UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, BANGALORE

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE, GKVK

Course: HRT 321 - Post Harvest Management and Value Addition of Fruits and Vegetables (1+1)

SYLLABUS
Theory: Importance of post-harvest processing of fruits and vegetables; Extent and possible causes of
post-harvest losses; Pre-harvest factors affecting postharvest quality, maturity, ripening and changes
occurring during ripening; Respiration and factors affecting respiration rate; Harvesting and field
handling; Storage (ZECC, Cold storage, CA, MA and Hypobaric); Value addition concept; Principles and
methods of preservation; Minimal processing; Intermediate moisture foods- Jam, Jelly, Marmalade –
Concepts and Standards; Fermented and non-fermented beverages; Drying/ Dehydration of fruits and
vegetables – Concept and methods; Canning - Concepts and Standards, Packaging of products.

Practicals: Containers for shelf life extension; Effect of temperature on shelf life and quality of produce;
Chilling and freezing injury in vegetables and fruits; Extraction and preservation of pulps and juices;
Preparation of Jam, Jelly, RTS, Nectar, Squash, Wine, Fruit bar, Candy, Tomato products; Quality
evaluation of products- physico-chemical and sensory; Visit to processing unit/ industry.

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Srivastava, R. P. and Sanjeev Kumar, 2003, Fruits and Vegetable preservation - Principles and
Practices, III Edn., International Book Distributing Co., Lucknow.
2. Jacob John, P., 2012, A Hand book on Post Harvest Management of Fruits and Vegetables, Astral
International Private Ltd., New Delhi
3. Swati Barche and Kamal Singh Kirad, 2014, Post Harvesting Handling of Fruits, Vegetables and
Flowers, Jain Brothers, New Delhi
4. Giridhari Lal, Siddappa, G. S. and Tandon, G. L., 2009, Preservation of fruits and vegetables,
Popular Prakashan, Mumbai
5. Ranganna, S., 2017, Handbook of analysis and quality control for fruit and vegetable products. II
Edn., McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd., Bengaluru
6. Sudheer, K.P. and Indira, V., 2007, Post harvest technology of Horticultural Crops, New India
Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
7. Verma, L.R. and Joshi, V.K., 2002, Post harvest technology of fruits and vegetables: Handling,
processing, fermentation and waste management, Vol. 1 & 2, Indus Publishing Company, New
Delhi
8. Satish Kumar Sharma, 2009, Post harvest management and processing of fruits and vegetables –
Instant Notes, New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
9. Satish Kumar Sharma and Nautiyal, M.C., 2009, Post harvest technology of horticultural crops:
Practical manual Series - 2, New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
10. Guleria, S. P. S. and Anil Kumar Verma, 2010, Question Bank on Post Harvest Technology, New
India Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
Course: HRT 321 - Post Harvest Management and Value Addition of Fruits and Vegetables (1+1)

Though India produces large quantity of horticultural produce in the world, per capita consumption is
very low for our over a billion population. Major portion is being wasted at various stages of from
production till it reaches end-user and its mainly due to inadequate facilities for processing.

Harvest: is a specific and single deliberate action to separates the food stuff with or without non edible
portion from its growth medium.
Eg. - Plucking of Fruits and Vegetables, Reaping of cereals, Lifting of fish from water, lifting of tuber or
roots from soil etc.

Postharvest – all the succeeding action after harvest are defined as post-harvest technique.
Eg. - pre cooling, cleaning, washing, trimming, sorting, grading, packaging, transportation, storage
Extending the PH life of horticultural produce requires knowledge of all the factors that can lead to loss
of quality or generation of unsalable material. The field of study that adds to and uses this knowledge in
order to develop affordable and effective technologies that minimizes the rate of deterioration is known
as postharvest technology.

Post-harvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest, including cooling,
cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from the ground, or separated from its
parent plant, it begins to deteriorate. Post-harvest treatment largely determines final quality, whether a
crop is sold for fresh consumption, or used as an ingredient in a processed food product. Effective
handling decreases post-harvest losses.

Post-harvest technology is inter-disciplinary "science and technique" applied to horticultural/agri

produce after harvest for its protection, conservation, processing, packaging, distribution, marketing, and
utilization to meet the food and nutritional requirements of the people in relation to their needs.
Hence thorough understanding of the structure, composition, biochemistry and physiology of
horticultural produce is essential for PH technologist. Post harvest Shelf Life - Once harvested, produce
are subject to the active process of senescence. Numerous biochemical processes continuously change the
original composition of the produce until it becomes unmarketable. The period during which
consumption is considered acceptable is defined as the time of "post harvest shelf life".

1. Importance of post harvest technology in horticultural crops

1. Worldwide post harvest fruit and vegetable losses are as high as 30-40%. Thus, the postharvest
technology helps in reduction of losses in handling, packaging, transportation and storage with
modern infrastructure, machinery through processing into a wide variety of products and home scale
preservation with low cost technology.

2. Use of thermal processing, low temperature, drying, chemical and biological reactions coupled with
other preservation techniques are applied to enhance the storability.

3. Containers and packaging materials confer portability, enhance quality of produce as well as extend
the shelf-life.

4. It helps to make available a large quantity of food by avoiding losses and provide better quality food
and nutrition, more raw materials for processing, thus ensuring better returns to the farmers.
5. Value addition to the horticulture produce through processing units is a boon for the welfare of the
horticulture growers as they can save their crop from wastage and at the same time their produce
becomes a more valuable, price fetching commodity with suitable postharvest treatment, packaging
and by processing into various products.

6. Processing of the horticultural crops contributes to the economy through the availability of
commodity, machinery and equipments and other raw materials required for the industry to develop.

7. Processing industry has the unenviable role to make fruits and vegetables available throughout the
year in a prime condition by deploying modern technologies like ripening manipulation,
refrigeration, freezing, modified atmospheric storage and packaging, drying and irradiation
.
8. Export of processed products earns valuable foreign exchange. E.g.: Brazil is the largest exporter of
fruit juices. Papaya is supplied by India, Malaysia, Taiwan, Mexico and Brazil.

9. Postharvest technology helps in employment generation. It offers ample opportunities to self-

employment, casual labour, cottage scale units, and large scale processing units.

10. The processed products and ready-to-serve foods are especially useful to the urban people as there is
a paucity of time to cook the food or other delicious items. Thus, processed foods add taste, variety
and provide the required nutrition for the working masses.

11. The processed foods are of special attraction to the children and those who need specific nutritive
products like infants, women and the old.

12. The processing industry can convert even the waste from agriculture/horticulture sector into value
added products and thus, can stabilize the economy of the processing unit.

13. Post-harvest technology through the processed fruit and vegetable products is helping to meet the
needs of defense forces, astronauts and also in the home scale preservation of various foods.

14. As a science, postharvest technology is employing various disciplines like food microbiology, food
biochemistry, food chemistry, applied physics, food engineering, horticulture, plant physiology,
genetics and plant breeding, computer application, statistics, economics and management and
psychology through the technological convergence of all these disciplines.

15. There are about 4000 small and large scale processing units in the country which process only about
2.5% of the total fruit and vegetable as against 40-85% in developed countries (Eg: Malaysia-83%,
Phillippines-78%, Brazil and USA-70%).

Problems of Post Harvest Management

1. Lack of quality planting material for horticultural crops
2. High cost of establishing plantation crops and fruit orchards which require a long gestation for
production
3. Low educational level coupled with poor technical training/extension facilities available to
farmers
4. Poor production technologies – rain-fed cultivation, improper planting, poor nutrition, irrigation
systems, plant protection and IPM management
 5. Limited knowledge of maturity indices – stages of maturity, time and method of harvest
6. Sorting and grading is done on a very limited scale, and is generally based on visual inspection
7. Limited availability of pre-cooling facilities. Pre-cooling facilities are generally available for
produce such as fruits (grapes, strawberries, and mango) cut flowers (rose, gerbera, carnation,
anthuriums), and vegetables (potato, onion, tomato, capsicum) which are destined for export
8. Lack of availability of transportation facilities dedicated to the horticultural sector
9. Fresh produce shipped both within the country and overseas is improperly packed and transported
10. Lack of a cold chain, inadequate storage and infrastructural facilities from the site of production
to the point of consumption
11. Lack of a network of local markets, and poor access to market information, results in
unprecedented and unregulated arrivals in the local markets
12. The unavailability of land for the large scale cultivation of fruits and vegetables has been a major
deterrent in the organized sector.
13. India has a good resource base, but adequate research and development infrastructure and
excellence in several areas of horticultural are required

Scope/Prospectus
1. Magnitude of PH losses in fruit and vegetable is still to be minimized by proper cultural
operations, harvesting, and transportation and storage facilities.
2. Through the establishment of cold storage and other amenities at the growers and retailers level,
there is a greater scope for fruit and vegetable processing industry. Presently mango, pineapple,
citrus, grapes, tomatoes, peas, potatoes, cucumber are being processed on a major scale.
3. There are about 4000 small and large scale processing units in the country which process only
about 2.5% of the total fruit and vegetable as against 40-85% in developed countries (Eg:
Malaysia-83%, Phillippines-78%, Brazil and USA-70%).
4. A variety of fresh fruit and vegetable in India can be made available in plenty due to favourable
agro-climatic situations. Hence there is no dearth for raw material for processing.
5. Product profile being developed in India at present is limited to few fruit and vegetable. Eg.
Mango, Pineapple, Grapes etc. But there is a wider potentiality for processing of papaya, sapota,
banana, jack, guava, aonla, carambola and other minor fruits.
6. Similarly there is a greater scope for processing cauliflower, carrot, bitter-gourd onion, garlic,
watermelon, muskmelon etc.
7. Production and postharvest processing activities within the country have, therefore, been
changing at a rapid rate. The demand for horticultural produce in India is on the rise, owing to
increasing populations, changing food habits, the nutritional value of horticultural crops and a
greater emphasis on postharvest management, processing and value addition.
8. Advantages of growth can be harnessed with well planned strategies, so as to ensure a positive
future outlook. Food safety is of growing importance in food production, processing and
marketing. Investment in food safety, while assuring risk-free ventures related to horticulture, will
increase the cost of fresh produce and the processing of fruits and vegetables.
9. Efforts geared toward improving production technologies for fruits and vegetables will become
meaningful only if the effective postharvest technology is developed and wastage is reduced.
10. Furthermore, unless the horticultural industry is linked directly with the processing industry,
neither the consumers nor the producers can benefit. Thus, proper growth of postharvest
technology of fruits and vegetables is vital for development of India’s economy
NATURE AND CAUSES OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES
Losses occur after harvesting is known as post-harvest losses. It starts first from the field, after harvest, in
grading and packing areas, in storage, during transportation and in the wholesale and retail markets.
Several losses occur because of poor facilities, lack of know-how, poor management, market dysfunction
or simply the carelessness of farmers.

(a) Extent of post-harvest loss: The wastage during post-harvest handling accounts for 20-30% of the
losses at different stages of storage, grading, packing, transport and finally marketing as a fresh produce
or in the processed form. According to Chadha, India loses about 35-45% of the harvested fruits and
vegetables during handling, storage, transportation etc. leading to the loss of Rs. 40,000 crores per year.

(b) Important sites of post-harvest losses:

• Farmer’s field (15-20%)
• Packaging (15_2004)
•. Transportation (30-40%)
• Marketing (30-40%)

(c) Estimated loss of fruits

Papaya 40-100%
Grapes 27%
Banana 20-28%
Citrus 20-95%
Avacado 43%
Apple 14%

Estimated loss of Vegetables

Onion 25-40%
Garlic 08-22%
Potato 30-40°
Tomato 5-347%
Cabbage & cauliflower 7.08-25.0%
ChIli 4-35,0%
Radish 3-5%
Carrot 5-9%

(d) Causes of post-harvest losses

Horticultural crops not only provide nutritional and healthy foods to human beings, but also generate a
considerable cash income for growers. However, horticultural crops typically have high moisture content,
tender texture and high perishability. If not handled properly, a high value nutritious product can
deteriorate and rot in a matter of days or hours. The causes of postharvest losses can be divided into
different categories:

1. Metabolic: All fresh horticultural crops are live organs. The natural process of respiration involves the
breakdown of food reserves and the aging of these organs.
2. Mechanical: Owing to their tender texture and high moisture content, fresh fruits and vegetables are
very susceptible to mechanical injury. Poor handling, unsuitable containers, improper packaging and
transportation can easily cause bruising, cutting, breaking, impact wounding and other forms of injury.
3. Developmental: These include sprouting, rooting, seed germination, which lead to deterioration in
quality and nutritional value.
4. Parasitic diseases: High post-harvest losses are caused by the invasion of fungi, bacteria, insects and
other organisms. Micro-organisms attack fresh produce easily and spread quickly, because the produce
does not have much of a natural defense mechanism and has plenty of nutrients and moisture to support
microbial growth.
5. Physiological deterioration: Fruits and vegetable cells are still alive after harvest and continue their
physiological activity. Physiological disorders may occur due to mineral deficiency, low or high
temperature injury or undesirable atmospheric conditions, such as high humidity, physiological
deterioration can also occur spontaneously by enzymatic action leading to over-ripeness and senescence,
a simple aging phenomenon.
6. Lack of market demand: Poor planning, inaccurate production and market information may lead to
over production of certain fruits or vegetables which can’t be sold in time. This situation occurs most
frequently in areas where transportation and storage facilities are inadequate. Produce may lie rotting in
production areas, if farmers are unable to transport it to people who need it in distant locations.
7. Consumption: These losses can be due to inadequate preservation methods at home, methods of
cooking and preparation such as peeling, consumption styles etc.
8. Others
 Lack of clear concept of packing house operations.
 Lack of awareness among the growers, contractors and even the policy makers.
 Lack of infrastructure.
 Late realization of its importance,
 Inadequate technical support.
 Wide gap in technologies available and in vogue.
 Inadequate post-harvest quality control.
 Unorganized marketing.
 Absence of pre-cooling and cold storage.
 Inadequate market facilities, market intelligence and market information service (MIS)
 Poor storage facilities.

(e) Impact of post-harvest losses: Post harvest losses of horticultural crops affect both the nutritious
status of the population and economy of the country.

Nutrition: Fruits and vegetables are rich source of vitamins and minerals essential for human nutrition.
These are wasted in transit from harvest to consumer represent a loss in the quantity of a valuable food.
This is important not only in quantitative terms, but also from the point of view of quality nutrition.

Economy: Careless harvesting and rough handling of perishable bruise and scar the skin, thus reducing
quality and market price. Such damaged produce also fails to attract the international buyers, and bring
the exporting country less profit and bad name. This ultimately results in huge economic losses to the
country.
For improving the situation, it is essential to create awareness among growers, farm workers, manager’s
traders and exporters about the extent of losses being incurred and their economic consequences. These
groups of people involved in the fruit industry also need to learn the basic principles of fruit handling and
storage. In addition, the government needs to provide basic infra-structure like storage, handling, grading,
packing, transport and marketing facilities and technical expertise. This could be carried out by the public
and private sectors.
(f)Technologies for minimizing the losses: Fruits and vegetables are perishable in nature. Scientific
harvesting and handling are the practical way to reduce the losses due to physical damage, spoilages, due
to insect damages and microbial growth. Various protocols are standardized and available for adoption to
get the best result, which will give economic benefits. Similarly, proper storage conditions, with suitable
temperature and humidity are needed to lengthen the storage life and maintain quality once the crop has
been cooled to the optimum storage tempera Lure. Greater emphasis need to be given on the training of
farmers, creation of infrastructure for cold chain with common facilities for sorting, grading, packing and
post-harvest treatments in all major markets.

Pre-harvest factors affecting quality on post harvest shelf life of fruits and vegetables
The pre-harvest factors that affect the quality of fruits and vegetables with respect to their post
harvest shelf life are as follows.

I. Genetic factors/ variety – Varieties with shorter shelf-lives are generally prone to higher post harvest
losses. Varieties with thick peel, high firmness, low respiration rate and low ethylene production rates
would usually have longer storage life. The cultivars that have ability to withstand the rigors of marketing
and distribution will have lesser losses after harvest. Varieties with resistance to low temperature
disorders and/or decay-causing pathogens can be stored well for longer duration with minimum storage
losses. Hence, while growing horticultural crops, one must choose such varieties that inherently have got
good quality and storage potential in addition to the higher yields and pest resistance.

II. Environmental factors

1.Light – Light regulates several physiological processes like chlorophyll synthesis, phototropism,
respiration and stomatal opening. The duration, intensity and quality of light affect the quality of fruits
and vegetables at harvest. Most of the produce needs high light intensity (3000-8000 foot candles).
Absorption of red light (625-700 nm) through pigments, phytochrome, is essential for carbohydrate
synthesis which determines the shelf life of the produce.
Citrus and mango fruits produced in full sun generally had a thinner skin, a lower weight, low
juice content and lower acidity but a higher TSS. Citrus fruits grown in the shade may be less susceptible
to chilling injury when subsequently stored in cold storage.
In tomatoes, leaf shading of fruits produced a deeper red colour during the ripening than in the
case of those exposed to light. The side of the fruit that have been exposed to sun will be generally firmer
than the non exposed side. In general, the lower the light intensity the lower the ascorbic acid content of
plant tissues. In leafy vegetables, leaves are larger and thinner under condition of low light intensity.

2. Temperature – All type of physiological and biochemical process related to plant growth and yield
are influenced by the temperature. The higher temperature during field conditions decreases life and
quality of the produce. At high temperature, stored carbohydrates of fruits, vegetables and flowers are
quickly depleted during respiration and plant respires at the faster rate. For example- high temperature
during fruiting season of tomato leads to quick ripening of fruits on and off the plant.
Orange grown in the tropics tend to have higher sugars and TSS than those grown in sub tropics.
However, tropical grown oranges tend to be green in colour and peel less easily and it is due to the lower
diurnal temperature that occurs in the tropics.

3. Humidity – High humidity during growing season results in thin rind and increased size in some
horticultural produce and this produce is more prone to high incidence of disease during post harvest
period. Humid atmosphere may cause the development of fungal and bacterial diseases, which damages
produce during storage and transport. Damaged produce remove water very quickly and emit a larger
concentration of ethylene than healthy ones. Reduced transpiration leads to calcium and other elemental
deficiencies.

4. Rainfall - Rainfall affects water supply to the plant and influences the composition of the
harvested plant part. This affects its susceptibility to mechanical damage and decay during subsequent
harvesting and handling operations. If root and bulb crops are harvested during heavy rainfall, the storage
losses will be higher.

III. Cultural factors

1. Mineral nutrition – Balanced application of all nutrient elements is necessary for maintaining growth
and development of plants. The application of fertilizers to crops influences their post harvest respiration
rate. Excess or deficiency of certain elements can affect crop quality and its post harvest life. Numerous
physiological disorders are also associated with mineral deficiencies which ultimately lead to post harvest
losses.
a. Nitrogen - High N fertilization reduces while moderate to high K improves PH life and quality of
horticultural produce. Application of K in water melon tend to decrease the PH respiration. High levels
on N tend to decrease flavor, TSS, firmness and color of the fruit and in stone fruits it increases
physiological disorders and decrease fruit colour.
Generally, crops that have high levels of nitrogen typically have poorer keeping qualities than
those with lower levels. High nitrogen increases fruit respiration, faster tissue deterioration thereby
reducing their storage life.
b. Phosphorous - Application of phosphorous minimizes weight loss, sprouting and rotting in bulb crops
compared with lesser application. The respiration rate of low-phosphorous fruits will be higher than that
of high phosphorous fruits during storage.
c. Potassium - Potassic fertilizers improves keeping quality, its deficiency can bring about abnormal
ripening of fruits and vegetables. Potassium helps in reducing some physiological storage disorders, e.g.
superficial rind pitting in oranges.
d. Calcium - The storage potential of the fruits is largely dependent on the level of Ca and it is associated
with produce texture. The higher level of N, P and Mg and low levels of K and Bo lead to the Ca
deficiency in fruits and reduce its storage life.
Physiological disorders of storage organs related to low Ca content of the tissue are bitter pit in
apples, cork spot in pears, blossom end rot in tomato, tip burn in lettuce, hallow heart in potato, red
blotch of lemons etc.
Calcium inhibits the internal browning, retarded respiration, and reduces the metabolism of
endogenous substrates.
e. Zinc - Zn is known to act as vehicle for carrying ions across tissue and increase Ca content of the fruit.
f. Boron - Adequate supply of Bo improves the mobility of Ca in the leaves and the fruits and
subsequently increases fruit firmness, TSS, organic acids and reduce the incidence of the drought, spot,
bitter pit and cracking disorders and impart disease resistance.

