and environmental
constraints. Therefore, structural designs are expected to comply with two fundamental limit states, which are as follows:

1. The Ultimate Limit State, abbreviated as ULS;

2. The Serviceability Limit State (SLS)

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ULS vs. SLS

According to the limit state design, SLS requirements have to deal with issues such as deflection, vibration, cracking, etc.,
which affects the apperance and user experience of the building. On the other hand, ULS requirements have to deal with
issues such as structural failure, overturning, buckling, instability, and so on.

Before a conclusion can be reached regarding the most effective organizational framework, it is customarily necessary to
conduct a great number of impartial examinations of a variety of potential solutions. Consequently, in order to design
structures using this methodology, one must have a fundamental comprehension of the properties of the materials that are
being used as well as the mechanical principles that govern the behavior of the materials.

After the preliminary design of the structure has been presented, the structure itself needs to be analyzed to determine
whether or not it possesses the necessary level of strength and stiffness. In order to conduct an effective analysis of a
structure, specific idealizations need to be made regarding how the components are supported and connected.
Calculating the loadings on a structure requires using codes and local requirements. Calculating the forces and
displacements in the members requires using theory of structures (structural analysis), which is the focus of this article.

The findings of the structural analysis can then be utilized in the process of redesigning the structure to take into account a
more accurate calculation of the self-weight and size of the members. As a consequence of this, structural design is founded
on a series of successive approximations, each of which requires a structural analysis in order to be accurate.

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1.2 Types of structures

When modeling a real-life structure, it is necessary to represent the form of the structure in terms of idealized structural
members, such as in the case of the plane frames as beam elements, in which the beams, columns, and other structural
elements are indicated by line diagrams. This is required because the form of the structure cannot be directly modeled using
the real-life structure. In most cases, the lines are aligned to coincide with the centre lines of the members.

The structural designer is the one who ultimately decides which type of structural system will be implemented into the
building. This decision will be influenced by the function of the structure, the materials that will be incorporated into the
building, and the initial form of the building as envisioned by the architect. It is possible that more than one form of structural
system may be required to satisfy the requirements of the problem. In this case, the designer will need to rely on their
experience and expertise to select the solution that is the most appropriate.

Several examples of structural elements and systems include the following:

1. Beams
2. Columns
3. Trusses
4. Frames (portal frames, gable frames)
5. Arches
6. Cables
7. Shear walls and bending walls
8. Continuum structures (shells, plates, domes, etc.)

Beams

In comparison to other types of structural systems, beams are the most frequent. In most cases, they are constructed out of
prismatic components that are straight and span between supports that can take on any shape. Beams often play a key
role in the resistance to transverse loads, which they accomplish by primarily creating bending moments and shear forces.
Beams in a typical structural design can be crafted from a variety of materials, including reinforced concrete, steel, or timber.

Type of Beams
a. Cantilever beam:
A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end. It can be seen in the image above.

b. Simply supported beam:

A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one end and roller support at the other end.
Depending on the load applied, it undergoes shearing and bending. It is the one of the simplest structural elements in
existence.

c. Overhanging beam:
An overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions extending beyond its supports. It may have any
number of supports. If viewed in a different perspective, it appears as if it is has the features of simply supported beam and
cantilever beam.

d. Continuous beam:
A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed throughout its length. It can be understood well from the
image above.

e. Fixed ended beam:

As the name suggests, fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are fixed

f. Cantilever, simply supported beam (Prop Cantilever Beam):

It is also cantilever type means one end fixed and other end free, but a support named as prop is introduced at free end
to support the free end.

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Columns

Columns are vertical members that are employed to resist axial compression loads. The term "column" is used to refer to this
type of member. Sections devoid of solids When designing steel columns, H-sections and I-sections are frequently employed
as structural elements. When designing reinforced concrete columns, it is common practice to employ cross-sections that
are rectangular, circular, or square and to reinforce them with reinforcing rods. On occasion, columns are subjected to
forces in both the axial and bending directions simultaneously. When a column is loaded in only one direction, it is referred
to as being uniaxially loaded, and when it is loaded in both directions, it is referred to as being biaxially loaded.