2. Water relation and Irrigation – Stress due to excessive or inadequate water in the medium reduce
the longevity of the produce. In general, <5 % of water absorbed in the plant system is utilized for the
development of different plant components. Moisture stress increases the rate of transpiration over the
rate of absorption and irregular irrigation leads to fruit/vegetable cracking (potato and pomegranate
cracking). Higher level of moisture stress affects both yield and quality by decreasing cell enlargement.
Crops which have higher moisture content generally have poorer storage characteristics. An
example of this is the hybrid onions, which tend to give high yield of bulbs with low dry matter content
but which have only a very short storage life. If fully matured banana is harvested soon after rainfall or
irrigation the fruit can easily split during handling operations, allowing micro organism infection and PH
rotting. Excess water supply to plants results in cracking of fruits such as cherries, plums, and tomatoes.
In green leafy vegetables, too much rain or irrigation can result in the leaves becoming harder and
brittle, which can make them more susceptible to damage and decay during handling and transport.
Generally, crops that have higher moisture content or low dry matter content have poorer storage
characteristics. Keeping quality of bulb crops like onion and garlic will be poor if irrigation is not
stopped before three weeks of harvesting.

3. Canopy Manipulation
a. Fruit thinning – Increases fruit size but reduces total yield. It helps in obtaining better quality
produce.
b. Fruit position in the tree – Fruits which are exposed to high light environment possesses higher TSS,
acidity, fruit size, aroma, and shelf life compared to which lies inside the canopy. Hence better training
system should be practiced to circulate optimum light and air.
Eg.: Grapes, Mango, peaches, kiwifruits
c. Girdling - Increases the fruit size and advance and synchronized fruit maturity in peach and nectarines.

4. Seasons / Day and day length – Seasonal fluctuation and time of the day at harvest will greatly affect
the postharvest quality of the produce. Generally produce harvested early in the morning or in the
evening hours exhibits longer PH life than produce harvested during hot time of the day.
If long day Onions (temperate) are grown during short day (tropics) condition it leads to very
poor storage quality.
5. Use of Agro chemicals – Use of chemicals on the plants to prevent the pathogen will have direct
impact on extending the postharvest life. Hence, certain pre-harvest chemical applications are found to
enhance storage life of fruits and vegetables.

6. Pest and Diseases – Infection by fungi, bacteria, mites and insects reduces the longevity as well as
consumer acceptability. Tissue damage caused by them show wilting and produce ethylene which leads
to early senescence. Generally, if produce has suffered an infection during development, its storage or
marketable life may be adversely affected. Banana which suffers a severe infection with diseases such as
leaf spot may ripen pre maturely or abnormally after harvest and in mango, infections results in rapid
postharvest loss.

HARVEST FACTORS
Maturity at harvest stage is one of the main factors determining compositional quality and storage
life of fruit, vegetables and flowers.
1. Stage of Harvest – The optimal stage of produce development for harvest depends on the
 Plant species. Varieties, Seasons, the market distance, & Consumer preference
 The flowers are harvested at the immature stage-
Roses are harvested at tight bud stage / cracked bud stage than the half open or full open stage.
Cut flowers with long stem have higher PH life than short stem because shorter stem have less
CHO reserves.
 Tomatoes are harvested at mature but not ripen (breaker stage) to the long distance market and at
advanced stage for local market.
 Beans, okra, brinjal, cucumber, bitter gourds etc. are harvested at immature stage.
 While citrus and others non-climacteric fruits and vegetables are harvested at ripe stage.
2. Time of Harvest - optimum time of harvest defend on the type of plants and climatic condition.
 It is advisable to harvest produce when temperature is mild, because high temperature causes
rapid respiration rate and excessive water loss.
 Flowers should be harvested in the morning or evening hours.
 These effects have been attributed to higher levels of CHO from photosynthesis during the
daytime, and translocation and respiration during the night causes reduction in the levels of CHO
in the flowers cut in the morning.
 In the tropical and sub tropical climates, for quality and longest PH life winter was found more
suitable.

3. Methods of Harvest – always produce should be harvested by suitable methods. Sharp tools/ secateur
/harvester/hand gloves/digger/vibrater/ trimmer/ any such items should always been used to detach the
fruits/vegetable/flowers from the mother plant/ once over harvest.
• While cutting cut flowers care should be taken to give slant cut and not to crush, slant cut helps in
facilitating the maximum surface area to absorb water at rapid rate.
• The hard and lignified stem which lying very close to the ground should not be cut as they show lesser
vase life due to lower water absorption.
Example: Stems of chrysanthemum should be harvested at least 10 cm above the ground level
and for rose it should be cut leaving at least two compound leaves on the stem.
Maturity indices
Definition of maturity: Maturation is a stage of development of fruit or vegetable leading to attainment
of peak acceptable quality for a given purpose
Importance of maturity indices
• Help to judge the stage of harvest so that marketing can be staggered safely
• The quality of the product is ensured
• Produce have optimum size and shape required by the market
• Avoids harvesting at inappropriate maturity that causes physiological disorders
• Avoids over ripening of fruits as they are prone to bruising and decay and not suitable for
transportation
• Ensures peak acceptable quality and adequate shelf life of harvested produce

Types of maturity
1. Physiological maturity - Attainment of full development of stage just prior to ripening/ ripening in
non climacteric fruits. (plant or plant part continue to develop even after detachment) E.g.: Fruits and
vegetables produced for seed production
2. Horticultural/ Commercial maturity – Stage at which growth and development is optimum for
particular specific use (stage acceptable for consumers/ market oriented) E.g.: Fresh vegetable for
canning/ dehydration/ IQF – Individual Quick Frozen/ harvesting for local or distant market

Further Horticultural maturity is classified into different groups

1. Physiologically immature - Vegetables such as cucumber/ peas/ beans/ carrot / beetroot/ baby corn/
okra are harvested when they are tender, crisp and fiber free
2. Firm and mature - Fruits and vegetables which attained characteristic size, shape and maturity are
harvested. E.g.: Apple, Apricot, Annonaceous fruits, Banana, Guava, Mango Papaya, Tomato etc.
3. Harvest at ripe – In non climacteric fruits, maturity is referred as full ripening E.g.: Citrus sp., grape,
pineapple, cherry etc.
Judging the maturity in fruits crops
1. Culinary Maturity : For cooking, fruits like papaya, jack fruit, tomato, figs, bread fruit, when used
as vegetable, harvesting is done at immature/ suitable stage
2. Dessert Maturity: For local market and fresh consumption E.g.: Jack fruit, watermelon, mango and
orange
3. Shipping Maturity: For long distance transportation, fruits will be harvested much earlier than for
local consumption (before ripening) which prolongs shelf life. E.g.: Mango, banana, papaya
4. Processing Maturity: For processing, harvest time depends on the distance of orchard from the
processing units and the type of fruit/ vegetable and product to be prepared

Different methods to estimate maturity indices of fruits and vegetables

Computational methods
1. Calendar date: It is reasonable and accurate provided flowering and the weather during growing
season is accurate. Eg. Mango harvesting period (April -July)
2. DFFB (Days from Full Bloom to harvest): It is reliable but varies greatly from year to year and
location to location and needs night temperature correction for 15 days following full bloom. For every
1oF (32oF=0oC and with increase in every 1oF, there is increase of 0.55oC) variation from an average
night temperature, a correction of one day is made in the standard figure from full bloom.
Alphanso variety of mango will take 110-125 days for ripening(flowering to harvest).
3. Mean heat units/ Degree Days: Optimum maturity is computed by the sum of mean daily
temperature, above base temperature for a period concerned. The number of degree-days to maturity is
determined over a period of several years. 10oC is the temperature at which growth occurs for apple and
base temperature varies with crop.
A Heat unit is calculated by Average temp – Base temp x No. of Days (flowering to harvest).
Base temp for tomato, spinach and pumpkin is 15o, 2o and 13oC respectively (flowering to harvest).
Heat requirement for various crops
Crop Cultivars Base temp Degree Days
Apple Red delicious 18oC 1659-1705
o
Grape Thompson seedless 10 C 1600-2000
Bangalore Blue 3562
Gulabi 3508
o
Mango Banganapalli 18 C 1426
o
Banana - 9.8 C 1930
o
Asparagus - 10 C 120-410
o
Peas Early Wisconsin 4.4 C 1319
Alaska 1200

4. T- Stage: T- Stage is the point at which the angle formed by the fruit receptacle and pedicel reaches
90o. The angle between pedicel and receptacle is >90o early in the growing season and less than 90o late
in the season in apple.
Physical methods
1. Fruit retention strength/ ease of separation - The force required to pull the fruit from the tree which
indicates the maturity status of the fruit.
2. Acoustic/sound tests - The sound of a fruit as it is tapped sharply with a finger knuckle, ripe fruit
gives dull sound. E.g.: Watermelon
3. Fruit size and surface morphology - The change in size of crop as it is growing are frequently used
to determine when it should be harvested. E.g.: Green beans, okra, etc.
4. Shape - The shape referred to the design of the fruit. This shape of fruit can change during maturation.
Eg. Banana - individual fingers become more rounded on maturity from angular shape.
5. Weight
6. Specific gravity - As fruit mature their specific gravity increases. Fruits that float on the water will be
less mature than those sink. E.g.: Cherries, watermelon, potatoes, mango, etc.
7. Colour (Skin, flesh and seed) - In most of the fruits, green colour changes into yellow/ red/ purple/
violet during ripening after the optimum maturity. The assessment of harvest maturity by skin colour
change usually with the judgement of the harvester, but colour charts are used for some cultivars of
apple, chilli, peach and tomato. The chlorophyll fluorescence spectrometer or colorimeter used to detect
the loss of chlorophyll.
8. Firmness/solidity: Used for assessing harvest maturity in many leafy vegetables. Here harvester
slightly presses vegetables such as cabbage and hearting lettuce with his thumb and finger. The firmness
may be detected by following ways:
a. Destructive test methods: Pressure testers, Tenderometer (Peas), Finger squeeze/touch
b. Non-destructive test methods: Inston Universal Tester
10. Brittleness of the floral part: Sapota, Banana
12. Bulk density - Cole crops
13. Formation of abscission layer - Abscission layer is formed in the pedicel as the fruit develops and
matures naturally. E.g.: Cantaloupe melons
14. Aroma/ Organoleptic quality: Characteristic odour when ripe
15. Fruit opening: Fully mature fruit splits. E.g.: Ackee fruit, Chow chow vegetable
16. Vibration tests: Principle of acoustics is applied using commercial audio speakers. E.g.: Tomato,
mango and avocado
17. Electrical characteristics: Change in the resistance/ capacitance as results of change on
concentration of dissolved electrolytes of the flesh/juice during maturation. Specific electrical resistance
decrease with increasing sugars. E.g.: Watermelon
18. Electromagnetic Methods: Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is used
 To correlate sugar in banana and apple and oil content in avocado
 For detecting the physiological disorders like water core in apple
 To obtain images of bruises on apple, peaches, pears and onions pits in olives and prunes and inset
damages in peas.
 To measure moisture content
19. Optical methods: The change in the transmission of diffused light is affected by the level of
chlorophyll in the fruit, which reduces during ripening.
20. Radiation: X and gamma rays have been used to assess quality and maturity characteristics of fresh
products. The basis of the tests depends on the rate of transmission of the rays through produce which
depends on the density of the produce. Example:
 Determines the density of the head in Lettuce at the time of harvest
 Determines internal disorders of hollow heart in potatoes
 Split pit in peaches and Granulation in oranges
Chemical methods
1. Titrable acidity - In citrus and other fruits, acidity progressively reduces on maturation and ripening.
Measuring acidity by titration gives the brix: acid ratio
2. TSS
Fruit TSS (%) Fruit TSS (%)
Apple 11.50 -14.50 Citrus 12 -14
Pear 12.92-12.99 Papaya 11 – 12
Kiwi 8.00 Pineapple 13.00
Grapes 12-20
3. TSS/acid ratio
4. Sugars: In both climacteric and non-climacteric fruits, measurement of sugars in the fruit can provide
an indication of the stage of ripeness or maturity of that fruit. Sugar is measured in terms of soluble solids
using Brix hydrometer or Refractometer
4. Sugar/ acid ratio
5. Bioelectrical conductance
6. Starch content (Iodine test) - The measurement of starch content using iodine stain in the developing
fruit taken for assessing the harvest maturity.
7. Tannin content - Dates, persimmon and litchi
8. Oil content and dry matter percentage - 8% of oil by weight of the avocado, dry matter is used to
assess the maturity standard in processing varieties of potato
9. Juice content - The juice content of fruit increases as they mature on the tree. Navel oranges -30%,
other oranges-35%, Lemons-25%, Mandarins-33%, Grape fruit-35%

Physiological methods
1. Rate of respiration
2. Rate of ethylene production
3. Transpiration
4. Production of volatiles

Geometrical methods
1. Particles size and shape of the produce
2. Particle composition and orientation in a given tissue or food
3. Moisture content of produce
Maturity Indices followed in various fruits and vegetables
Sl.No Maturity Indices Fruits / vegetables
EXTERNAL
1. Visual (OECD colour charts) All fruits and most vegetables
2. Calendar date All fruits
3. DFFB All fruits and radish
4. Mean heat unit Apple, pear, grape, mango, ber, litchi and sweet
corn many vegetables
5. T-Stage Apple
6. Size All fruits, beans, carrot, cucumber, cherry,
asparagus and cauliflower, zucchini
7. Grape(cuticle formation), banana, mango, sapota,
litchi, tomatoes, netting on some melons, glossy
Surface morphology ness of some fruits (development of wax)
Sl.No Maturity Indices Fruits / vegetables
8. Specific gravity (Sinker/floater) Cherries, mango and ber
9. Fruit retention strength Apple
10. Colour –Surface All fruits ,tomato, water melon
Seed Apple , Pears
Flesh Mango, papaya, watermelon and muskmelon,
tomato (jelly like material)
11. Leaf changes Potato, onion ,melons(leaf axis on fruit drys )
12. Textural Properties
13.  Firmness (Penetrometer/ Fruit Pome and stone fruits, beans, lettuce and melons
presser tester)
14.  Tenderness (Tenderometer) Pea
15.  Touch/Finger Squeezing Beans, okra
16. Shape compactness in cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli,
angularity of banana, full shoulder development
in mango,
17. Abscission layer Melons
18. Weight at air / water
19. Solidity-Bulk density/X/Gamma rays lettuce, cabbage, brussels sprouts
20. Tight bud/ bud crack/ Rose and many cut flowers
opening of flowers Lloose flower- crossandra
INTERNAL
21. Total solids : Dry weight Avocado, Kiwi fruit, Potato
22. TSS All fruits ,tomato, water melon
23. Starch content -Iodine test apples, pear
24. Sugar content (Hand Refractrometer) all fruits
25. Acidity or Sugar/acid ratio Pomegranate, citrus, papaya and kiwi fruit, grape
26. Juice Content Citrus Sp
27. Astringency (Tannin) Persimmon and dates
28. Oil content Avocado
29. Physiological:
Respiration and C2H4 rate Apple and pears and many fruit
30. Others
31. Optical methods(380-730 nm) Apricot, banana, orange, papaya
32. Aroma Many fruits
33. Fruit opening Chow chow (over mature), Ackee
34. Acoustic / Vibration Melons/ Apple, tomato(unripe 110- ripe 80 Hz)
35. Electrical Characteristics Peach (unripe 550,ripe150 Hertz)
36. Electormagnetic – Nuclear magnetic Apple, banana, avocado peach, pear, onion
resonance (NMR)
37. Near-Infrared reflectance (400- Mango, pineapple
2500nm)
38. Radiation (X & gamma -rays) Lettuce, potato
Maturity and ripening process
The life of fruits and vegetables can be conveniently divided into three major physiological stages
following germination. These are growth, maturation and senescence.

Growth involves cell division and subsequent cell enlargement, which accounts for the final size of the
produce.

Maturation usually commences before growth ceases and includes different activities in different
commodities. Growth and maturation are often collectively referred to as the development phase.

Senescence is defined as the period when synthetic (anabolic) biochemical process gives way to
degradative (catabolic) process, leading to ageing and finally death of the tissue.

Ripening is a phase of qualitative change which occurs in fruits particularly, after completion of
maturation, during which the fruit becomes acceptable for consumption in terms of taste and flavour.
Ripening occur during the later stages of maturation and is the first stage of senescence.
Fruits are classified based on their physiology and ripening behavior into two groups namely
climacteric and non-climacteric fruits.

Definitions
1. Ripening: Ripening is a phase of qualitative change which occurs in fruits particularly, after
completion of maturation, during which the fruit becomes acceptable for consumption in terms of taste
and flavour. Ripening occur during the later stages of maturation and is the first stage of senescence

2. Senescence: Senescence is defined as the period when synthetic (anabolic) biochemical process gives
way to degradative (catabolic) process, leading to ageing and finally death of the tissue

3. Climacteric fruits: Fruits whose respiration rate and ethylene evolution increases to a maximum just
prior to full ripening. These fruits can be ripened after harvest. E.g.: Apple, Apricot, Avocado, Banana,
Ber, Cherimoya, Fig, Guava, Kiwifruit, Mango, Melons, Pear, Peach, Plum, Persimmon, Papaya,
Tomato, Sapota, Passion fruit. Climacteric fruits produce larger quantities of ethylene in association with
their ripening, and exposure to ethylene treatment results in faster and more uniform ripening. In case of
vegetables, the climacteric rise in respiration as observed in certain fruits is not apparent.

4. Non-climacteric fruits: Fruits whose respiration rate and ethylene production rates does not accelerate
during ripening. These fruits are the best when ripened before harvest. E.g.: Strawberry, citrus fruits
(grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, mandarin), pineapple, pomegranate, carambola, cherries, grapes, litchi,
loquat and olive.
However, non-climacteric fruits produce very small quantities of ethylene and do not respond to
ethylene treatment, except in terms of degreening in citrus and pineapple.

Chemicals used for hastening and delay of ripening of fruit and vegetables

Chemicals that hasten ripening

Ethylene: Ethylene related compounds –
CEPA-2 Chloro ethyl phosphoric acid
CPTA-2,4 Chloro phenyl friethyl amine
Used for pre and postharvest treatments of fruits.
Acetylene and calcium chloride: Calcium carbide treatment to generate acetylene to hasten fruit
ripening in banana.

Smoke treatment:
Burning and releasing smoke from leaves, twigs or straw will also hasten ripening in mango.
2,4-D: 2, 4 dichlorophenoxy acetic acid is used in ripening of Guava
2,4,5-T-2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy acetic acid used in Sapota.

Chemicals that delay ripening

Cytokinins and Kinetins: Delays chlorophyll degradation and senescence of leafy vegetable.

Gibberellins: Post harvest treatments with GA3 retard ripening of tomato and bananas GA3 lowers
respiratory rate, retards in climacteric fruits and delays the process of colour changes.

Growth retardants:
MH – prevents sprouting of onion bulbs and potato tubers. Also delays ripening of mango.
Alar: Reduce…. Fruit firmness fruit colour development and early maturation. It is applied before
harvest. In lettuce it reduces senescence.
CCC (Cycocel)-2 chloroethyl – trimethyl ammonium chloride used in delaying of senescence of
vegetables.

Delaying ripening process by skin coating (waxing):

Edible waxes are coated on fruits which prevents transportation losses and minimize respiration rate.
Sugar wax along with emulsifier is melted and then boiling water is poured slowly to melted ingredients
and prepare emulsion.

Emulsifying agents: TEA (Triethylene amine), TBZ – Tribenzoate, fungicides – SOPP (Sodium ortho
phenyl phenate) for control of pencillium in oranges (Take the emulsion in large basins and dip the fruit
or basket containing fruits for 30 seconds.

Thiourea – is used for control of penicillium and deplodium on oranges.