Tied Column, Spiral Column, Composite Column

Steel Columns

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Trusses

Trusses are configurations of straight members joined at the ends of the members in the arrangement. They are able to
withstand loads because the members of the structure create axial forces; however, this can only be achieved if the ends
of the members are pinned together. A truss has its members arranged in such a way that they form a triangulated structure.
This ensures that the geometry of the truss cannot be altered, and it also prevents the components from coming together to
form a mechanism. The only points in trusses where loads are applied are the joints.

Secondary stresses manifest themselves whenever the ends of trusses are welded or otherwise joined together. This type of
analysis lends itself well to the application of computer systems. The use of trusses can bring answers to engineering difficulties
that are both practical and cost-effective. Since they are capable of efficiently spanning greater lengths than beams, you
can find them in places such as the roofs of buildings, bridges, and other similar structures. See design of steel roof trusses.

Common Types of Roofing Truss

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Rigid Frames

Rigid frames are designed to transport axial forces, shear forces, and bending moments across the members, in contrast to
trusses, which are pin-jointed frames that solely transmit axial forces. The connecting of steel beams and columns in rigid
frames is often accomplished using either bolting or welding. As a result, the assembly of rigid frames is relatively less difficult.

When reinforced concrete is used for the design of a structure, the beams and columns are typically cast monolithically,
and the construction of the formwork is rather straightforward. Rigid frames can either be statically determinate or
indeterminate, and depending on the circumstances, they can involve a multi-storey or multi-bay arrangement.

The Rigid Frame Metal Building System

Arches

Because of their capacity to cover huge spans and their aesthetic appeal, arches find widespread application in modern
engineering. This is owing to the fact that arches are visually appealing. When compared to a truss, the cost effectiveness
of an arch improves as the span size increases. Concrete, steel, and timber are the three materials that are used to make
modern arches. Arches can generally be broken down into one of three categories: three-hinged, two-hinged, or arch with
fixed supports.

Arches are able to carry the majority of the loads that they are subjected to because they generate compressive stresses
within the arch itself. For this reason, in the past, arches were frequently constructed using materials that had high
compressive strength but low tensile strength, such as stones and masonry. Arches can be built in many different geometries;
they might be semicircular, parabolic, or even linear, which means that the components that make up the arch are all
straight.

Space Frame

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Cables

Cables are a flexible system that can only withstand stresses that are applied through axial tension because they are formed
from high-strength steel wires that are twisted together. Engineers are able to cover very broad spans thanks to the use of
cables, which is very helpful in the design of bridges. Because their loads are borne only by tension on the wire, cables are
considered to be particularly efficient in the theory of structures. This is due to the fact that they make the most effective use
of structural material possible. As a result, there is no tendency for buckling to take place, either as a result of bending or
from compressive axial loads.

There are a few characteristics that define a cable in its capacity as a load-bearing structure. One of these is the vertical
load, which, when acting on a structure like an arch, results in what is known as a push because it causes horizontal reactions.
A supporting structure is required in order to accommodate the thrust that is being applied. It could be a tower, a pillar, or
a pylon supporting a bridge. Suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges, tower guy wires, and other types of bridges and
tower support structures all make use of cables.

Suspension Bridge

Shear Walls

Shear walls have been proven to be a viable solution for the problem of restraining lateral forces in tall buildings. These lateral
forces can be the result of wind load or seismic forces. Shear walls are often positioned adjacent to the framework of the
construction and can take the form of either planar solid walls or linked walls. In most cases, you'll find them along the walls
of stairwells and elevator shafts. In addition to the use of computer-assisted software, shear walls have been analyzed using
a variety of methodologies, including the continuous connection medium method, the frame analogy method, and many
more.

3D View of Shear Wall Layout

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Continuum Structures

Continuum structures are fabricated from materials that have a very thin layer of thickness in comparison to their other
dimensions. Continuum structures include things like folding plate roofs, shells, floor slabs, and other such things. An arch
dam, as well as domed roofs, aircraft fuselages, and wing structures, are all examples of three-dimensional continuum
structures. The study of structures that are continuous in space is the focus of the field of continuum mechanics. The surface
elements of this type are the simplest of all the components in this type, as their thickness is of a different order than the other
two dimensions. Plates are elements of a surface if they have a plane form, whereas shells are elements of a surface if they
constitute a general surface.