Changes that take place during ripening

Physical changes
1. Seed maturation
2. Colour changes: The most common change is the loss of green colour
3. Abscission (detachment from parent part)
4. Softening: Fruits normally soften progressively during ripening due to the breakdown of starch and
other non-pectin polysaccharides in the pulp reducing cellular rigidity
Chemical changes
1. Cell wall changes: In middle lamella, the pectic polysaccharides are degraded and solubilised during
ripening, the cell wall softens and the tissue permeability changes
2. Changes in starch/carbohydrate composition: Sugar levels within the fruit tend to increase during
ripening as the accumulated starch is hydrolysed into sugars (glucose, fructose or sugars)
3. Organic acid changes: Usually organic acids decline during ripening as they are either respired or
converted to sugars
4. Amino acids and protein changes: During senescence, the level of free amino acids increases
reflecting a breakdown of enzymes and decreased metabolic activity
5. Development of wax on the skin
6. Ascorbic acid: In pome, stone and berry fruits, ascorbic acid quantity reduces
7. Phenolic compounds: Some fruits contain high levels of phenolic compounds, especially in the
peel. Phenolics such as tannins are polymerized to insoluble compounds, resulting in a reduction of
astringency as in the ripe banana fruit

Physiological changes
1. Changes in respiration rate: There is a sudden increase in the respiration after attaining the
physiological maturity in climacteric fruits, this leads to a series of changes in fruits which ensure the
completion of ripening
Respiration rate (CO2 evolution) of different fruits at 20-25°C
Climacteric fruits Respiration peak Non- climacteric Respiration peak
fruits
Apple 16 mg/kg/hr Orange 30 mg/kg/hr
Avocado 155 mg/kg/hr Grapefruit 16 mg/kg/hr
Banana 140-200 mg/kg/hr Eureka lemon 22.7 mg/kg/hr
Fig 50-100 mg/kg/hr Pineapple 22 mg/kg/hr
Mango 82 mg/kg/hr Litchi 22 µg/kg/hr
Respiration rate (CO2 evolution) of different vegetables at 20-25°C
Respiratory rate CO2 output Vegetables
Low < 40 mg CO2/kg/hr Potato, onion and cucumber
Moderate 40 to 80 mg Pepper, carrot and tomato
CO2/kg/hr
High 80 - 120 mg Peas and radish
CO2/kg/hr
Very high > 120 mg CO2/kg/hr Green onion, melons, cauliflower, okra
2. Changes in the rate of ethylene evolution: The production of ethylene, a ripening hormone in
climacteric fruits follows a similar pattern as that of CO2 evolution and hence can be a useful
indicator of the physiological maturity of the fruits.
The fruits according to their ethylene evolution rates at 20-25°C have been classified into 5
categories as follows.
Classification Ethylene rate Fruits
Very low 0.01µl/kg/hr Cherry, citrus, grape, strawberry and pomegranate
Low 0.1-1.0 µl/kg/hr Blueberry, cucumber, okra and pineapple
Moderate 1.0-10 µl/kg/hr Banana, fig, melon, mango and tomato
High 10.0-100 Apple, avocado, cantaloupe, papaya, nectarine and
µl/kg/hr pear
Very high > 100 µl/kg/hr Cherimoya, passion fruit and sapota
3. Production of flavour volatiles and aroma: Flavour is the subtle and complex perception that
combines taste, smell and mouth feel. Ripening usually brings about an increase in simple sugars to
give sweetness, and decrease in organic acids and phenolics to minimize astringency and an increase
in volatiles to produce the characteristic flavour.

Aroma plays an important part in the development of optimal eating quality in most of the fruits. It is
due to the synthesis of many volatile organic compounds during the ripening phase.

Fruit Aroma compound Fruit Aroma compound

Ripe apple Ethyl 2, methyl butarate Grape fruit Nootkatone
Green apple Presence of Hexanol Lemon Citrol
 Green banana Hexanol Orange Valencene
Ripe banana Eugenol Raspberry 1-hydroxy phenol 3-butanon
Over ripe banana Iso-pentanol

Vegetable Aroma compound Vegetable Aroma compound

Raw cucumber 2-6-nanodianol Mushroom Lenthionine
Raw cabbage Allyl iso-thiocyanate 2-mehtoxy, 3-ethyl pyrazine or
Potato
Cabbage Allyl isocyanate 2-5 dimethoxy pyrazine
Cooked cabbage Dimethyl disulphide Raddish 4-methyl thio trans 3-butenile
iso-thiocyanate

5. Factors affecting ripening of fruits and vegetables

1. Respiration: It is the oxidative break down of more complex substrates normally present in cells such
as sugars, starch and organic acids to simpler molecules as CO2 and H2O
2. Transpiration / water loss: Fruits and vegetables contain more than 80-95% water and the presence
of moisture inside the tissue is responsible for maintenance of turgidity and succulence. Water loss
results in shrivelling and wilting of fruits and vegetables
3. Ethylene: Ethylene is naturally produced gaseous plant growth regulator that has numerous effects on
growth, development and storage life of many fruits, vegetable and ornamentals
4. Pathological stresses: Diseases play major role. Fruits and vegetables affected with disease ripen
early and minimize keeping quality/ shelf life
5. Mechanical stress: Mechanical damage also affects fruit and vegetables and speeds up ripening
process
6. Temperature: High temperatures due to field heat, transportation etc. and also low temperatures like
chilling and freezing, also affects the fruit and vegetable ripening process
Fruit respiration: Few fruits exhibit the pronounced increase in the respiration (increase in CO2 and
C2H4) coincidence with the ripening, such increase in the respiration is known as respiratory climacteric,
and this group of fruits is called climacteric.

Difference between climacteric and non-climacteric fruits

Climacteric fruit (CF) Non-climacteric fruit (NCF)
1 Fruits that ripen after harvest Fruit that does not ripen after harvest. Ripen on
the plant itself.
2 Typically ripen by softening by changing Do not change significantly after harvest.
colour and become sweeter on or off the They will soften a little, lose green colour and
plant (except in avocado, which will ripen develop rots as they become old but they do not
only after detached from the plant) change to improve their eating characteristics.
3 Exhibits a peak in respiration Not
4 Show single phase respiratory response to Multiple phase
exogenous ethylene
6 Ethylene exposer bring about autocatalytic Loss of chlorophyll and increase in respiration
production of ethylene and rise in
respiration
7 Generate large amount of ethylene Little / No
production as ripening proceeds
8 Significant increase in CO2 production Slowly
9 Decrease in internal oxygen concentration More
10 Low concentration of ethylene 0.1-1.0 Applied ethylene merely transient increases the
µL/L/day is sufficiently hasten full ripening respiration of non-climacteric fruits.
of climacteric fruit
11 Store carbon in an insoluble form (starch). Store carbon in a soluble form i.e sugar.
Fruit/produce is more compact, osmotically (Harvesting early reduce sugar content).
inactive. Fruit/produce is more soft, juice.
12 Time of picking is less dependent on sugar Dependent on sugar content at the time of
content, since a doubling or more of sugar harvest.
concentration by starch hydrolysis can still
take place after the fruit are picked.
13 Both unripe climacteric and non-climacteric fruit do increase their respiration rate when
exposed to exogenous ethylene.
14 Eg - Many except in the opposite column Eg – Refer table below

Non –Climacteric fruits

Asian pear, Citrus sp Loquat Pomegranate Surinam cherry
Blackberry, Carambola(Star apple), Mangosteen Pumpkin, Tart cherries
Blueberry, Cucumber Okra, Rambutan Tree tomato
Cacao, Eggplant Olives Raspberry rin& nor tomato
Cactus pear Grape, Pea Rose apple Watermelon
Cashew apple Jamun Pepper Strawberry
Cherry(sweet& sour) Litchi, Pineapple Summer squash

Fig. Growth, respiration and ethylene production patterns Fig. Respiratory patterns of
of climacteric and non-climacteric plant organs harvested climacteric fruits

Respiration: is a process in which stored organic materials (carbohydrates, protein, and fat) are broken
down into simple end products with release of energy. Oxygen is used in this process and carbon dioxide
is produced.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (686k.cal)
Production of CO2 and the uptake of O2 by the metabolic process enable the rate of aerobic respiration to
be measure physiologically in plant tissues. Oxidation of glucose generates an equal amount of CO2 for
the O2 consumed, whereas oxidation of malate generates more CO2 then the O2 consumed. This
relationship is important in measuring respiration by gas exchange.
The O2 concentration at which anaerobic respiration commences varies between tissues and is usually
below 1 % V/V and off falvour may results from fermentation.

Effect of Respiration on the produce

 Reduced food value (energy value) for the consumer
 Reduced flavor due to loss of volatiles
 Reduced sweetness
 Reduced weight
 Important for the commodities which desire dehydration

The rate of deterioration of horticultural commodities is directly proportional to the respiration rate
From the postharvest point of view, rate of respiration is important because of this main effect; however,
the rate of respiration also gives an indication of the overall rate of metabolism of the plant or produce. In
some case, specific metabolic changes may occur without measurable changes in net respiration. Neither
changes in the concentration of chlorophyll nor reducing sugar, acidity, carotenoids, or esters correlates
well with changes in respiration rate. Therefore, it is important that respiration is viewed as it fits into the
overall process of metabolism in the harvested products rather than as an end of itself.
General comparison of photosynthesis and respiration
Photosynthesis Respiration
Function Energy acquisition Energy utilization & formation of
carbon skeletons
Location in cell Chloroplast Mitochondria and Cytoplasm
Role of light Essential Not involved
Substrates CO2, H2O, light Stored carbon, O2
End products O2, stored carbon CO2, H2O, energy
Overall effects Increased the weight Decreased the weight of plants or
plant produce
General 6CO2+6H2O chloroplast C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 + 6O2 mitochondria 6CO2
equation 6O2 + 6H2O +
energy
(686k.cal)
Classification of horticultural commodities according to their respiration rate
Range at 5o C
CLASS (mg Co2 /Kg/hr) COMMODITIES
Very low <5 Dates, Dried fruit and vegetables, Nuts, etc.

Low 5 - 10 Apple, Beet, Celery, Citrus Fruits, Garlic, Grapes, Kiwi Fruit, Onion,
Papaya, Pineapple, Potato (Mature), Sweet Potato, Watermelon etc.
Moderate 10- 20 Apricot, Banana, Cabbage, Carrot (Topped ), Cherry, Fig, Lettuce
(Head), Mango, Peach, Pear, Plum, Potato (Immature), Radish
(Topped), Tomato, Summer squash
High 20 - 40 Avocado. Carrot (With tops), Cauliflower, Leeks, Lettuce (Leaf),
Radish (With tops), Raspberry
Very high 40 - 60 Artichoke, Bean Sprouts, Broccoli, Brussels sprouts, Cut flowers,
Green Onion, Okra
Extremely high > 60 Asparagus, Mushroom, Parsley, Peas, Spinach, Sweet corn
Note: To get mL kg-1 h-1, divide the mg kg-1 h-1rate by 2.0 at 0°C, 1.9 at 10°C, and 1.8 at 20°C. To
calculate heat production, multiply mg kg-1 h-1 by 220 to get BTU per ton per day or by 61 to get kcal per
metric ton per day.
Factors responsible for the respiration
Internal (commodity)
1. Species
2. Cultivar
3. Type of the plant parts – leaves, stem, fruit, root, tuber etc.
4. Stage of development of tissue
5. Surface -to- volume ratios of the produce
6. Pre-harvest treatments (cultural) and PH methods employed (handling etc.)
7. Chemical composition of tissue
8. Any wounding
9. Size of the produce
10. Presence of natural coating on the surface
External (environment)
1. Temperature
2. RH
3. Gas composition in the ambient and within the cell
4. Moisture content of the tissue
5. Light
Effect of Ethylene
Ethylene is a natural product of plant metabolism and is produced by all tissues and by microorganisms.
It’s very low concentration (< 0.1 ppm) can affect the plant organs. Production of ethylene results in
premature ripening of certain horticultural produce.

All fruits produce minute quantity of ethylene during development, however, coincident with ripening,
climacteric fruits produce much larger amount of ethylene than non climacteric fruits. Low concentration
of ethylene 0.1-1.0 µL/L/day is sufficiently hasten full ripening of climacteric fruit, but magnitude of the
climacteric is relatively independent of the concentration of applied ethylene , but magnitude of the
increase being defendant on the concentration of ethylene.

Events changes during maturation/ripening of Horticultural produce

Increases Decrease
CO2 starch
C2H4 chlorophyll
Colour pigments firmness
Polygalcturonase activity Vit.C at the end
Acidity (marginal) texture
pH (marginal) water
Sugars
Organic acids
Aroma
Sweetness
Fiber at the end
Harvesting and postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables
Harvesting is an important operation in horticultural crop production and any insufficiency during
this time may lead to the loss of whole season or year’s work. Harvesting with improper methods results
in the damage of crop by bruising which can be caused by compression (due to overfilling of boxes or in
bulky stores), impact (due to dropping of crop or from something hitting the crop) or vibration (due to
loose packing during transportation). So, during harvesting, factors like delicacy of crop, maturity
criteria, time and method of harvesting, mode of packaging and transportation, the importance of speed
during transportation, importance of harvesting methods to fulfill the market requirement should be taken
into consideration.

In addition to harvesting methods, the time of harvest plays a crucial role in maintaining the best
quality of crop during the course of postharvest handling and storage. A number of various maturity
indices are used to determine the harvest maturity of a given crop.
Harvesting Methods
1. Hand harvesting
Less expensive, low damage to the commodity and harvest rate can be increased but harvesting of
small size fruits or from thorny plants are the major obstacles
2. Mechanical harvesting
a. Mechanical assistance
Mechanical assistance to hand pickers by ladders and worker positioners (tree towers and
platforms) and self – propelled carts (to reduce non harvest time by assisting with materials handling and
movement of the workers and to increase productivity during harvesting time by providing optimum
working conditions and by making detachment of the fruits easier)
b. Harvesting machines
Mechanical Harvesting devices that employ direct contact methods such as combing, cutting,
pulling, snapping, twisting, stripping and compacting.
Postharvest handling
Being living organs, fruits and vegetables continue to respire even after harvesting when they
have a limited source of food reserves. In addition to degradation of respiratory substrates, a number of
changes in taste, color, flavour, texture and appearance take place in the harvested commodities which
make them unacceptable for consumption by the consumers if these are not handled properly. The
improper temperatures may lead to the disturbance in the normal metabolism of the harvested organs.
The higher temperatures may increase manifolds the rate of metabolic activities thereby, reducing the
shelf-life, while much lower temperatures may lead to the freezing or chilling injury in the harvested
commodities. Mechanically damaged fruits and vegetables during harvesting are very much prone for
fungal decay during the course of storage. Already infected fruits or vegetables may spread the disease to
the adjacent stored commodity if not sorted out prior to the storage.
It is well established that the quality of the harvested commodities cannot be improved further but
it can be retained till their consumption if the rate of metabolic activities are reduced by adopting the
appropriate postharvest handling operations.
Steps/ operations in postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables
1. Precooling
Precooling (prompt cooling after harvest) is important for most of the fruits and vegetables
because they may deteriorate as much in 1 hour at 32oC (90oF) as they do in 1 day at 10oC (50oF) or in 1
week at 0oC (32oF). In addition to removal of field heat from commodities, precooling also reduces
bruise damage from vibration during transit. Cooling requirement for a crop vary with the air temperature
during harvesting, stage of maturity and nature of crop.
 There are many methods of precooling viz. Cold air (room cooling, forced air cooling), cold water
(hydrocooling), direct contact with ice (contact icing), evaporation of water from the produce
(evaporative cooling, vacuum cooling) and combination of vacuum and hydrocooling (hydrovac cooling).
Some chemicals (nutrients/ growth regulators/fungicides) can also be mixed with the water used in
hydrocooling to prolong the shelf life by improving nutrient status of crop and preventing the spread of
postharvest diseases.
2. Washing, cleaning and trimming
Before fresh fruits and vegetables are marketed, various amounts of cleaning are necessary which
typically involves the removal of soil dust, adhering debris, insects and spray residues. Chlorine in fresh
water is often used as disinfectant to wash the commodity. Some fungicides like Diphenylamine (0.10 -
0.25%) or ethoxyquin (0.20 – 0.50%) may be used as postharvest dip to control an important disorder of
apple known as superficial scald. For cleaning of some fruit type vegetables (melons, brinjals, tomatoes,
cucumber) they should be wiped with damp cloth. Many vegetables need trimming, cutting and removal
of unsightly leaves or other vegetative parts.
3. Sorting, Grading and Sizing
Sorting is done by hand to remove the fruits which are unsuitable to market or store due to
damage by insects, diseases or mechanical injuries and malformations. The crop is then separated into
various grades based on the surface color, shape or visible defects. After sorting and grading, sizing is
done either by hand or machine sizers which work on the principle of weight and diameter. Sizing on the
basis of fruit shape and weight is most effective for spherical (Oranges, tomato, certain apple cultivars)
fruits and the elongated fruits (pears) are graded based on size.
4. Curing
Curing is an effective operation to reduce the water loss during storage from hardy vegetables viz.
Onion, garlic, sweet potato and other tropical root vegetables. The curing methods employed for root
crops are entirely different than that from the bulbous crops (onions and garlic). The curing of root and
tuber crops helps to develop periderm over the cut, broken or skinned surfaces. It helps in the healing of
harvest injuries, reduces loss of water and prevents the infection by decay pathogens.
Onions and garlic are cured to dry the necks and outer scales. For the curing of onion and garlic,
the bulbs are left in the field after harvesting under shade for a few days until the green tops, outer skins
and roots are fully dried.
The optimum conditions for curing of some vegetables
Commodity Temperature (oC) RH Curing time
(days)
Sweet Potato 13-17 >85 7-15
Yam 27-33 >90 5-7
Cassava 30-35 >80 4-7
Onion and garlic 35-45 60-75 ½ to 1 day with
warm forced air

5. Chemical treatment
Various types of compounds like nutrients, growth regulators, ethylene, ethylene inhibitors, anti
microbial agents, etc. are used to treat the fruits and vegetables with the purpose to enhance quality, avoid
physiological disorders, extend storage life, promote ripening etc.
6. Waxing
Application of waxes on the surface of fruits helps to create modified atmosphere that has been
used to supplement temperature control and extend the postharvest shelf life of fruit by reducing
respiration and transpiration rates and delaying senescence. Other chemicals such as fungicides, growth
regulators, preservatives can also be incorporated specially for reducing microbial spoilage, sprout
inhibition, etc.
Various quality contributing factors are affected by wax application which includes reduction in
the physiological loss in weight (PLW), delay in respiration rate, reduction in postharvest spoilage and
maintenance of improved quality of commodity to increase the shelf life.
The principal disadvantage of wax coating is the development of off-flavor if not applied
properly. Adverse flavour changes have been attributed to inhibition of O2 and CO2 exchange thus,
resulting in anaerobic respiration and elevated ethanol and acetaldehyde contents.

7. Packaging
Proper or scientific packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables reduces the wastage of commodities
by protecting them from mechanical damage, pilferage, dirt, moisture loss and other undesirable
physiological changes and pathological deterioration during the course of storage, transportation and
subsequent marketing. Packaging helps to protect the produce against the hazards of transportation. The
gunny bags, grasses and stem leaves used so far for packaging are now being replaced by a variety of
containers such as wooden boxes, baskets woven from bamboo or twigs, hessian sack/ jute bags, plastic
punnets and corrugated fibre board (CFB) boxes, plastic trays, pulp trays, stretch wrapping, modified
atmosphere packaging etc.

8. Storage
A number of storage techniques (ground storage, ambient storage, refrigerated storage, air cooled
storage, zero emery storage, modified atmospheric storage, hypobaric storage, controlled atmospheric
storage etc.) are being used for fruits and vegetables depending upon the nature of the commodity and the
storage period intended.

Post harvest handling operations of fruits

Harvesting, Precooling, Sorting, Washing, Waxing/ Chemical treatments, Sizing, Packaging,
Storage, Transportation, Wholesaler, Restoring, Resizing and Repacking, Transportation, Retailer and
Consumer

Post harvest handling operations of vegetables

Harvesting, Precooling, Cleaning, Trimming, Grading, Sorting, Curing, Sizing, Waxing,
Packaging, Storage, Transportation, Wholesaler, Transportation, Retailer and Consumer

STORAGE OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

The shelf life of most fresh horticultural produce can be extended by prompt storage in convenient
environment that maintains product quality. The desired storage environment can be obtained in facilities
where temperature, relative humidity, air circulation and atmosphere/gas compositionare controlled.