Shell Structure
1.3 Classifications of structures

Tension Structures

Structures which are subjected to pure tension under the action of external loads. Composed of flexible cables which are
frequently employed to support bridges and long span roofs. Because of their flexibility, cables have negligible bending
stiffness and can develop only tension.

Compression Structures

develop mainly compressive stress under the action of external loads - Examples: Columns and arches - Columns are straight
members subjected to axially compressive loads. Beam-column – when a straight member is subjected to lateral loads or
moments in addition to axial loads. - Arch, a curved structure, with a shape similar to that of inverted cable.

Trusses

composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged connection to form stable configuration. -when the loads
are applied to the truss only at joints, its member either elongate or shorten. Thus, the members of an ideal truss are always
either in uniform tension or in uniform compression.

Shear Structures

e.g., reinforced concrete shear wall which are used in multistory buildings to reduce lateral movement due to wind load
and earthquake excitations. Structures develop mainly in plane shear, with relatively small bending stresses under the action
of external loads.

Bending Structures

structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of external loads. In some structures, the shear stresses
associated with the changes in bending moments may also be significant and should be considered in their designs. Some
of the most commonly used structures: beams, rigid frames, slabs and plates

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1.4 Loading of structures

When it comes to the theory of structures, there are many distinct types of loading configurations, the most prevalent of
which are as follows:

1. Loads that are concentrated (point loads)

2. Uniformly distributed line loads, also known as UDL, and uniformly distributed area loads (full pressure loads)
3. a load that is not spread uniformly (e.g. trapezoidal and traingular loads)

Concentrated Loads

These are loads that act on a point inside a structural system. Theoretically speaking, they are analogous to knife-edge loads
in that they act at a precised point on a beam. On the other hand, in actual reality, these weights are typically dispersed
over a rather compact area.

Uniformly Distributed Line Loads (UDL)

A uniformly distributed load (UDL) is a load that is distributed or spread across the whole region of an element such as
a beam or slab. In other words, the magnitude of the load remains uniform throughout the whole element.

Uniformly Varying Load (UVL)

A uniformly distributed load (UDL) is a load that is distributed or spread across the whole region of an element.

· It is also known as non-uniformly distributed load.

· It is also divided into two types Trapezoidal or Triangular Load.

a. Triangular Load

Triangular load is that whose magnitude is zero at one end of span and increases constantly till the 2nd end of the span.

b. Trapezoidal Load

Trapezoidal load is that which acting on the span length in the form of trapezoid. Trapezoid is generally with the combination
of uniformly load (UDL) and triangular load.

Couple Load

Couple load is that in which two equal and opposite forces acts on the same span. The lines of action of both the forces are
parallel to each other but opposite in directions. This type of loading creates a couple load.

Couple load try to rotate the span in case one load is slighty more than the 2nd load. If force on one end of beam acts
upward then same force will acts downwards on the opposite end of beam. Couple load is expressed as KN.m or N.m, etc.

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Distributed Load with Parabolic Shape:

Parabolic shaped distributed load is one of the loads that can be applied to a beam. For this case, the resultant force is
calculated by getting the area under the curve of the parabola (n = 2) using the general equation for the area of a
spandrel below.
𝑏ℎ
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑙 =
𝑛+1

where:

b is the base of the spandrel,

h is the height of the spandrel, and

n is the degree of the curve.

The position of the resultant force is obtained using the general equation for the position of the spandrel.

𝑏
𝑑=
𝑛+2

where:

b is the base of the spandrel, and

n is the degree of the curve.

Shape Figure 𝒙 𝒚 Area

3𝑎 3ℎ 𝑎ℎ
Parabolic Spandrel 4 10 3

General Spandrel 𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑎ℎ

𝑎 ℎ
𝑛+2 4𝑛 + 2 𝑛+1

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Geometric Properties of Areas

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1.5 Types of supports in theory of structures

When it comes to the theory of structures, there are a lot of different support systems accessible, and the one that gets used
depends on which one significantly depicts the real physical behavior of the building when it's being built. The following are
the most typical types of support conditions:

1. Pinned supports
2. Roller supports
3. Fixed supports
4. Tension or compression springs
5. Elastic foundations

The first three are the most typical, and theory of structures textbooks most frequently cover topics related to these three.
The following is a list of potential guidelines that could be utilized in the process of selecting the various sorts of assistance
that will be used for analysis:

Hinged or Pinned Support

The hinged support is capable of resisting force acting in any direction of the plane. Hence, in general the reaction at such
a support may have two components, one in horizontal and another in vertical direction. To determine these two
components two equations of statics must be used. Usually, at hinged end the beam is free to rotate but translational
displacement is not possible.

Roller Supports

The roller support is capable of resisting a force in only one specific line or action. The roller can resist only a vertical force or
a force normal to the plane on which roller moves. A reaction on this type of supports corresponds to a single unknown
figure.

Fixed Supports

The fixed support is capable of resisting of force in any direction and is also capable of resisting a couple or a moment. A
system of three forces can exist at such a support (i.e., two components of force and a moment).

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Tension or compression springs

In the theory of structures, springs are also utilized for the idealization of support structures. It is possible to achieve the ideal
support condition for a structure by using springs when the structure is supported by a deformable body. The strength of the
deformable body is modeled using the spring's stiffness as a representation of its strength. As a consequence of this, the
analysis is able to take into account the interplay between the deformation of the support and the structural response of
the member that is being supported. The application of Winker's springs in the process of idealizing soils is a good illustration
of this concept.

Winkler Spring Approach

Elastic Foundations

When a structure is supported on a medium that deforms continuously, it is possible to model the structure as if it were
supported on an elastic foundation. In the fields of geotechnical engineering and structural engineering, two of the most
common topics are beams on elastic foundations and plates on elastic foundations. When employing the technique, the
can be idealized to be employed in the construction of raft foundations. The modeling of soil-structure interaction benefits
greatly from the inclusion of elastic foundations.

Schematic representation of beam on elastic foundation

Multi-store building on elastic foundation (a) and equivalent Timoshenko beam (b)

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1.6 Types of structural analysis

Following the modeling of the structure and the supports and the evaluation of the loads that are being applied, the next stage is to
carry out an analysis to identify the internal forces and deformations that are induced in the structural members as a result of the loads
that are being applied. In most cases, structural analysis includes participation from one or more of the following types of analytical
approaches:

Static Linear Analysis

This is the analysis that is performed with the assumption that the structure is in the elastic condition and that Hooke's law is being observed
in order to calculate the internal forces and displacements that are caused by static loads (loads that are not dependent on the passage
of time).

Non-Linear Static Analysis

When a structure is subjected to static loads while assuming non-linear circumstances, this is the analysis that must be carried out in order
to estimate the internal forces and displacements that occur within the structure. The following are some of the shapes that non-linear
analysis can take:

- Physical – The material has exceeded the yield point and Hooke’s law is no longer being obeyed.
- Geometrical – Structure is subjected to large displacement, and analysis is based on the deformed structure.
- Structural – Analysis for structures with gaps, unbalanced contraints etc.
- Mixed non-linearly – A combination of the above-mentioned non-linearities

Buckling Analysis

This is the analysis that is carried out to identify the critical load (or critical load factor) of structures that are subjected to compressive
stresses. It also determines the associated buckling mode forms of the structure. The evaluation of the structural soundness of buildings is
very essential.

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P-delta Analysis

This analysis takes into consideration the additional moments that are created by compressive loads, which are then applied to the
displacement that is induced by lateral loads. This occurs in buildings that are particularly tall and flexible. As a result, the investigation is
further predicated on the distorted system (non-linear).

Free Vibration Dynamic Analysis

The results of this vibration analysis will provide the natural frequencies, also known as eigenvalues, as well as the mode shapes associated
with those frequencies (eigenfunctions).

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Time-history Analysis

This analysis is carried out to evaluate the response of a structure that is subjected to arbitrary time-varying loads. The goal of this endeavor
is to establish how the structure will behave.

Pushover Analysis

The pushover analysis is a non-linear method that is utilized to assess the structural capacity of a building when subjected to static
horizontal loads that increase until the building is brought down. It is a stationary procedure that employs a simplified nonlinear method
in order to estimate the seismic structural deformations. Structures have the ability to reorganize themselves during earthquakes.

The second cycle involves redistributing the loads in some way. The structure is stressed once more until the location of the second weak
link can be determined. This process is repeated until a yield pattern that accounts for the entirety of the structure under seismic loading
is identified. The results of a pushover study are capacity curves that are derived from the change in base shear that occurs as a function
of the movement of a control point located on the structure.

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