Storage – defined as keeping the fresh / processed commodities in safe condition with minimum
deteriorative changes for later use.
Principles of storage
 Control of respiration
 Control of transpiration
 Prolonging the Dormancy period/Control of sprouting and rooting
 Control of undesirable plant process (refer physiological deterioration)
 Control of spoilage
Goals of storage
 Slow down biological activity (transpiration, respiration, ethylene)
 Reduce product drying and moisture loss(shrivelling)
 Reduce pathogenic infection and insect infestation
 Avoid physiological disorders
 Reduce physical damage
 Preserve the commodities in most usable form for the consumer
Advantage of storage
 Extending the period of availability round the year
 Prevention of seasonal market glut
 Orderly marketing
 Better return to growers/consumers
 Preservation of nutritional qualities
 Prolong the usefulness of the produce
Factors affecting storage
Storage life of fresh horticultural produce is affected by many factors like
 Pre harvest factors
 Variety and Maturity at harvest
 Harvesting and handling practices(pre-cooling and others)
 Pre-storage treatments
 Temperature and humidity in storage room
 Overall hygiene
Storage considerations
1. Temperature: Where ever possible lower temperatures suitable for the given commodity are
maintained reducing the respiration and transpiration rates.
2. Relative humidity: RH combined with temperature plays important role in storage.
3. Atmospheric composition: Maintenance of proper oxygen, carbon dioxide and ethylene levels
helps to enhance storage manifolds.

Traditional/ Low cost storage technology

1. In situ/ On site storage: In situ means delaying the harvest until the crop is required and is employed
for the root crops. The land where crop is grown remains occupied and new crop cannot be planted there.
The tubers of crops like cassava may lose the starch content due to delayed harvest. The crops should be
protected from pest and disease attack, chilling and freezing injuries.
2. Sand and Coir: In India, potatoes are traditionally stored in sand brick kiln soil (which is very dry,
structure less material used to insulate kilns in India) and storage losses are reduced.
3. Pit storage: Pits or trenches are dug at the edges of field. Pits should be placed at a higher point, if the
field has slopes especially in regions of high rainfall. Ventilation holes are left at the top covered with
straw in such a way so as to allow air to pass out, but avoid penetration of rain. Lack of ventilation may
cause rotting problem. Potatoes are stored by farmers in pits by this method.
4. Windbreaks: It is a traditional way of storing onions in Britain and onions can be stored for 6 months.
The windbreak should be sited with its longer axis at right angles to the prevailing wind.
5. Evaporative cooling: The principle of evaporation can be used to cool stores by first passing the air
into the store through a pad of water. The degree of cooling depends on the original humidity of the air
and the efficiency of evaporating surface. Both active and passive evaporative cooling systems are
used. In a passive system, the cooling pads are placed over the entrance of the store and kept moist. In
active system, air is drawn into the store by a fan through a pad, kept moist by constantly pumping water
over it. The latter type is more efficient in cooling but requires an electricity supply.
6. Zero Energy Cool Chamber (ZECC): It is based on the principle of direct evaporative cooling. It
does not require any electricity or power to operate. The materials required to make this chamber are
cheap and available easily.
Design and Construction: The floor of the storage space is made with a single layer of bricks over
which a doubled wall rectangular structure is erected with approximately 7.5 cm space between the inner
and the outer brick walls. The outer dimensions of the chamber should be about 165x115x67.5 cm. The
cavity between the two walls is filled with river sand. The top of storage space is covered with gunny
cloth in a bamboo frame structure. The chamber should be constructed under a shed with a lot of aeration
and should be closer to water source.
Operation: After construction, the whole structure is made wet by sprinkling water once in evening till it
is saturated to maintain a lower temperature and higher humidity in it. Direct contact of water with fruits
and vegetables should be avoided. Fruits and vegetables should be placed in crates or in suitable baskets
and then in the chamber. Maximum and minimum thermometer and a wet and dry thermometer are
placed in the chamber to note temperature and relative humidity in the cool chamber.
Storage life-Storage life of different commodities can be increased by 2 to 3 times as compared to
ambient conditions especially during summer.

Storage life of different commodities in zero energy cool chambers

Vegetables Months Storage life (days)
Ambient ZECC
Bitter gourd May-June 2 6
Carrot Feb-Mar 5 12
Cauliflower Feb-Mar 7 12
Cucumber May- June 3 8
Green chillies May- June 3 6
Ladies finger May- June 1 6
Peas Feb-Mar 5 10
Spinach Feb-Mar 3 8
High cost storage technology/ Improved storage methods
1. Cold storage - Refrigeration, Chilling and Freezing
2. Jacketed storages
3. Solar driven cold stores
4. Low Pressure Storage / Hypobaric Storage
5. Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CA Storage)
6. Modified Atmosphere Storage (MA Storage)
1. Cold/ Refrigerated storage – Refrigeration, chilling and freezing
Cold preservation can be refrigeration, chilling or freezing. Household refrigerators usually run at
4-7°C. Chilling or cold storage usually uses a slightly lower temperature on the basis of the food to be
refrigerated. In freezing a temperature of -18°C or below is used. Chilling will preserve perishable foods
for days or weeks and freezing will preserve foods for months or even years.

a. Refrigeration
Heat moves from the object at higher temperature to that at lower one i.e., refrigeration takes out
heat from commodities to be cooled. Refrigeration creates a cold surface that absorbs heat transferred to
it by conduction, convection or radiation. Ammonia is the most commonly used refrigerant for large
installations. It is inexpensive and can be changed from vapour to liquid at nominal pressures and it
absorbs a great amount of heat upon vapourizing (300 cal/kg). However, ammonia will damage fruits in
case of the gas leakage into cold storage rooms and is toxic at high concentrations. So, fluorocarbons
such as Freon-12 and 22 have replaced ammonia as they are non toxic and non-flammable.
The refrigeration cycle - Principle of refrigeration
Refrigeration system components
There are five basic components of a refrigeration system, these are:
 Evaporator
 Compressor
 Condenser
 Expansion Valve
 Refrigerant; to conduct the heat from the product
The Evaporator: The purpose of the evaporator is to remove unwanted heat from the product, via the
liquid refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant contained within the evaporator is boiling at a low-pressure.
To enable the transfer of heat, the temperature of the liquid refrigerant must be lower than the
temperature of the product being cooled. Once transferred, the liquid refrigerant is drawn from the
evaporator by the compressor via the suction line. When leaving the evaporator coil the liquid refrigerant
is in vapour form.
The Compressor: The purpose of the compressor is to draw the low-temperature, low-pressure vapour
from the evaporator via the suction line. Once drawn, the vapour is compressed. When vapour is
compressed it rises in temperature. Therefore, the compressor transforms the vapour from a low-
temperature vapour to a high-temperature vapour, in turn increasing the pressure. The vapour is then
released from the compressor in to the discharge line.
The Condenser: The purpose of the condenser is to extract heat from the refrigerant to the outside air.
The condenser is usually installed on the reinforced roof of the building, which enables the transfer of
heat. Fans mounted above the condenser unit are used to draw air through the condenser coils. The
temperature of the high-pressure vapour determines the temperature at which the condensation begins. As
heat has to flow from the condenser to the air, the condensation temperature must be higher than that of
the air; usually between -12°C and -1°C. The high-pressure vapour within the condenser is then cooled to
the point where it becomes a liquid refrigerant once more, whilst retaining some heat. The liquid
refrigerant then flows from the condenser in to the liquid line.
The Expansion Valve: Within the refrigeration system, the expansion valve is located at the end of the
liquid line, before the evaporator. The high-pressure liquid reaches the expansion valve, having come
from the condenser. The valve then reduces the pressure of the refrigerant as it passes through the orifice,
which is located inside the valve. On reducing the pressure, the temperature of the refrigerant also
decreases to a level below the surrounding air. This low-pressure, low-temperature liquid is then pumped
in to the evaporator.
Thus, in mechanical refrigeration, refrigerated gas (e.g.: Ammonia, Freon, etc.) takes out the heat
form chamber or store as it expands. Expanded gas is then compressed, and heat is removed from
compressed air over tubes containing hot gases. Gas is liquefied and this cycle is then repeated. With
such a system, accurate temperature control is possible. Fruits and vegetables can be safely kept for a
long period through refrigeration.

The refrigeration cycle (shown in diagram below) begins with the refrigerant in the evaporator. At this
stage the refrigerant in the evaporator is in liquid form and is used to absorb heat from the product. When
leaving the evaporator, the refrigerant has absorbed a quantity of heat from the product and is a low-
pressure, low-temperature vapour.

This low-pressure, low-temperature vapour is then drawn from the evaporator by the compressor. When
vapour is compressed it rises in temperature. Therefore, the compressor transforms the vapour from a
low-temperature vapour to a high-temperature vapour, in turn increasing the pressure. This high-
temperature, high-pressure vapour is pumped from the compressor to the condenser; where it is cooled by
the surrounding air, or in some cases by fan assistance. The vapour within the condenser is cooled only to
the point where it becomes a liquid once more. The heat, which has been absorbed, is then conducted to
the outside air.

At this stage the liquid refrigerant is passed through the expansion valve. The expansion valve reduces
the pressure of the liquid refrigerant and therefore reduces the temperature. The cycle is complete when
the refrigerant flows into the evaporator, from the expansion valve, as a low-pressure, low-temperature
liquid.
 Refrigerated products need not be thawed before use. Texture and flavour losses are minimum in
refrigerated foods. Chilling storage can be used as an adjunct to other methods of preservation.
b. Chilling: Chilling is the unit operation in which temperature of a food is reduced to between -1°C and
-8°C. Equipments used for chilling include mechanical refrigerators, cryogenic chilling and cook chill
systems
Chilling injury: All fruits cannot be chilled as tropical, subtropical and some temperate fruits suffer
from chilling injury at 3-10°C above their freezing point. Each fruit and vegetable has an optimum
storage temperature for its shelf life. Undesirable changes to some fruits and vegetables occur when
temperature is reduced below this optimum temperature. This is known as chilling injury.
c. Freezing: Freezing is the unit operation in which temperature of a food is reduced below freezing
point (-18oC), and a proportion of water undergoes a change in state to form ice crystals. Under usual
conditions of storage of frozen foods, microbial growth is prevented completely and action of food
enzymes greatly retarded. Lower the storage temperature, slower will be the rate of a chemical or enzyme
reaction.
In case of fast freezing, smaller ice crystals form within both cells and intercellular spaces. This
does not damage cell walls and so cause minimum dehydration of cells. Texture of food is thus retained
in fast freezing compared to slow freezing.
Freezing injury: Freezing injury occurs when ice crystals form in the tissues. The most common
symptom of freezing injury is a water soaked appearance. Tissues injured by freezing generally lose
rigidity and become mushy upon thawing. Freezing injury occurs in cold storage systems either due to
inadequate refrigerator design or thermostat failure.
Rate of freezing depends upon a number of factors such as method employed, temperature,
circulation of air or refrigerant, size and shape of package, kind of food etc.
Based on rate of movement of ice front, freezers are classified into four groups
1. Slow freezers and sharp freezers (0.2 cm/hr) including cold stores and chest freezers.
2. Quick freezers (0.5-3 cm/hr) including air-blast and plate freezers.
3. Rapid freezers (5-l0 cm/hr) including fluidized-bed freezers.
4. Ultra rapid freezers (10-100 cm/hr) including cryogenic freezers.
Freezers employed in freezing: Chest freezers, Blast freezers, Belt freezers/ Spiral freezers, Fluidized
bed freezers, Immersion freezers, Plate freezers, Scraped surface freezers, Cryogenic freezers (-196oC)
2. Jacketed storages
These are double walled storages where heat conducted through the floor, walls and ceiling is intercepted
and removed by the refrigeration system before it reaches the storage space. The walls, ceiling and floor
act as cooling surfaces. Humidity close to 100% is maintained. These jacketed storages built in Canada
are 10% more costly than conventional storages.
3. Solar driven cold stores
In tropical countries, solar energy is utilized in refrigeration cycle. In Sudan, such stores have been
developed having single stage ammonia/water absorption refrigerator with 13 kw peak cooling power and
were designed to keep 10 tonnes of agricultural products (volume 50 m2) at a minimum temperature of
5°C, as tested on bananas. This system is however costly when compared to conventional cold stores
operated by electricity.
4. Low Pressure Storage / Hypobaric Storage
Fruits can be stored under low pressure of 0.2 – 0.5 atmospheric pressure and temperature of 15-240C
under airtight chamber. Presser is reduced by sucking air and creating vacuum.
Mechanism:
 Reduced O2 supply slows down the respiration. When presser reduced from the 1 atm to 0.1atm the
effective O2 concentration reduced from 21 to 2.1%.
 Eg. In apples, this reduces level of ethylene to 0.01ppm which does not stimulate ripening.
 Released ethylene is removed out of storage.
 Volatiles such as CO2, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, ester etc. are removed/reduced.
Comparative storage life (in days) of produce stored in refrigeration and under hypobaric conditions
Commodity Cold Hypobaric Commodity Cold Hypobaric
storage storage storage storage
Fruits (fully ripe) Vegetables
Pine apple (ripe) 9-12 40 Green pepper 16-18 50
Grapefruit 30-40 90-120 Cucumber 10-14 41
Strawberry 5-7 21-28 Beans 10-13 30
Sweet cherry 14 60-90 Onion (green) 2-3 15
Fruits (unripe) Lettuce
Banana 10-14 90-150 Tomato(mature gr) 14-21 60-100
Avocado 23-30 90-100 Tomato(br stage) 10-12 28-42
Apple 60-90 300
Pear 45-60 300

5. Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CA Storage)

The storage of fruits and vegetables in CA Storage is one of the most advanced methods of storage. It
was first suggested by W.R.Philips of Canada.
From the construction point of view, controlled atmosphere facilities are similar to refrigeration facilities.
However, they should be airtight to allow creation of an atmosphere different from normal. The Oxygen
consumption and its replacement by carbon dioxide by respiration, create the atmosphere. When the
appropriate combination has been reached, a limited intake of oxygen is required to satisfy the reduced
rate of respiration. Accumulation of carbon dioxide is removed by means of different methods.
Physiological basis of CA Storage
Air contains about 20.9% O2, 78.1 % N2, 0.003 % CO2 and trace amount of other gases including Ne, He,
CH4 and water vapour. In CA storage, oxygen is reduced and CO2 is increased and ripening and
respiration rates are slowed down.
Essential features of CA Storage
1. Mechanical refrigeration is used to maintain temperature of -1 to 3°C.
2. The CA storage room is constructed gas tight.
3. Reduction on O2 - Nitrogen gas is introduced into the storage by cylinder to reduce the oxygen level
after room is filled and sealed. CO2 is added into storage from CO2 gas cylinder.
4. Excess CO2 is removed by dry hydrated lime, Ethanolamine, Aluminium calcium silicate, Activated
carbon, Magnesium oxide, activated carbon are other CO2scrubbers.
5. Atmospheric composition is crop specific. However, as a general rule the most common
combinations are 2-5% oxygen and 3-10% carbon dioxide
6. The storage room atmosphere samples are taken daily for CO2 and O2 monitoring.

Benefits of CA storage
1. Retardation of senescence and associated biochemical and physiological changes
2. Reduction of produce sensitivity to C2H4 action at O2 levels below 8% and/or CO2 levels above 1 %.
3. Useful tool for insect control in some commodities.
Harmful Effects of CA storage
1. Causes certain physiological disorders such as black heart in potatoes, brown stain of lettuce.
2. Irregular ripening of produce such as banana, pear, tomato etc.
3. Development of off flavours and off odours at very low O2 concentrations.
 4. Timely non availability of gas
5. Costly and technical knowhow is required
5. Modified Atmosphere storage (MA storage)
MA is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a storage/package in order
to improve the storage / shelf life.
The modification process generally lowers the amount of O2 the headspace of the package. Oxygen can
be replaced with N2, a comparatively inert gas, or CO2.
MA storage implies a lower degree of control of gas concentration in atmosphere surrounding the
commodity. The MA and CA differ only in degree of control, CA is more exact.
The need for this technology for food arises from the short shelf life of food products in the presence of
oxygen. Oxygen encourages the growth of aerobic spoilage microorganisms, therefore, the reduction of
oxygen and its replacement with other gases can reduce or delay oxidation reactions and microbiological
spoilage. Oxygen scavengers (ferrous oxide) may also be used to reduce browning due to lipid oxidation.
• The atmosphere in an MA package consists mainly of adjusted amounts of N2, O2, and CO2.
Reduction of O2 promotes delay in deteriorative reactions in foods such as lipid
oxidation, browning reactions and growth of spoilage organisms.
• Low O2 levels of 3-5% are used to slow down respiration rate in fruits and vegetables, hence,
used to extend the shelf life. Levels higher than 10% of CO2 are phytotoxic for fruit and
vegetables, so CO2 is maintained below this level. N2 is mostly used as a filler gas to prevent pack
collapse.
• In addition, it is also used to prevent oxidative rancidity in packaged products such as snack
foods by displacing atmospheric air, especially oxygen, therefore extending shelf life.
• The use of noble gases such as Helium, Argon and Xenon to replace N2 as the balancing gas in
MAP can also be used to preserve and extend the shelf life of fresh and minimally processed
fruits and vegetables.
Biochemical and Physiological Basis of MA
The rate of respiration and metabolism doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature. Respiration can be
therefore reduced by decreasing the temperature,O2 level and/or increasing the CO2 level in the storage
atmosphere. Both O2 and CO2 levels exert independent effects on respiration. The net effect may be
additive or synergistic. When O2 concentration is reduced below 10%, respiration rate is decreased.
However, when O2 concentration falls below 2%, anaerobic respiration may set in, thereby leading to the
accumulation of ethanol and acetaldehyde.
The desirable effect of MA on plant tissues is also attributed to lower pH, due to dissolution of CO2 in
tissues. Ethylene action and biosynthesis are also effected besides water loss and chilling injury

Methods of creating modified atmosphere conditions

1. Commodity generated or passive MA: If commodity characteristics are properly matched to film
permeability characteristics, an appropriate atmosphere can passively evolve within a sealed package as a
result of the consumption of O2 and production of CO2 through respiration. Film must allow O2 to enter
the package at a rate offset by the consumption of O2 by the commodity and CO2 must be vented from
the package to offset the production of CO2 by the commodity. This atmosphere must be established
rapidly and without danger of the creation of injurious or high levels of CO2.

Films available for MA Packaging: Polyethylene (LD), Polyethylene (HD), Cast Polyethylene,
Oriented Polyethylene, Rigid PVC, Ethylene Vinyl Acetate, etc.
2. Active MA: This can be done by pulling a slight vacuum and replacing the package atmosphere with
the desired gas mixture. This mixture can be adjusted by the use of adsorbers or absorbers in the package
to scavenge O2, CO2 or C2H4. Active modification ensures rapid establishment of the desired atmosphere.
Ethylene absorbers can help to ensure the delay of the climacteric rise in respiration. CO2 absorbers can
prevent the building up of CO2 to injurious levels.

a. Oxygen Absorbers: Most commonly available O2 absorbers include Ferrous oxide (FeO). Iron is
main active ingredient in powdered form becoming Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 and its hydroxides after absorption
of O2.
b. CO2 Absorbers: They are hydrated lime, activated charcoal, magnesium oxide.
c. Ethylene Absorbers: Compounds that can be used for ethylene absorption within polymeric film
packages are potassium permanganate KMnO4 absorbed on celite, vermiculite, silica gel or alumina
pellets. They oxidize ethylene to CO2 and H2O. Squalene and phenyl methyl silicon can also be held in
small sachets within the packages or impregnated in the wrappers or intoporous materials like
vermiculite.
Factors affecting MA packages
a. Resistance to diffusion of gases and water
Most fruits and vegetables tolerate O2 levels down to 1-5 % and CO2 levels upto 5-10%. The difference
between external O2or CO2 concentration and the amount of O2or CO2 available within the cell is
determined largely by the resistance of the plant organ to gas diffusion. This resistance varies among
different plants, plant cultivars, plant organs and stages of maturity.
b. Respiration
MA reduces rate of respiration, which results in slow metabolism and potentially longer storage life.
Respiration rate is sensitive to changes in O2 concentration below 8% and CO2 above 1%. However, if O2
is reduced or CO2 elevated beyond the levels of tolerance of the commodity, respiration associated with
anaerobic respiration or CO2 damage will increase.
c. Ethylene production and sensitivity
A reduction in ethylene production and sensitivity associated with MA can delay the onset of the
climacteric and prolong the storage life of these fruits. When climacteric fruits are exposed to ethylene,
there is irreversible increase in respiration rate and rapid ripening. Ethylene production is reduced by low
O2, high CO2 or both.
d. Temperature
Biological reactions generally increase 2 to 3 fold for every 10°C rise in temperature. Generally fruits and
vegetables will last longer at lower temperatures. However, below a certain level, chilling injury may
occur which hastens senescence and reduces the quality of the commodity. The optimum temperature is
one factor that delays senescence and maintains quality without causing chilling, freezing or other injury.
Non chilling sensitive commodities (e.g. broccoli and peas) can be stored near 0°C without ill effects.
Reduced O2 and elevated CO2can overcome the impact of low temperature injury on the ripening process.
Reduced chilling injury has been associated with elevated CO2 for some commodities.
e. Relative humidity
One of the benefits of MA storage in general is the maintenance of adequate relative humidity within the
package. There is a danger that the relative humidity within the package can get too high causing
moisture condensation and favour microbial growth, resulting in decay of commodity. Condensation may
also adversely affect the gas permeability of the film. Proper temperature should be maintained
throughout the postharvest handling for preventing condensation within packages.
f. Optimum concentration of O2 and CO2
Different commodities vary widely in their tolerance to different atmospheres. A classification of fresh
vegetables according to their tolerance to reduced O2 and elevated CO2 is presented in the following
table.
Recommended MA conditions during transport and storage of selected vegetables
Modified
Temperature range
Commodity Atmosphere
(°C)
% O2 % CO2
Asparagus 0-5 Air 5-10
Broccoli 0-5 1-2 5-10
Cabbage 0-5 3-5 5-7
Cauliflower 0-5 2-5 2-5
Sweet corn 0-5 2-4 10-20
Cucumber 8-12 3-5 0
Leek 0-5 1-2 3-5
Lettuce 0-5 2-5 0
Okra 8-12 3-5 0
Onion (green) 0-5 1-2 10-20
Pepper 8-12 3-5 0
Potato 4-12 None None
Spinach 0-5 Air 10-20
Tomato(partially ripe) 8-12 3-5 0
Environmental factors affecting MA storage
a. Temperature and relative humidity
Ambient temperatures of the surrounding atmosphere affect the commodity temperature. Temperature
changes also affect the permeability of the film, which increases with increase in temperature. CO2
permeability responds more than O2 permeability. Relative humidity has little effect on permeability of
most film packages. Most common films are good barriers to moisture and vapour because they maintain
high internal humidity even in dry, ambient conditions.
b. Light
Green vegetables consume large amount of CO2 and reduce O2 through photosynthesis and would
antagonize the process of respiration which aids in maintenance of specified MA within the package.
Greening of potatoes can cause loss in quality unless light is excluded. Hence, opaque packages should
be used for such commodities.
c. Sanitation Factors
The high humidity maintained within MA packages may enhance the growth of plant pathogens. So care
must be taken to ensure proper sanitation and to avoid conditions favourable to growth and reproduction
of such microorganisms. Fungicidal treatment of packaged vegetables is thus very important.
Differences between CA and MA Storage
CA Storage MA Storage
1 High degree of control over gas conc. Low degree
2 Longer storage life Less
3 More expensive technology Less
4 Atmosphere is modified by adding gas It is created by either actively(addition or removal
of gas) orpassively(produce generated)
5 Specific temperature should maintained May or may not be maintained
Packaging
Definition- "Packaging can be defined as the means of providing protection to the product in order to
ensure safe delivery from the place of manufacture to the point of sale or use at minimum overall cost"
Qualities / benefits of package
1. Packaging serves as an efficient handling unit and a convenient storage unit
2. Packaging protects from mechanical damages, moisture loss
3. Packaging may provide beneficial modified atmosphere
4. Packaging provides clean produce and prevents pilferage
5. Provides service and sales motivation
6. Reduces cost of transport and marketing
7. Facilitates use of new modes of transportation
Thus, packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, and sells the produce.
Various methods of packaging
1. Bags – Like gunny bag, hessian bag in crops such as potato, onion, garlic, carrot etc.
2. Plastic film bags – Widely used for consumer size packs in fruit and vegetables marketing. Retain
water vapour so as to reduce H2O loss from the content.
3. Net / mesh bags – Widely used for packing fruits like apple, citrus, guava, sapota, ber etc.
4. Sleeve packs – Immobilization of packed fruits, superior visibility, gives good sales appeal.
5. Plastic boxes/ crates – Rigid containers, suited for soft and delicate commodities.
6. Trays and Packs – Consumer trays, jumble packs (Apples in plastic bags), pattern packs (citrus
packed in boxes), tray or cell packs (tomatoes and apples) etc.
7. Volume or box packing – Fruits are poured into the carton, after filling, pack is vibrated to tight
packing within box (e.g. Apple, orange, tomato etc.) on a standard weight.
8. Polypropelene boxes – Highly suitable for long markets it can be reused
9. Bamboo mat holed boxes – Suitable for transportation of apple
10. Corrugated fiber board – Suitable for fruit and vegetable and most economical.
11. Wooden packaging – used for packing fruits and vegetables. Similar to plastic crates.
12. Tetrapackaging – It is used to store the fruit beverages and RTS beverages
13. Bundles - Vegetables (drumstick, curry leaf, green leafy vegetables, onion tops etc.).
14. Package insert – Moulded pulp or plastic trays to isolate the individual fruits. These are expensive
but are used in delicate and costly fruits like mango and are ready for retail displays.
15. Wrapping
Covering the fruits after harvest with any material in order to improve its postharvest life is
known as wrapping. The materials commonly employed as wrappers are tissue papers, waxed paper,
pliofilm (transparent sheet made of chlorinated rubber), cellophane paper, aluminium foils and alkathene
paper etc. E.g.: Papaya, gourds
16. Punnet packing – soft fruits such as strawberry, grapes, minimally processed products
17. Pre-packaging
Pre-packaging is generally defined as packaging the produce in consumer size units either at
producing centre before transport or at terminal markets. Packaging of fresh produce in consumer unit
packs protects the produce against the damage and excess moisture loss. Among the different types of
packaging films, polyethylene film finds the maximum use. Materials for pre-packaging include bags,
plastic-film bags, mesh bags, consumer trays, shrink-film wraps, stretch-wraps, boxes, baskets and cups.
18. Modified atmosphere package (MAP)
MAP can be defined as the enclosure of food products in a barrier film in which the gaseous
environment has been changed or modified to slow respiration rates, reduce microbiological growth and
retard enzymatic spoilage with the intent of extending shelf life.
Types of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
a. Commodity generated or passive MAP
b. Active MAP
19. Vacuum packaging
Vacuum packing involves packing appropriate types of foods in an airless environment, and
storage at reduced atmospheric pressures usually in an air-tight pack or bottle to prevent the growth of
microorganisms. Vacuum packaging of food can extend its life by up to 3-5 times.
20. Modified humidity packaging
Mostly used for highly perishable commodities like green leafy vegetables. MHP systems are
designed to control not only dehydration but also condensation. Water absorbents like CaCl2, sorbitol or
xylitol in the package or the use of packaging with good permeability enables to provide required MHP
system.
21 Active packaging – Also called as smart packaging. It is actively involved with food products or
interacts with internal atmosphere to extend shelf life by maintaining quality and safety.
22. Antimicrobial packaging – Incorporating antimicrobial agents into polymer surface coatings and
surface attachments.
23. Individual seal /cling /shrink wrap packaging technique
One of the newest trends in produce packaging is the shrink wrapping of individual produce
items. Individual seal packaging may be considered as the MAP for an individual fruit or vegetable. It
involves sealing of a fruit in a plastic film with or without heat shrinking to conform to the shape of a
fruit.
24. Palletization
Loading and unloading are done manually in India. Due to low unit load, there is a tendency to
throw, drop or mishandle the package, damaging the commodity. This loss can be considerably reduced
by using pallet system. Once standardized for a commodity, mechanical loading and unloading become
very easy with the fork-lift system.
Handling produce as units of 24-60 containers on a pallet has greatly improved produce handling and
efficiency in marketing. Pallets are made from a range of materials e.g. wood, moulded plastics.
Disposable pallets have also been developed using plastic and fibreboard. Pallet sizes; 1200 x 1000 mm
is the most common pallet size although many shippers also use 1200 x 800 mm size.
For processed fruit and vegetable products
Aluminium cans, Tin containers, collapsible tubes, glass containers, plastic containers – low
density polyethylene (LDPE) HDPE, PP (Polypropylene), PVC (Polyviny), chloride, polytysrons (PS),
biodegradable plastics, Phetodegradable plastics, laminate, coextruded films, retortable pouch, bulk
packaging, aseptic packaging, etc.
Packaging materials
1. Natural materials
Baskets and other traditional containers are made from bamboo, rattan (cane), straw, palm leaves,
etc. Both raw materials and labour costs are normally low and if the containers are well made, they can
be reused.
2. Natural and synthetic fibers
Sacks or bags for fresh produce can be made from natural fibers like jute or sisal. Bags usually
refer to small containers of up to about 5 kg capacity. They may be woven to a close texture or made in
net form. Nets usually have a capacity of about 15 kg. Bags or sacks are mostly used for less easily
damaged produce such as potatoes and onions, but even these crops should have careful handling to
prevent injury.
3. Wooden boxes
Wood is often used to make reusable boxes or crates, but less so recently because of cost.
Wooden boxes are rigid and reusable and if made to a standard size, stack well on trucks.
4. Wire-Bound Crates
Wire-bound crates are used extensively for commodities that require hydro cooling. Wire-bound
crates are sturdy, rigid and have very high stacking strength that is essentially unaffected by water. Wire-
bound crates have a great deal of open space to facilitate cooling and ventilation. Although few are re-
used, wire-bound crates may be dissembled after use and shipped back to the packer.
5. Wooden Crates and Lugs
Wooden crates, once extensively used for apples, stone fruit and potatoes have been almost totally
replaced by other types of containers. The relative expense for container, greater concern for tare weight
and advances in material handling has reduced their use to a few specialty items.
6. Wooden Baskets and Hampers
Wire-reinforced wooden baskets and hampers of different sizes were once used for a wide variety
of crops from strawberries to sweet potatoes.

7. Corrugated Fibreboard (CFB)

Corrugated fibreboard is manufactured in many different styles and weights. Because of its
relativity low cost and versatility, it is the dominant produce container material.
There are numerous styles of corrugated fibreboard containers. The two most used in the produce
industry are i) regular slotted container (RSC) and ii) full telescoping container (FTC). A third type of
container is the Bliss box, constructed from three separate pieces of corrugated fibreboard. The Bliss box
was developed to be used when maximum stacking strength is required. The bottoms and tops of all three
types of containers may be closed by glue, staples or interlocking slots. Shallower and open topped CFBs
are called trays.
The ability to print the brand, size and grade information directly on the container is one of the
greatest benefits of corrugated fibreboard containers. Corrugated fibreboard containers are either post
printed or pre printed.
8. Glass containers
Glass containers are ideally suited for the packaging of fruit and vegetable juices, fruit squashes,
jam, jelly, marmalade, pickles. The transparency of glass makes it the ideal choice for many products
displayed for the consumers on the retail shelf. In addition, the sealable, non-corrosive and easy storage
characteristics of glass containers give them added consumer appeal.
9. Tin containers
Among metal containers, tin plate cans fabricated from low carbon steel coated with thin layer of
tin on either side are ideal for packaging, but due to shortage of metallic tin and its high cost, tin plate is
replaced by chromium coated steel plate (tin free steel) and aluminium cans. Tin plate is an ideal
packaging material for processed foods and beverages. Low tin coated steel (LTS) is produced by a
nominal tin coating mass of 1.1g/m2.
10. Aluminium cans
Aluminium being one of the versatile media has over the years, found extensive applications in
the field of packaging. Apart from the number of advantages like light in weight, compatibility with
foods, the most important merit of aluminium is recycling. Aluminium foil (more than 0.015mm thick) is
totally impermeable to moisture, gases, light and microorganisms.
11. Plastic containers
Another alternative to the wood for packaging is plastics. Use of plastics in packaging of fresh
horticultural produce helps in minimizing the cost of packaging materials and makes the whole process
less dependent on scarce materials like wood, thereby, resulting in conservation of environment. The
important plastic materials that can be used for packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables include
polypropylene boxes, moulded expanded polystyrene boxes, stretch film, film wrap, moulded plastics,
plastic bags, shrink wraps, rigid plastic packages, foam sleeves etc.
12. Pulp Containers
Containers made from recycled paper pulp and a starch binder is mainly used for small consumer
packages of fresh produce. Pulp containers are available in a large variety of shapes and sizes and are
relatively inexpensive in standard sizes. Pulp containers can absorb surface moisture from the product,
which is a benefit for small fruit and berries that are easily harmed by water. Pulp containers are also
biodegradable, made from recycled materials, and recyclable. Package inserts are also made using pulp.
13. Paper and Mesh Bags
Consumer packs of potatoes and onions are about the only produce items now packed in paper
bags. The more sturdy mesh bag has much wider use. In addition to potatoes and onions, cabbage, turnips
and some specialty items are packed in mesh bags. In addition to its low cost, mesh has the advantage of
uninhibited air flow. Good ventilation is particularly beneficial to onions.
However, bags of any type have several serious disadvantages. Large bags do not palletize well
and small bags do not efficiently fill the space inside corrugated fibreboard containers. Bags do not offer
protection from rough handling. Mesh bags provide little protection from light or contaminants. In
addition, produce packed in bags is correctly perceived by the consumer to be of lower grade.

Specific packing for export of mango, banana, grapes, sweet orange and mandarins
Mango
• More uniform ripening and better quality mangoes are observed when fruits are packed in
ventilated wooden boxes.
• Partitioned corrugated fiber board (CFB) boxes recorded less bruising, slow ripening, reduced
shriveling and less spoilage as compared to fruits packed in wooden boxes.
Banana
• For export, it is recommended to cut the individual hands of fruits from the stalk, wash them briefly
to prevent staining by the exuded latex, treat the cut surface with fungicides and pack the hands in
cartons or boxes. The cartons often contain polyethylene film lining to protect the bananas from
abrasion during transport.
• In the other methods, banana bunches are packed in polyethylene tubes of specific gauge,
dimension and ventilation holes.
Grape
• The grapes are harvested in baskets and brought to packing sheds
• Packed in wooden boxes (4 kg) and corrugated fiber board cartons (1, 2, 4 and 5kg).
• Ventilated CFB cartons have substituted other containers, such as wooden boxes and bamboo
baskets. Butter papers are used as lining material.
• Different packaging materials like kraft paper, butter paper and soft tissue paper for preparation of
grape guard are used.
• Grape guards are inserted into the boxes of 2 or 5kg capacity and exported. Grape guards contain 6-
9g of sodium bisulphite which controls berry decay and berry drop and extend the shelf life of
grapes up to 15 days at ambient temperature and up to 75 days under cold storage conditions.
Sweet orange and Mandarins
• In some countries, the fruits are packed in polymeric films using shrink wrapping technique. And
later the fruits are placed in CFB boxes or wooden boxes.
Pomegranate
• For export market, the fruits are wrapped in tissue paper and arranged in two rows in CFB boxes.
Depending upon the size, up to two dozen fruits are packed in each box.
Waxing: Fruits and vegetables have a natural waxy layer on the whole surface (excluding under-ground
ones). This is partly removed by washing. Waxing is especially important if tiny injuries and scratches on
the surface of the fruit or vegetable are present and these can be sealed by wax.

Waxes - are esters of higher fatty acid with monohydric alcohols and hydrocarbons and some free fatty
acids.

Waxing generally reduces the respiration and transpiration rates, but other chemicals such as fungicides,
growth regulators, preservative can also be incorporated specially for reducing microbial spoilage, sprout
inhibition etc. However, it should be remembered that waxing does not improve the quality of any
inferior horticulture product but it can be a beneficial in addition to good handling.

A protective edible coat on fruit and vegetable which protect them from transpiration losses and reduce
the rate of respiration is called ‘waxing’.

Skin coating (Protective coating) - is defined as artificial application of a very thin film of wax or oil or
other material to the surface of the fruits or vegetables as an addition to or replacement for the natural
wax coating.

Advantages of wax application are:

 Improved appearance
 Reduced PLW - reduced moisture losses/retards wilting and shriveling during storage
 Reduced weight loss
 Prevents chilling injury and browning
 Protect produce from bruising
 Reducing respiration rate - by creating diffusion barrier between fruit and surrounding as a result
of which it reduces the availability of O2 to the tissues.
 Protects fruits from micro-biological infection
 Considered a cost effective substitute in the reduction of spoilage when refrigerated storage is
unaffordable.
 Carrier agent - used as carrier for sprout inhibitors, growth regulators and preservatives.
 Increase in the shelf life

Mango fruits treated with wax emulsion containing 8 to 12% solids have one or two week’s longer
storage life than the untreated ones.

Disadvantage:
 Development of off-flavour if not applied properly. Adverse flavour changes have been attributed
to inhibition of O2 and CO2 exchange thus, resulting in anaerobic respiration and elevated
ethanol and acetaldehyde contents.
Specifications of a desirable wax
 The selected wax material should provide a lasting shine
 Must be manufactured from food grade materials
 It should not develop any off-flavour and resistant to chalking. This can be determined by cooling
waxed fruit to 0°C and allowing moisture to condense on fruit on removal from cold room
 It should reduce weight loss of commodity by 30% to 50%
 Rapid drying, competitive price and easy clean up
How fruit coating works?
Fruit coating results in the restriction of the gas exchange between the fruit and surrounding atmosphere.
This causes a builds up of CO2 and a depletion of O2 with in the fruit, thus causing an effect similar to
CAS (controlled atmosphere storage).
If surface coatings and their concentration are not selected properly, the respiratory gas exchange through
fruit skins is excessively impaired leading to development of off-odours and off-flavours. Over waxing
also results in abnormal ripening and softening that affects the marketing of such fruits.

Fruit coatings can be formulated from different materials including lipid, resins, polysaccharides,
proteins, and synthetic polymers. Most coatings are a composite of more than one film with the addition
of low molecular weight molecules such as polyols, that serve as plastisizers (increase the plasticity or
fluidity of the material). Otherwise, coatings can be too brittle and will flake or crack on the coated
product. Surfactants, antifoaming agents, and emulsifiers are also often used in coatings.

Fruits suitable for waxing

Immature fruit vegetables - cucumbers and summer squash
Mature fruit vegetables - eggplant, peppers and tomato, potato, pumpkin, carrot, snake gourd, coccinia
and capsicum
Fruits – apple, avocado, banana, citrus (orange, mandarin, lemon, grapefruit), guava, mangoes, melons,
papaya, peaches, pine apple etc.

Food grade waxes are used to replace some of the natural waxes removed in washing and cleaning
operations, and helps in reducing loss during handling and marketing. If produce is waxed, the wax
coating must be allowed to dry thoroughly before further handling.
Types of Waxing
A. Natural waxing
On the plant when fruit attains desired stage of maturity, nature provides them with thin coat of whitish
substance, which is called bloom or natural waxing. Natural coat is clearly visible on fruits and
disappears after harvest due to repeated handling of fruit.
Ex: apple, pear, plum, mango and grapes.
B. Artificial waxing
To Prolong the shelf life of produce some of the fruit and vegetables are dipped in a wax emulsion and
then dried for few minutes. This process provides thin layer (<1 μ) of artificial wax on skin of the
produce by which the small pores present on the skin are fully covered and reduce the transpiration and
respiration process resulting in increased shelf life. Artificial wax also provides good shining and luster
to the produce, which increases its market value.
Artificial waxes like solvent waxes, water waxes and paste or oil waxes are used.

List of Commercial Waxes

1.Shellac
2.Carnauba wax
3.Bee wax
4.Polyethylene
5.Wood resins
6.Paraffin wax
Methods of wax application: Performance of waxing depends on method of application. Amount of
wax applied and uniformity of application are extremely important. Fruits should be damp dry prior to
wax application to prevent dilution. Waxes should never be diluted with water. The following methods
are commonly used.

i. Spray waxing: This is most commonly used method. Fruits and vegetables which move on the roller
conveyor are sprayed with water-wax emulsion. The waxed produce is dried in a current of air at 55°C.
There are two types of spray waxing namely low pressure spraying and high pressure atomizing.

ii. Dipping: Here fruits are dipped in water wax emulsion of required concentration for 30 to 60 seconds.
The fruits or vegetables could be waxed by keeping them in wire boxes holding about 100 fruits (30 kg)
and dipping in 30 litre capacity tank containing wax emulsion. The fruits are then removed and allowed
to dry under electric fan or in the open air or with warm air at 54 to 55°C. The produce should be turned
periodically while drying.
iii. Foam waxing: Foaming is a satisfactory means of application because it leaves a very thin coating of
wax on the fruit after the water has evaporated. A foam generator is mounted over a suitable brush head,
and water is applied to the fruit or vegetable in the foam of foam. Spraying tends to waste wax, but it can
be recovered in catch pans.
iv. Flooding: Flooding is similar to dipping and is a safe and convenient method of application.

Trade name of some extensively used waxes

 Citrashine@ from DECCO, India UPL

 Waxol -12 – Oil/ water-emulsion wax containing 12% solids
 Tal-Prolong
 Semper fresh
 Frutox - Emulsion of different waxes with 12 % solids.
 Principles and methods of preservation of fruits and vegetables
Preservation:

Preservation means just protect the foods against the spoilage, In other words, just controlling the
physical, chemical or microbial changes in the foods is called preservation.

1. Physical Changes : Color, flavor, texture and taste etc.

2. Chemical Changes : Carbohydrate, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals.
3. Microbial Changes : Mould, yeasts and bacteria.

Why do we preserve the food?

1. To increase the shelf life of the food for increasing the supply.
2. To make the seasonal fruits available throughout the year.
3. To add the variety to the diet.
4. To save time by reducing preparation, time and energy by fire.
5. To stabilize the prices of the food in the market.
6. To improve the health of the population.

Importance and scope of fruit and vegetable preservation in India

 Processing industries can stimulate the commercial growers to cultivate high quality crops for
better returns and it creates enormous employment opportunity
 Preservation and processing of fruits and vegetables assumes a key position in development of
agro industries in India
 Fruits and vegetables are protective foods, they are important supplements for human diet as they
supply vitamins, minerals and fibers needed for healthy body
 Fruit and vegetable processing industries work as backbone of horticulture industry

 Processing helps in avoiding gluts and wastages

 Processing and value addition helps in rural industrialization, fetches additional income to the
growers and help in stabilizing the market prices
 Processing utilizes marketable surplus as well as cull and deformed produce, to ensure
remunerative returns to the growers
 Processing of fruits and vegetables being labor intensive, helps to generate both direct and
indirect employment
 Value addition/processing make the food more attractive and palatable and ensure nutritional
security
 Processing make fruits and vegetables available to consumers throughout the year
 Export of processed products earns valuable foreign exchange
 Increased urbanization, changing life style and food habits, increase in purchasing power of the
population and change in consumption pattern has raised the domestic demand for processed
foods
 Increased demand for functional foods, organic foods, convenience foods, health foods and diet
foods too is promoting the rising demand for processed foods
 Ready to eat foods are becoming popular among children and urban population
 Expansion of organized food retail and the increased population of working women have
enhanced the need for processed convenience foods.

 Nearly 30% of fresh fruits and vegetables valued at 7000 crores go waste in India due to improper
post harvest handling, lack of sufficient storage and processing facilities
 The post harvest losses in major fruits and vegetables are estimated to be as follows: Apple 14%,
Banana 20-80%, Grapes 27%, Lemon 20-85%, Mandarin 20-95%, Papaya 40-100%, Cabbage
37%, Cauliflower 49%, Onion 16-35%, Tomato 5-50%, Potato 5-40%
 At least 10% of the wastage (Rs.700 crores) can be reduced if the fruits and vegetables that are
wasted are processed into various products
Principles and methods of preservation: Food preservation can be defined as the science which deals
with the process of prevention of decay or spoilage of food thus allowing it to be stored in a safe
condition for future use. All foods gradually undergo deterioration or spoilage from the time they are
harvested or manufactured. Some commodities spoil rapidly, while others can keep for longer but limited
periods.

Principles of food preservation:

1. Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition of food

 By keeping out micro-organisms (asepsis)

 By removal of micro-organisms (filtration)
 By hindering the growth or activity of micro-organisms (use of low temperature, drying, creating
anaerobic conditions or using chemicals or antibiotics)
 By killing the micro-organisms (using heat or irradiation)

2. Prevention or delay of self decomposition of food

I. By destruction or inactivation of food enzymes (blanching or boiling): Blanching is a mild

heat treatment given to vegetables before canning, freezing or drying to prevent self
decomposition of food by destroying enzymes. Blanching is carried out by dipping the food
commodity either in boiling water or by exposing them to steam for few minutes followed by
immediate cooling.
II. By prevention or delay of purely chemical reactions (antioxidants to prevent oxidation):
Foods containing oils and fat turn rancid and become unfit for consumption due to oxidation.
Addition of appropriate quantity of antioxidants like butyl hydroxy anisole (BHA), butyl
hydroxy toluene (BHT), tertiary butyl hydroxy quinone (TBHQ), lecithin etc prevents
oxidation and preserves the food.

3. Prevention of damage by insects, animals, mechanical causes etc. (use of fumigants, cushioning,
packaging etc): Use of fumigants in dried fruits, cereals etc. checks the damage caused by insects and
rodents. Wrapping of fruits, providing cushioning trays, using light pack and good packaging material
checks the damage to fresh food commodities during handling and transportation.

Methods of preservation

1. Asepsis: It means preventing the entry of micro organisms by maintaining of general cleanliness,
while picking, grading, packing and transporting of fruits and vegetables, increase their keeping quality
and the product prepared from them will be superior quality.
2. Preservation by high temperature/ by killing the microorganisms: Coagulation of proteins and
inactivation of their metabolic enzymes by application of heat leads to destruction of microorganisms
present in foods. Exposure of food to high temperature also inactivates the enzymes present in the food.
Foods can be heated either at temperature below 100oC (pasteurization) at 100oC (boiling) or at
temperature above 100oC (sterilization).
A) Pasteurization (heating below 100oC): It is a mild heat treatment given to the food to kill most
pathogenic microorganisms and is used in the food where drastic heat treatment cause undesirable
changes in the food. It is usually supplemented by other methods to prolong shelf life. Pasteurization is
done either as low temperature long time (LTLT) or high temperature short time (HTST) process.
 Heat treatment at 62.20oC for 30 minutes refers to LTLT process.
 Heating at 72oC for 15 seconds is termed as HTST process.
 Pasteurization of juices depends upon their acidity and method of packing whether in bulk or in
bottle or can.
Methods of pasteurization
a) Bottle or ‘Holding’ pasteurization: This method is commonly used for the preservation of fruit
juices at home. The extracted juice is strained or clarified as the case may be, and filled in bottles, leaving
sufficient head space for the expansion of the juice during heating. The bottles are then sealed air-tight
and pasteurized.
b) Overflow method: Juice is heated to a temperature about 2.5oC higher than the pasteurization
temperature, and then filled in hot sterilized bottles up to the brim, taking care that during filling and
sealing, the temperature of juice does not fall below the pasteurization temperature. The sealed bottles are
pasteurized at temperature 2.5oC lower than the filling and sealing temperature and then cooled. This
method is very suitable for grape juice because it minimizes the adverse effect of air on the quality of
juice.11
c) Flash pasteurization: The juice is heated rapidly to a temperature of about 5.5oC higher than the
pasteurization temperature and kept at this temperature for about a minute. This method has been
developed specially for the canning of natural orange juice but can also be used for grape and apple
juices. It has the following advantages
 Loss of flavor is minimum
 Vitamins are not destroyed
 Effective, economic in time and space utilization
 Keeps the juice uniformly cloudy
 Juice is heated uniformly and thus its cooked taste is minimum

B) Sterilization: Sterilization (100oC and above) by definition, means the destruction of all viable
microorganisms. Heat sterilization is the most effective process of food preservation.
a) Boiling (heating at 100oC): Cooking of food including vegetables, meat etc. by boiling with water
involves a temperature around 100oC. Boiling of food at 100oC kills all the vegetative cells and spores of
yeast and moulds and vegetative cells of bacteria.
Canning of acid fruit and vegetables (tomatoes, pineapple, peaches cherries etc.) is carried by boiling at
about 100oC.
b) Heating above 100oC: Heating by steam under pressure is used to obtain temperature above 100 oC by
using steam sterilizer or retort. The temperature in the retort increases with increase in steam pressure.
The temperature in retort at mean sea level is 100oC; with 5psi pressure - 109oC; with 10psi - 115.50oC
and with 1 kg/cm2 (100 Pa) pressure - 121.50oC.
 For canning of mushrooms and other non-acid vegetables the processing temperature of 121.10oC at
15 psi pressure are used.
 For sterilization of liquid foods like juices, ultra high temperature (UHT) process is used.
 In UHT process, the food is heated to very high temperature (150oC) for only few seconds by use of
steam injection or steam infusion followed by flash evaporation of the condensed steam and rapid
cooling. Also used for bulk processing of many foods.

The major differences between pasteurization and sterilization are as under

Sl. No. Pasteurization Sterilization
1 Partial destruction of microorganism Complete destruction of microorganisms
2 Temperature below 100oC Temperature is 100oC and above
3 Normally used for fruits Normally used for vegetables

3. Preservation by low temperature viz., cellar storage, refrigeration/chilling

Cellars/ Underground storage

These are the underground or partly underground rooms, often beneath a house, which provides
good insulation and are protected from excessively low temperature in cold climates. They are used for
storing apples, cabbage, onions and potatoes during the winter. The crops are spread out thinly on shelves
to ensure good air circulation. The doors of these cellars may be left open at night to ensure that the
temperature in the store remains low.
An outdoor storage bin can serve as a place to keep small quantities of potatoes in a region with a
cool but not freezing climate. A wooden rack provides an air space for ventilation and straw provides
insulation. The best location for such a structure would be in a shady spot
.
A root box, lined with hardware cloth and straw, buried to the top edge in soil will keep potatoes
cool while providing protection from freezing. The wooden lid can be lifted for easy access to produce
and straw bales on top provide more insulation.

Storage bin Root box Storage barrel

2. Cold/ Refrigerated storage – Refrigeration, chilling and freezing

Cold preservation can be refrigeration, chilling or freezing. Household refrigerators usually run at
4-7°C. Chilling or cold storage usually uses a slightly lower temperature on the basis of the food to be
refrigerated. In freezing a temperature of -18°C or below is used. Chilling will preserve perishable foods
for days or weeks and freezing will preserve foods for months or even years.
a. Refrigeration
Heat moves from the object at higher temperature to that at lower one i.e., refrigeration takes out
heat from commodities to be cooled. Refrigeration creates a cold surface that absorbs heat transferred to
it by conduction, convection or radiation. Ammonia is the most commonly used refrigerant for large
installations. It is inexpensive and can be changed from vapour to liquid at nominal pressures and it
absorbs a great amount of heat upon vapourizing (300 cal/kg). However, ammonia will damage fruits in
case of the gas leakage into cold storage rooms and is toxic at high concentrations. So, fluorocarbons
such as Freon-12 and 22 have replaced ammonia as they are non toxic and non-flammable.
Thus, in mechanical refrigeration, refrigerated gas (e.g.: Ammonia, Freon, etc.) takes out the heat
form chamber or store as it expands. Expanded gas is then compressed, and heat is removed from
compressed air over tubes containing hot gases. Gas is liquefied and this cycle is then repeated. With
such a system, accurate temperature control is possible. Fruits and vegetables can be safely kept for a
long period through refrigeration.
Refrigerated products need not be thawed before use. Texture and flavour losses are minimum in
refrigerated foods. Chilling storage can be used as an adjunct to other methods of preservation.
b. Chilling: Chilling is the unit operation in which temperature of a food is reduced to between -1°C and
-8°C. Equipments used for chilling include mechanical refrigerators, cryogenic chilling and cook chill
systems
Chilling injury: All fruits cannot be chilled as tropical, subtropical and some temperate fruits suffer
from chilling injury at 3-10°C above their freezing point. Each fruit and vegetable has an optimum
storage temperature for its shelf life. Undesirable changes to some fruits and vegetables occur when
temperature is reduced below this optimum temperature. This is known as chilling injury.
3. Freezing: At -18oC, fruits can usually retain good quality for 12 months and vegetables, for 8-12
months. For each increase in 10oC temperature, the storage time is approximately cut in half. For storage
of frozen foods, uninterrupted supply of electricity is essential, which is a problem in Indian homes.

Methods of freezing
a) Cryogenic freezing: Cryogenic freezing is defined as freezing at very low temperatures (below -
60oC). The refrigerants used are liquid nitrogen and liquid carbon dioxide
When liquid nitrogen is used, the freezing is achieved by

 Immersion in the liquid

 Spraying of liquid on food
 Circulation of its vapour over the product to be frozen

b) Dehydro – freezing: This is a process where freezing is done after partial dehydration. About 50% of
moisture is removed by dehydration prior to freezing. This improves quality and stability of the food.
c) Freeze drying: In this process, food is first frozen at -18oC on trays in the lower chamber of a freeze
drier and the frozen material is then dried (initially at 30oC for 24 hours and then at 20oC) under high
vacuum in the upper chamber. Direct sublimation of the ice takes place without passing through the
intermediate liquid stage. The product is highly hygroscopic, excellent in taste and flavour and can be
reconstituted readily. Mango pulp, orange juice concentrate, passion fruit juiced and guava pulp are
dehydrated by this method.

Changes during freezing in storage

A. Physical changes
1. Recrystallization – It is a physical change in which many small ice crystals combine to form a smaller
number of large crystals. Fluctuations in temperature enhance recrystallization.
2. Sublimation – Ice turning into vapour without melting into water is called sublimation. This happens
when water vapour pressure of ice is higher than the vapour pressure of surrounding air and may result in
freeze burn
3. Denaturation – Proteins during freezing may bond to form insoluble complexes. This may result in
increased toughness in frozen foods
B. Chemical changes: Lipid oxidation, Maillard and enzymatic browning, flavour deterioration, protein
insolubilization, degradation of chlorophyll and vitamins and formation of off- odours
Thawing: Thawing is the process of applying heat to a frozen food to make it warmer until it is ready to
cook. It takes longer to thaw a food than to freeze it because the heat transfer is by conduction. In
thawing, the outer portions first change from solid ice to liquid water followed by melting of central
portions. During thawing, the food passes through melting point where chemical reactions and
recrystallization can occur and reduce food quality. Rapid thawing minimizes recrystallization.

4. Preservation by chemicals: According to F.P.O (1955) and classification of preservatives viz.,

class I and class II

A preservative is any substance which is capable of inhibiting, retarding or arresting the process
of fermentation, acidification or other decomposition of food.

Classification of preservatives

1. Class I preservatives: Common salt (sodium chloride), saltpeter (sodium or potassium nitrate),
sugar, acetic acid or vinegar, alcohol or potable spirits, spices, essential oils, dextrose, glucose,
wood smoke, honey
2. Class II preservatives: Benzoic acid, sulphurous acid, Sorbic acid, Nitrates/nitrites of sodium/
potassium, sodium, potassium & calcium salts, sodium and calcium propionate, Nisin.
The two important chemical preservatives permitted in many countries are a) Sulphur dioxide
(including sulphites) and b) Benzoic acid (includes benzoates). These two preservatives are allowed in
India according to Fruit Products Order (FPO) of 1955.
a) Sulphur dioxide: Used in the preservation of juice, pulp, nectar, squash, crush, cordial and other
products. It has a better preservative action than sodium benzoate against bacteria and moulds. It also acts
as antioxidant and bleaching agent thus helping in retention of ascorbic acid, carotene and other
oxidizable compounds. It cannot be used in some naturally coloured juices like phalsa, jamun,
pomegranate, strawberry, grapes etc. due to its bleaching action. Generally used in the form of its salts
such as sulphite, bisulphate and metabisulphite. Potassium metabisulphite is commonly used as a stable
source of sulphur dioxide. According to FPO, the maximum amount of sulphur dioxide in fruit juice is
700ppm, in squash, crush and cordial is 350ppm and in RTS and nectar, it is 100ppm.

b) Benzoic acid: Benzoic acid is only partially soluble in water, hence its salt, sodium benzoate is used.
One part of sodium benzoate is soluble in 1.8 parts of water at ordinary temperature, whereas one part of
benzoic acid is soluble in 300 parts of water. Sodium benzoate is thus nearly 170 times as soluble as
benzoic acid. Benzoic acid is more effective against yeasts than against moulds. According to FPO, its
permitted level in RTS and nectar is 100ppm and in squash, crush and cordial is 600ppm. The optimum
quantity of preservative as per approved regulation need to be used as higher concentrations can be a
health hazard. Chemical preservatives like sorbic acid, calcium propionates etc. are also used.

5. Preservation by drying/ dehydration

Removal of water from the food to a level at which micro-organisms fail to grow is an important
method of preservation. Moisture can be removed by the application of heat as in sun drying and in
mechanical drying or by binding the moisture with addition of sugar (as in jams, jellies) or salt (raw
mangoes) and making it unavailable to the micro-organisms. E.g.: Osmotic dehydration, raisins, apricots,
onion, cauliflower etc.

 Drying - is done by using non-conventional energy sources like sun and wind.
 Dehydration: Dehydration means the process of removal of moisture by application of artificial heat
under controlled conditions of temperature, humidity and air flow.
Most of the fruits and vegetables contain enough moisture to permit the activity of enzymes and
micro-organisms for spoilage and drying is necessary to reduce the water activity. Therefore, reduction in
water activity of the food is the main principle of preservation by drying. Two commonly used terms for
dried foods are low moisture foods and intermediate moisture foods (IMF). During drying, a single layer
of fruit and vegetables, either whole or sliced after primary pre-treatments is spread on trays which are
placed inside the dehydrator or in the open sun for drying. In mechanical dehydrator, the initial
temperature is generally kept at 43oC which is then gradually increased to 60-66oC for vegetables and 66-
71oC for fruits.


Dried foods or low moisture foods generally do not contain more than 25% moisture and have a
water activity (aw) in the range of 0 to 0.6.
 Intermediate moisture (IMF) foods on the other hand contain 15 - 50% moisture with a water
activity (aw) of 0.6 to 0.85.
Methods of drying/dehydration

a) Sun drying: Elimination of moisture from fruits and vegetables either whole or after cutting into
pieces, by exposing them to the direct energy from the sunlight. They may be spread and dried on the
floor or on raised platforms or trays. E.g.: Grapes, figs, dates, pears, peaches, apricots etc.

b) Shade drying: Drying in the shade is applied in those vegetables for which there is a problem of
natural colour loss or browning under direct sunlight. Herbs, coriander leaves, green and red sweet
peppers, chillies, green beans, okra and fenugreek have an attractive colour, and hence are dried under
shade. The principles for shade drying are similar to those for sun drying. Shade drying is carried out in a
shed which has open sides. Air circulation is required for efficient drying. Shade drying takes little more
time than is normally required for drying under the sun.

c) Solar driers: Solar driers are devices that use solar energy to dry substances, especially food. There
are two general types of solar dryers: Direct and indirect.

Direct solar driers: Direct solar dryers expose the substance to be dehydrated to direct sunlight. They
have a black absorbing surface which collects the light and converts it to heat; the substance to be dried is
placed directly on this surface. These driers may have enclosures; glass covers and/or vents to in order to
increase efficiency.

Indirect solar driers: In indirect solar dryers, the black surface heats incoming air, rather than directly
heating the substance to be dried. This heated air is then passed over the substance and exits through
a chimney, taking moisture from the substance with it.

Two indirect solar drier systems are identified:

i) A cabinet-type drier with natural convection for internal air circulation for the processing of fruits such
as bananas, pineapples, mangoes, apricots, apples, pears, potato chips etc.

ii) A greenhouse-type drier with forced air circulation

The barriers to commercial development of solar driers include high initial investment, durability,
lack of national policies etc.

d) Conventional driers

i) Air convection driers: Kiln, Cabinet, tray or pan, Tunnel, Continuous conveyor belt, Belt trough, Air
lift, Fluidized bed, Spray

ii) Drum or roller driers: Atmospheric driers

iii) Vacuum driers: Vacuum shelf, Continuous Vacuum belt, Freeze driers

e) Osmotic dehydration: In this process, prepared fruits and vegetables are immersed in a strong syrup
and brine respectively and these are then sun dried. During immersion, the material loses some of its
moisture. The salt/syrup serves as a protective coating on the surface of slices. The protective effect on
colour, flavour and texture remains during the drying process and results in a high quality product.

Differences between conventional and freeze drying

Sl. No. Conventional drying Freeze drying

Successful for easily dried foods such Successful for most foods but usually
as seeds, fruit and vegetables limited to those not successfully dried by
1.
other methods.

Temperature between 37-93oC is used Low temperature used to prevent thawing

2.

3. Drying usually at atm. Pressure Drying usually below 4mm Hg pressure

4. Drying time may be short i.e. < 12 hrs Drying time between 12 and 24 hrs

Evaporation of water from food Moisture loss by sublimation of ice

5. surface without intermediate liquid stage

Solid dried particles Porous dried, highly hygroscopic

6.

7. Higher density than the original food Lower density than the original food

8. Odour is frequently abnormal Odour is usually natural

9. Slow rehydration usually incomplete Rapid, complete rehydration possible

Colour is usually darker Colour is usually natural

10.

11. Flavour may be abnormal Flavour is generally natural

12. Storage stability is good Storage stability is excellent

13. Costs are generally low Costs are generally high

Schedules of drying of fruits and vegetables

Table: Schedule for drying and dehydration of fruits (preparation and pre-treatments)

Sulphuring/ Drying temperature

Fruits Preparation/ pre-treatments
sulphiting time (oC)

Wash, peel, core, trim and cut into 30 minutes (1-2% 60-71 for 6-7 hours
Apple
3-5mm thick slices KMS) or sun dry

Dip in 0.5% boiling caustic soda 1 hour (3g 57-68 for 10-12
Apricot
solution for 7-10 seconds and rinse sulphur/ kg fruits) hours or sun dry

Wash, grate or cut into halves, Salt treatment @

Aonla Sun dry
destine 40g/kg fruits

Wash, peel, cut lengthwise/round 30 minutes 55-71 for 10-12

Banana
shape 12 mm thick (1-2% KMS) hours or sun dry

Wash, dip in boiling 0.5 % caustic

Date - 45-50 or sun dry
soda solution then rinse

Dip in boiling 0.5% caustic soda for

1 hour (3g
Grapes 7-10 sec and rinse or dip in 1-2%. 55-60 or sun dry
Sulphur/kg fruits)
ethyl oleate solution

Wash, peel, cut into 12 mm thick 2 hours

Mango 50-60 or sun dry
slices (1-2%KMS)
 Wash, peel, cut into 6 mm 2 hours
Papaya 60-65 or sun dry
pieces/slices, remove seed 1-2 %KMS)

Wash, use whole fruit or cut into

pieces, remove seed, pre-treatment 1 hour (sulphur
Prunes 55-60 or sun dry
for 3-5 seconds with boiling 0.5% 3g/ kg fruit)
caustic soda following by cooling.

Table: Schedule for preparation of vegetables for drying and dehydration

Drying
Preparation/
Vegetables Treatment before drying temp.
pre-treatments
(oC)

Wash, remove stalk, stems, Blanch in boiling water for 4-5 55-60 or sun
Cauliflower break flowers florets into minutes, immerse in 1% KMS dry or use
pieces of uniform size solution for one hour and drain solar drier

Wash, remove stalk, outer Blanch for 5-6 min., immerse in 55-60 or sun
Cabbage leaves and cut into fine 0.5% KMS solution for 10 dry or use
shreds minutes & drain solar drier

Blanch for 3-4 minutes and 55-60 or Sun

Beans Wash, cut into small pieces immerse in 0.5% KMS solution dry or use
for 10 minutes & drain solar drier

60-65 or sun
Remove the outer peel and Dip for 10 minutes in 5% salt
Onion dry or use
cut into round thin pieces solution
solar drier

60-65 or sun
Green leafy Wash, sort, trim off rough Blanch for 2-3 minutes in
dry or use
vegetables stems and stalk, shreds boiling water
solar drier

60-65 or sun
Wash, peel, cut into 10 mm Blanch for 4-5 minutes and
Potato dry or use
thick slices. immerse in 0.5% KMS
solar drier

Blanch for 30-50 seconds, peel 60-65 or sun

Tomato Wash, cut in to pieces and cut into round slices 10 mm dry or use
thick solar drier

Scrap peel, cut stalk and tip Blanch in boiling common salt 68-74 or sun
Carrots
cut 0.5cm thick slices solution (2-4%) for 2-4 minutes dry

Bitter Scrap peel of bitter gourd, Blanch in boiling water for 7-8 66-71 or sun
gourd cut 0.6 cm thick slices minutes or solar drier

Ladies Use whole, halves or discs Blanch in boiling water for 4-8 63-68
 finger minutes

Importance of blanching and sulphuring as pre treatments before drying

a) Blanching: Generally all vegetables and mushrooms either whole or slices after preliminary
preparations are blanched in boiling water or under steam to pre-determined period followed by
immediate cooling to inactivate enzymatic activity prior to drying.

b) Sulphuring /Sulphiting: Majority of fruits are treated with sulphur dioxide by placing them in an
enclosed chamber in which sulphur (3g/kg fruit) is burnt to allow the SO2 fumes to be absorbed by the
fruits. The process is called as sulphuring or sulphur fumigation. Sulphiting on the other hand refers to
dipping of prepared fruit or vegetables in a solution of potassium meta-bi-sulphite to serve the same
purpose as that of sulphuring. Sulphuring or sulphiting helps to preserve colour, retard browning, reduces
destruction of carotene and ascorbic acid besides checking spoilage of the dried product.

Reconstitution test and methods

In reconstitution, water is added to the product which is restored to a condition similar to that
when it was fresh. This enables the food product to be cooked as if the person was using fresh fruit or
vegetable.

Reconstitution test

1. Weigh out a sample of 35 grams from the bulked and packed final product of the previous day‟s
production/ stored products
2. Put the sample into a small container (beaker), add 275ml of cold water and 3.5g salt
3. Cover the container (with a watch-glass) and bring the water to the boil
4. Boil gently for 30 minutes
5. Turn out the sample onto a white dish
6. At least two people then examine the sample for palatability, toughness, flavour and presence or
absence of bad flavours and the testers record their results independently
7. The liquid left in the container should be examined for traces of sand/ soil etc.
Rehydration ratio: If the weight of the dehydrated sample (a) used for the test is 5g and the drained
weight of the rehydrated sample (b) is 30g, then rehydration ratio=b/a=30/5=6:1.

Reconstitution methods for testing eating quality

a. Quick method: Cold water, ten times the weight of the dry product is added to the dried product. The
container is covered, brought to the boil and simmered until the product is tender. The cooking time may
be 15 to 45 minutes after the boiling point has been reached.

b. Slow method: This gives better results than the quick method. Cold water is added to the dry food and
is left to soak for 1 to 2 hours before cooking. The product is then cooked in the same water as that in
which it was soaked. The actual cooking time will probably be shorter than that for the quick method.

Spoilage of dried products

SI. No. Defects Causes Prevention

High product Reduce water content to optimum values,

1 Moulding
moisture (aw=o.70) Pack in hermetic airtight packages

2 Infestation Presence of larvae or Disinfect storage room with toxic gases,

 Insects Fumigation of packed products

Enzyme inactivation by blanching and

3 Browning Enzymatic
steaming before drying

Reduce moisture content, store at low

4 Browning Non enzymatic
temperature

Reduced Too high

Operate inside final temperatures as
5 rehydration temperature in final
recommended
ratio stage of drying

Intermediate-moisture foods (IMF)

Intermediate-moisture foods or semi-moist foods contain moderate levels of moisture, of the order
of 20-50% by weight, which is less than is normally present in natural fruits and vegetables but more than
is left in conventionally dehydrated products. In addition, intermediate-moisture foods contain sufficient
dissolved solutes to decrease water activity below that required to support microbial growth. As a
consequence, intermediate- moisture foods do not require refrigeration to prevent microbial deterioration.
The IMF foods include honey, sugar, jellies, jams, bakery items like fruit cakes, figs, dates, etc. In all of
these products, preservation is partially from high osmotic pressure associated with the high
concentration of solutes; in some products, the additional preservative effect is contributed by salt, acid,
and other specific solutes.

6. Preservation by filtration/ removal of micro-organisms: Filtration of liquid foods through bacteria

proof filters is a common method for complete removal of micro-organisms from the foods. Liquid foods
are passed through the filters made of suitable material like asbestos pad, diatomaceous earth, unglazed
porcelain etc and allowed to percolate through either with or without nano-filtration etc. Centrifugation,
sedimentation, trimming and washing etc. can also be used but are not very effective.

7. Preservation by carbonation/ by creating anaerobic conditions: Anaerobic condition is created by

removal or evacuation of air/oxygen from the package, replacement of air by CO2 or inert gas like
nitrogen. Lack of oxygen prevents growth of any surviving bacteria and their spores under such
conditions. Production of CO2 during fermentation and its accumulation at the surface makes the
conditions anaerobic and prevent the growth of aerobes.

Carbonation of drinks and storing fresh food under controlled atmospheres serves the same
purpose. Carbon dioxide @ 14.6g/ litre of fruit juice beverage inhibits the microbial activity completely.
However, in general fruit juices are bottled with 1 to 8g per litre of carbon dioxide. High carbonation
usually destroys the flavour of the juice.

Canned food in which the food is sealed after removal of air (exhausting) illustrates the principle
of creating anaerobic conditions. Anaerobic bacteria and their spores present however, need to be killed
to prevent the food from being spoiled.

8. Preservation by salt: 15 to 25% salt is sufficient to preserve most products. It inhibits enzymatic
browning and discoloration and also acts as an antioxidant. Salt in the form of brine is used for canning
and pickling of vegetables which contain very little sugar and hence sufficient lactic acid cannot be
formed by fermentation to act as preservative.

Salt exerts its preservative action by:

  Causing high osmotic pressure resulting in the plasmolysis of microbial cells
 Dehydrating food/microorganism by drawing out & tying up moisture
 Ionizing to yield the chloride ion which is harmful to microorganisms
 Reducing the solubility of oxygen in water, sensitizing the cells against carbon dioxide, and
interfering with the action of proteolytic enzymes

9. Preservation by Sugar: Syrups containing 66% or more of sugar do not ferment. Sugar absorbs most
of the available water with the result that there is very little water for the growth to microorganisms hence
their multiplication is inhibited, and even those already present die out gradually. Dry sugar does not
ferment.

Thus sugar acts as a preservative by osmosis and not as a true poison for microorganisms. Fruit
syrup, jam, jelly, marmalade, preserve, candy, crystallized fruit and glazed fruit are preserved by sugar.

10. Preservation by acids: Low acid foods are spoilt rapidly. High acidic environment inhibits the
growth of food spoilage organisms. Addition of acidic additives like vinegar or citric acid are added to or
allowed to form in foods to preserve them. Acetic (vinegar), citric (lime juice) and lactic acids are
commonly used for preservation. About 2% acetic acid prevents spoilage of many products. Onions are
bottled in vinegar with little salt. Vinegar is also added to pickles, chutneys, sauces and ketchups. Citric
acid is added to many fruit squashes, jams and jellies to increase the acidity and prevent mould growth.

11. Preservation by oil and spices: A layer of oil on the surface of any food produces anaerobic
conditions which prevents the growth of moulds and yeasts. Thus, pickles in which enough oil is added to
form a layer at the top can be preserved for long periods. Spices like turmeric, pepper and asafoetida have
little bacteriostatic effect and are primarily added to impart their characteristic flavour to the food.

12. Preservation by antibiotics: Certain metabolic products of microorganisms have been found to have
germicidal effect and are termed as antibiotics.

 Nisin is produced by Streptococcus lactis, an organism commonly found in milk, curd, cheese and
other fermented milk products. It is non toxic and used to preserve acid foods in which it is more
stable. It is used in canning of mushrooms, tomatoes and milk products. Nisin suppresses growth of
spoilage microbes mainly Clostridium botulinum.
 Subtilin, an antibiotic obtained from certain strains of Bacillus subtilis, is used in preservation of
asparagus, corn and peas. It is most effective against gram-positive bacteria and spore-forming
organisms. Subtilin and nisin reduce the thermal process requirements of several food products.
 Pimaricin, an antifungal antibiotic, can be used for treating fruits and fruit juices.

13. Preservation by irradiation/ cold sterilization: Irradiation consists of exposing the food to either
electromagnetic or ionizing radiations to destroy the micro-organisms present in the food. Examples of
irradiation include use of ultraviolet lamps in sterilizing slicing knives in bakeries. Gamma radiation from
cobalt - 60 or cesium - 137 sources has been used for irradiation of many fruits like papaya, mango and
onion, spices, fish etc. They are also used for inhibition of sprouting in onion and potatoes.
14. Preservation by fermentation

Decomposition of carbohydrates by microorganisms or enzymes is called fermentation.

Fermentation of food results in the production of organic acids, alcohol, etc., which not only help in
preserving the food but may also produce distinctive new food products. Acetic, lactic and alcoholic are
the three important kinds of fermentation involved in fruit and vegetable preservation.

1. Acetic acid fermentation: The production of vinegar (acetic acid) from fruit juices is perhaps one of
the oldest organic acid fermentations known. Acetic acid is produced by the oxidation of ethyl alcohol by
bacteria such as Acetobacter aceti, A. orleansis, A. schutzenbachi and others. The biochemical reaction
by which they form acetic acid from ethyl alcohol is as follows:

2CH3CH2OH + O2 2CH3CHO + 2H2O

2CH3CHO + O2 2CH3COOH

Some Acetobacter species do not stop at the stage of acid production but continue the oxidation to
carbon dioxide.

2CH3COOH + 2O2 2CO2 +2H2O

Theoretically, 100 parts of sugar (sucrose or maltose) should yield about 51 parts of ethyl alcohol
or 67 parts of acetic acid. In actual practice, however, even under the most favourable conditions, 43 to
48 parts of alcohol and 49 to 56 parts of acetic acid only are produced. These losses in yield may be due
to

 The consumption of sugar in the solution by the yeast

 Loss of alcohol and acetic acid due to evaporation and oxidation
 Loss due to utilization by acetic acid bacteria for their growth
 Small quantities of alcohol may also remain unconverted
Hence, it is necessary to use a juice with at least 10% sugar (maltose or sucrose) content for
preparing vinegar of about 5% acid strength. After conversion of alcohol into acetic acid, the acetic acid
bacteria attack the acid itself. This can be prevented by filling the containers up to the brim and sealing
them airtight.

2. Lactic acid fermentation: Lactic acid fermentation is an anaerobic intra-molecular oxidation-

reduction process. Both homofermentative and heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria participate in food
fermentation. In some cases, yeasts and moulds also participate along with lactic acid bacteria.

Important products prepared by lactic acid fermentation are as follows.

Raw material Predominant organism Product

Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactobacillus
Cabbage Sauerkraut
plantarum, Lactobacillus brevis
Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactobacillus
Cucumber, tomato,
plantarum, Lactobacillus brevis,
lemon, mango, Pickles
Streptococcus faecalis, Pediococcus
cauliflower, etc.
cerevisiae
In general, bacteria prefer low or no acid medium for their growth. The lactic acid bacteria,
however, can grow in acid medium and can also produce acid through their action on the substrate. They
can grow in the presence of 8 to 10% salt. Advantage is taken of these two factors in pickling. The
growth of undesirable organisms is inhibited by adding salt, while allowing the lactic acid fermentation
to proceed.

Fermentation takes place fairly well in brine containing approximately 5% salt but proceeds
somewhat slowly with 10% salt. To some extent it continues up to 15% but at 20%, all fermentation
stops. It is therefore, customary to place the vegetables in a 10% salt solution to allow lactic acid
fermentation to take place and then increase the concentration of salt gradually, so that by the time the
pickle is ready, the concentration would reach 15%.

Temperature is another important factor in lactic acid fermentation. Lactic acid bacteria are most
active at about 30oC. It is therefore, essential that the temperature of the product undergoing lactic acid
fermentation should be kept as close to 30oC as possible, especially in the beginning.

When vegetables are placed in brine, the soluble material present in them diffuses into the salt
water due to osmosis and the liquid penetrates into the tissues. The soluble material contains, besides
mineral matter, fermentable sugar also. The sugars serve as food for lactic acid bacteria, which convert
them into lactic and other acids. In practice, 2-3kg of salt is mixed with every 100kg of material and the
mixture is allowed to stand for 12 to 24 hours, when sufficient juice comes out from the material to form
the brine. If the vegetable does not contain sufficient amount of juice it is covered with brine containing
5% salt. The soluble material extracted is fermented by the lactic acid-forming bacteria, which are
generally present in large numbers on the surface of fresh vegetables.

When sufficient lactic acid is formed, the lactic acid bacteria cease to function, and any further
change in the composition of the material is prevented.

3. Alcoholic fermentation: Ethyl alcohol can be produced by fermentation of any carbohydrate

containing a fermentable sugar, or a polysaccharide that can be hydrolyzed to a fermentable sugar. Cider
is one of the examples of alcoholic fermentation. It is brought about by yeasts. The equation to show net
result of alcoholic fermentation by yeast is as follows.

C6H12O6 + yeast 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

Here a sugar is the substrate and the process is anaerobic. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is commonly
employed for fermentation. It is imperative that the yeast must have a high tolerance for alcohol and must
grow vigorously and produce a large quantity of alcohol.

100g of hexose sugar should yield 51.1g of ethyl alcohol and 48.9g of carbon dioxide. Besides alcohol, a
number of other substances are also formed in small quantities. The alcohol content of wine is usually
expressed as volume per cent, i.e., cc of alcohol per 100cc of wine. The percentage of alcohol will be
approximately equal to the Brix (total soluble solids) of the crushed material multiplied by a factor of
0.57, e.g., a crushed material containing 22% soluble solids should give theoretically a dry wine of about
22 x 0.57 = 12.5 volume per cent of alcohol (V%).
 Fermented Beverages:
These have been known to mankind from the time immemorial. But development of biochemical
principles of fermentation was originated by Lavoisier in France in 1789 by way of analysing the
chemical composition of sugar and fermentation products such as ethanol, carbon dioxide and a trace of
acetic acid. Much later in 1860, the fellow countryman Louis Pasteur carefully analysed fermentation
products and showed that in addition to ethanol and carbon dioxide, other compounds such as glycerol
and succinic acids are also produced.
Fermentation process in beverage preparation is mediated through yeast and in the process it
produces a range of products such as organic acids, alcohols esters and sulphurous compounds. Grape
wine is the oldest example of a fermented beverage.
1. Wine: Wine is defined differently in the laws of different countries, e.g., in China wine is considered to be an
alcoholic beverage and the Chinese word for it may be translated as appetite wine. In California, it is defined as
the fermented juice of various fruits. But wine generally denotes the product produced by fermentation of grape
juice. The most satisfactory definition seems to be "wine is a beverage resulting from the fermentation by yeasts
of the grape juice with proper processing and addition."
In other words, wine strictly signifies the fermented alcoholic beverage produced from grape juice
without distillation.
Grapes have been historically associated with wine-making because of following advantages:
 Juice is extremely rich in natural sugar
 Natural association of fermentative yeasts with berries
 High content of nitrogenous matters in promoting growth of yeast and hence fermentation
 High acidity of juice favouring yeasts and protecting against other bacterial fermentation
 High alcohol and acid content in the fermented wine keep it stable and safe for prolonged storage
The varieties of wines are endless and they differ in so many attributes that it is difficult to
classify them. According to colour, there are two types, red and white. In making red wines, the grapes
are crushed and stemmed but the skin and seeds are left in the must. White wines are made from white or
greenish grapes or from the juice of grapes from which the skin have been removed.
Grape wines are of two kinds, dry and sweet. Dry wines are those which contain very little or no
sugar that can be detected by testing. In sweet wines, the sugar content is high enough to be detected by
taste. The alcohol content of these two kinds of wines ranges from 7 to 20 per cent. Wines with 7 to 9
percent alcohol are known as "light", those with 9 to 16 percent "medium", and those with 16 to 21 per
cent "strong".
Sparkling wines contain carbon dioxide, they are made effervescent by secondary fermentation in
closed containers, generally in the bottle itself, still wines are those which do not contain carbon dioxide.
Fortified wines contain added alcohol in the form of brandy, generally wines with more than 12 percent
alcohol are fortified with fruit brandy (alcohol) prepared by distilling grape wine.

Equipments used for wine making

1. For crushing and pressing : Roller crusher or basket press
2. Primary fermentation vessel: Open ended cylindrical vessels of suitable size made of plastic or
wood.
3. Secondary fermentation vessel: Narrow mouthed containers of wood, plastic or glass.
Thermometer, hydrometer, hand refractometer, measuring cylinder, syphon tube, filter, bottles,
crown corks and corking machine, etc., are also required.
 I. Selection of fruit: The grape berries should be ripe and fresh. Blemished ones should be rejected.
White wine is produced from varieties having greenish or yellowish skin. Red wines derive their colour
from red pigment present in the skin or flesh of coloured varieties.
II. Crushing: It is done with the help of a basket press. Before crushing the grapes their stems and
stalks are removed. Crushed material (must) is put in jars which should not be filled more than three-
fourths
III. Addition of sugar: Cane sugar is added to maintain at least 20 per cent total soluble solids but
not more than 24 percent. If the grapes are sour, 70 g of sugar are added for each kg of grapes.
IV. Adjustment of pH: If necessary, pH of juice has to be adjusted. If it is too low, the juice is
diluted with water; if too high, tartaric acid is added to lower it. If water is added more sugar has also to
be added to raise the percentage of total soluble solids. Usually an acid content of 0.6 to 0.8. percent is
maintained.
V. Addition of preservative: Potassium metabisulphite (KMS) is added at the rate of 1.5 g for every
10 kg of grapes, mixed and allowed to stand for 2 to 4 hours. KMS inhibits growth of wild yeasts and
spoilage organisms.
VI. Addition of wine yeast: Wine yeast, e.g., Saccharomyces ellipsoideus inoculum is added at the
rate of 20 ml for every 5 kg of grapes, about an hour after the addition of preservative. If the yeast is not
available then potassium metabisulphite is not added. The yeast present in the skin of grapes can also
ferment and produce wine but it is not of good quality.
VII. Fermentation: Grapes are allowed to ferment for two days in a cool place, i.e., at 22 to 28°C.
The mouth of the jar is covered with cloth during fermentation.
VIII. Filtration: The contents are filtered through a thin muslin cloth or a filter aid on the third day and
the filtrate again allowed to ferment in cool place for another ten days without any disturbance. During
this period yeast cells and other solids settle at the bottom.
IX. Racking: Syphoning off the fermented wine to separate it from the solid deposits is known as
racking.
X. Fining and Filtration: The newly prepared wine is sometimes not clear and requires fining and
filtration. A suitable fining agent, e.g., bentonite, is added. All the colloidal material settles down along
with bentonite. The clear wine is syphoned off and filtered if necessary. Alternatively, the wine is stored
in a refrigerator for about two weeks and thereafter the clear wine is syphoned off.
XI. Aging (Maturation): The clear wine which is syphoned off is filled into bottles or barrels. These
should be filled completely and seal airtight. The wine is allowed to mature for 6 to 8 months in a cool
place. Sometimes fermentation continues in the bottle with the result that the cork flies off or bottle
cracks. Wine loses its flavour during aging because of which barrels of oak wood are generally used for
storing it. The wood imparts a fine aroma to the wine.
XII. Packing: The volatile acid content of wine, mainly acetic acid, should be low. High content of
volatile acids (0.09-0.20 g/100 ml. in terms of acetic acid) indicates that acetic acid bacteria are active
during fermentation. It is often desirable to pasteurize the wine to destroy spoilage. organisms and
coagulate the colloids that cause cloudiness. Generally wines are pasteurized at 82 to 88°C for 1-2
minutes and then bottled. The bottles are closed with crown corks of good quality, pasteurized at 65°C
for about 20 minutes, then cooled and stored.

TECHNOLOGICAL FLOW-SHEET FOR PROCESSING OF GRAPE WINE

 Ripe Grapes
↓
Removal of stems
↓
Crushing (Basket press)
↓
Filling jar upto three fourths
↓
Addition of sugar (20-24% TSS)
↓
Adjustment of pH (0.6-0.8% acid)
↓
Addition of preservative (KMS 1.5g/10 kg grapes)
↓
Keeping for an hour
↓
Addition of wine yeast (Saccharomyces ellipsoideus 20 ml/kg of grapes)
↓
Fermentation (for two days)
↓
Filtration
↓
Fermentation (for ten days)
↓
Racking (Syphoning off clear liquid)
↓
Fining and Filtration (Bentonite)
↓
Aging (Maturation) (6 to 8 months)
↓
Pasteurization at 85°C (for 2 minutes)
↓
Bottling
↓
Crown corking
↓
Pasteurization at 82°C (for 20 minutes)
↓
Cooling
↓
Storage

The following are the well-known wines produced in various countries:

2. Champaigne: It is a sparkling wine, made chiefly in France, from certain varieties of grapes such
as Chardonay and Pinot Noir. It is made in other countries as well. The fermentation is allowed to
proceed to completion in bottles which are specially made to withstand high pressure of gas produced
during fermentation.
3. Port: It is fortified, sweet red wine made originally in Portugal, but now in other countries also.
4. Sherry: A Spanish wine, matured by placing the barrels for 3 to 4 months in sun- light, where the
temperature is as high as 54 to 60°C.
5. Tokay: This is a very famous fortified wine made in Hungary.
6. Muscat: It is prepared from Muscat grapes in Italy, Californi, Spain and Australia.
7. Perry: Wine made from pears is known as perry. Its method of preparation is similar to that of
apple cider. Wastes, culled fruits and trimmings left over from canning may also be used for making
perry
8. Orange wine: Orange juice is sweetened by adding sugar and then allowed to ferment. The
method of preparation is similar to that of grape wine. Orange oil should not be added to the juice as it
hinders and sometimes stops fermentation.
9. Berry wine: Wines prepared from berries like strawberry, blackberry and elderberrys are known
as 'Berry wines'. These products are generally popular in other countries but are not common in India.
10. Nira: It is prepared from the juice of the palm tree.
11. Feni: This is a fermented wine made from cashew apple in Goa.
12. Cider: It is mostly prepared by fermentation of special grade of apples which have a high tannin
content of 0.1-0.3 per cent. However, a great deal of confusion exists as far as the apple cider is
concerned. In the U.S.A., apple cider means non-clarified apple juice, whereas apple juice is the clarified
and treated sparkling juice.
On the contrary in the Europe and in India, apple cider pertains to the fermented apple juice. In
the U.K., special varieties of apples known as cider apples are used For cider preparation apples may be
graded on the basis of tannin and organic acid contents as bitter-sweet, 'bitter-sharp', 'sweet‟ and 'sharp‟
Nearly 60 per cent of full-flavoured cider is prepared using bitter-sweet and bitter sharp apple. Cider
apples are so chosen that their juice contain higher percentage of sugar (i.e., 12.5 per cent) than normal
apple juice (10.5 per cent) with higher proportion of sugar in the form of fructose. In India, cider apples
are not available in sufficient quantity, hence dessert varieties which are easily available, are used. There
are two types of apple cider, dry and sweet.
Fruits such as bael, jamun, phalsa and aonla can also be used for preparation of cider. The
technique of preparation which is more or less similar to that of grape wine.
To attract wider clientele for the cider consumers, most cider preparations are carbonated
nowadays. This is done by refermentation of cider by repeating the process of sugar and yeast additions
in a pressure tank or sometimes by chilling cider prior to subjecting carbon dioxide injection under
controlled pressure. Cider, thus carbonated, is protected from microbial attack by sulphitation and
pasteurization.

Preparation of jams, jellies, marmalades, candies, crystallized and glazed fruits, preserves, pickles,
ketchup, sauce, puree, syrups, juices, squashes and cordials
1. Jam: Jam is a product prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with a sufficient quantity of sugar to a thick
consistency, firm enough to hold fruit tissues in position. For preparation of jam not less than 45 parts of
fruits are used for every 55 parts of sugar. According to FPO specifications, minimum quantity of soluble
solids in the prepared jam shall not be less than 68% (w/w). Apple, pear, sapota, apricot, loquat, peach,
papaya, karonda, carrot, plum, strawberry, raspberry, mango, tomato, grapes and muskmelon are used for
preparation of jams. The jam prepared by using two or more fruit pulps, is called as mixed fruit jam.
Approved fruit colour and flavour can also be added into the jam when declared on the label. Jam
contains 0.5-0.6% acid and invert sugar should not be more than 40%. End point of jam can be
determined by using a jelmeter test, ladle test or sheet test or weight test.
Sheet or flake test: A small quantity of jam is taken out during boiling in a spoon or wooden ladle. It is
allowed to drop after slight cooling. If the product falls off like a sheet instead of flowing like syrup,
indicates the end point. Otherwise, continue boiling till the sheet test is positive. Or, a drop of prepared
jam if poured gently in glass tumbler full of water settles down at the bottom of tumbler also indicates the
end point. In case of shattering in water further cooking is needed.
Weight Test: Generally from 1kg sugar and 1kg pulp approximately 1½ kg jam is obtained.

Problems in jam production

1. Crystallization:The final product should contain 30 to 50% invert sugar. If the percentage is less
than 30, cane sugar may crystallize out on storage and if it is more than 50 the jam will become a
honey like mass due to the formation of small crystals of glucose. Corn syrup or glucose may be
added along with cane sugar to avoid crystallization.
2. Sticky (or) gummy jam:Because of high percentage of TSS, jams tend to become gummy or sticky.
This problem can be solved by addition of pectin (or) citric acid (or) both.
3. Premature setting:This is due to low TSS and high pectin content in the jam and can be prevented
by adding more sugar.
4. Surface graining and shrinkage:This is caused by evaporation of moisture during storage of jam.
Storing in a cool place can reduce it.
5. Microbial spoilage:Moulds may spoil the jam during storage but they are destroyed if exposed to
less than 90% humidity. Hence, jams should be stored at 80% humidity. It is also advisable to add
40ppm SO2 in the form of KMS (or) 200ppm of benzoic acid.

2. Jelly: AJelly is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling the fruit with or without addition of water,
straining the extract and mixing the clear extract with sugar followed by boiling the mixture to a stage at
which it will set to a clear gel. A perfect jelly should be transparent, well set, but not too stiff and having
original flavour of the fruit. It should be attractive in colour and should keep its shape, firm enough to
retain a sharp edge but tender enough to quiver when pressed. It should not be gummy, sticky or syrupy
or have crystallized sugar. Should be free from dullness, with little or no syneresis (weeping), and neither
tough nor rubbery.
In the preparation of jellies, pectin is the most essential constituent. As per FPO specifications,
the quantity of fruit and soluble solids in the final product shall not be less than 45 and 65 percent (w/w)
respectively. Guava jelly is the commercial product available in the market however jelly can be prepared
from sour apple, plum, karonda, wood apple, loquat, papaya and gooseberry etc.
Important considerations in jelly making: Pectin, acid, sugar (65%) and water are the four essential
ingredients. Pectin test and determination of end point of jelly formation are very important for the
quality of jelly.
A. Pectin: Pectin substances present in the form of calcium pectate are responsible for the firmness of
fruits. Pectin is the most important constituent of jelly. Usually about 0.5-1.0% of pectin of good quality
in the extract is sufficient to produce good jelly. If the pectin content is higher a firm and tough jelly is
formed and if it is less the jelly may fail to set. Pectin content of extract is determined by either alcohol
test or jelmeter test.
B. Acid: The jellying of extract depends on the amount of acid and pectin present in the fruit. Of the
three acids citric, malic and tartaric found in fruits, tartaric acid gives the best results. The final jelly
should contain at least 0.5% but not more than 1% total acid because a larger quantity of acid may cause
syneresis.
C. Sugar: This essential constituent of jelly imparts to it sweetness as well as body. If the concentration
of sugar is high, the jelly retains less water resulting in a stiff jelly, probably because of dehydration.

Judging the end point of jelly

Boiling of jelly should not be prolonged, because excessive boiling results in a greater inversion
of sugar and destruction of pectin. The important point to remember is that it is the fruit extract which
requires boiling and not the added sugar. If a jelly is cooked for a prolonged period, it may become
gummy, sticky, syrupy and deteriorate in colour and flavour. The end-point of a jelly can be judged by
using any of the following methods:

 Cold plate test: A drop of the boiling liquid from the pan is taken and placed on a plate and allowed
to cool quickly. If the jelly is about to set, the mixture on the plate will crinkle when pushed with a
finger.
 Drop test: A drop of the concentrated mass is poured into a glass containing water. Settling down of
the drop without disintegration denotes the end-point.
 Sheet or flake test: This test is more reliable than the plate test. A small portion of jelly is taken
with a large spoon or wooden ladle, cooled slightly and then allowed to drop off. If the jelly drops
like syrup, it requires further concentration, but if it falls in the form of flakes or sheet, the end point
has been reached.
 Temperature test: The temperature of boiling jelly containing 65% total soluble solids during end
point generally corresponds to 105.50C. This is the easiest way to ascertain the end point.
Problems in Jelly Making
A. Failure to set: This may be due to
a. Addition of too much sugar b. Lack of acid (or) pectin
c. Cooking below the end point d. Cooking beyond the end point
e. Prolonged cooking
B. Cloudy (or) foggy Jellies: It is due to the following reasons
a. Use of non – clarified juice (or) extract b. Use of immature fruits
c. Over – cooking d. Over – cooling
e. Non – removal of scum f. Faulty pouring
g. Premature gelation – due to excess of pectin in the extract
C. Formation of crystals: It is due to excess of sugar.

D. Syneresis (or) Weeping of jelly: The phenomenon of spontaneous exudation of fluid from a gel is
called syneresis (or) weeping. This may be due to
a. Excess of acid b. Too low concentration of sugar
c. Insufficient pectin d. Premature gelation
e. Fermentation
3. Marmalade: This is a fruit jelly in which slices of the fruit (or) its peel are suspended. The term is
generally used for products made from citrus fruits like oranges and lemons in which shredded peel is
used as the suspended material. Citrus marmalades are classified into (1) jelly marmalade (2) jam
marmalade. The pectin and acid contents of the marmalades are kept slightly higher than that for jellies.
Problems in marmalade making: Browning during storage is very common which can be prevented by
addition of 0.09gm of KMS per kg of marmalade and not using tin containers. KMS dissolved in a small
quantity of water is added to the marmalade while it is cooling. KMS also eliminates the possibility of
spoilage due to moulds.
4. Preserve: A mature fruit/ vegetable or its pieces impregnated with heavy sugar syrup till it becomes
tender and transparent is known as a preserve. Aonla, bael, apple, pear, mango, cherry, karonda,
strawberry, pineapple, papaya, etc., can be used for making preserves. Fruits are cooked in syrup by three
processes namely rapid, slow and vacuum process.
5. Candied fruits/ vegetables: A fruit/ vegetable impregnated with cane sugar or glucose syrup, and
subsequently drained free of syrup and dried is known as candied fruit/ vegetable. The most suitable
fruits for candying are aonla, karonda, pineapple, cherry, papaya, apple, peach, and peels of orange,
lemon, ginger etc. Pineapple cores from canning industries can be candied directly without any
preliminary treatment.
6. Crystallized fruits: Candied fruits/ vegetables when covered or coated with crystals of sugar, either
by rolling in finely powdered sugar or by allowing sugar crystals to deposit on them from dense syrup are
called crystallized fruits.

Problems in preparation of preserves and candied fruits

1) Fermentation: It is due to low concentration of sugar used in the initial stages of preparation of
preserves. Sometimes fermentation also occurs during storage due to low concentration of sugar and
insufficient cooking. This can be prevented by boiling the product and by adding the required quantity of
sugar and by storage in a cool and dry place.
2) Floating of fruits in jar: It is mainly due to filling the preserve without cooling and can be avoided by
cooling the preserve prior to filling.
3) Toughening of fruit skin or peel: It may be due to inadequate blanching or cooking of fruits hence
blanching them till they are tender is necessary. Toughness may develop when cooking is done in a large
shallow pan with only a small quantity of syrup.
4) Fruit shrinkage: Cooking of fruits in heavy syrup greatly reduces absorption of sugar and causes
shrinkage. Therefore, fruits should be blanched first or cooked in low-sugar syrup.
5) Stickiness: It may develop after drying or during storage due to insufficient consistency of the syrup,
poor quality packing and damp storage conditions.
8. Pickles: The preservation of food in common salt (NaCl) or in vinegar or edible oil with the addition
of spices and condiments is known as pickling. It is one of the most ancient /oldest methods for
preservation of fruits and vegetables. Salt, vinegar, edible oil or lactic acid acts as preservative in pickle
making. Several kinds of pickles are sold in the Indian market. Mango pickle ranks first followed by
lime, lemon, mushroom, aonla, jackfruit and karonda.
Brining: For pickling, unripe fruits (like mango) after preparation (peeling, slicing) are mixed with salt
or brine for its later use in pickle preparation.
At present, pickles are prepared with salt, vinegar, oil or with a mixture of salt, oil, spices and
vinegar. The examples of these methods are listed below.
a) Preservation with salt: Lime pickle, lime and green chillies pickle, mango pickle, sweet mango
pickle, sweet lime pickle
b) Preservation with vinegar: Papaya pickle, pear pickle, onion pickle, cucumber pickle
c) Preservation with oil: Mango pickle, aonla pickle, karonda pickle, lime pickle, bitter gourd pickle,
brinjal pickle, red chilli pickle, green chilli pickle
d) Preservation with mixture of salt, oil, spices and vinegar: Cauliflower pickle, carrot pickle, sweet
turnip pickle, red chilli pickle, sweet jackfruit pickle, tomato pickle, mixed vegetable pickle, etc.

Problems in pickle making

a) Bitter taste: Use of strong vinegar or excess spice or prolonged cooking of spices imparts a bitter taste
to the pickle
b) Dull and faded product: Due to use of inferior quality materials or insufficient curing
c) Shrivelling: It occurs when vegetables (e.g.: cucumber) are placed directly in a very strong solution of
salt or vinegar. Hence, a dilute solution should be used initially and its strength gradually increased
d) Scum formation: When vegetables are cured in brine, a white scum always form on the surface due to
the growth of wild yeast. This delays the formation of lactic acid and also helps the growth of
putrefactive bacteria which cause softness and slipperiness. Hence, it is advisable to remove scum as
soon as it is formed. Addition of 1% acetic acid helps to prevent the growth of wild yeast in brine without
affecting lactic acid formation.
e) Softness and slipperiness: This is a very common problem and is due to inadequate covering with
brine or the use of weak brine. The problem can be solved by using a brine of proper strength and
keeping the pickles well below the surface of the brine.
f) Cloudiness: When the structure of the vegetable used in pickling, e.g., onion, is such that the acetic
acid (vinegar) cannot penetrate deep enough into its tissues to inhibit the activity of bacteria and other
microorganisms present in them, fermentation starts from inside the tissues, rendering the vinegar cloudy.
This microbial activity can only be checked by proper brining. Cloudiness may also be caused by use of
inferior quality vinegar or chemical reaction between vinegar and minerals.
g) Blackening: It is due to the iron in the brine or in the processing equipment reacting with the
ingredients used in pickling. Certain microorganisms also cause blackening.
9. Ketchup/ sauce: There is no essential difference between sauce and ketchup. However, sauces are
generally thinner than ketchups. Tomato, apple, papaya, walnut, soybean, mushroom, etc., are used for
making sauces. Sauces are of two kinds viz., thin sauces of low viscosity consisting mainly of vinegar
extract of flavouring materials like herbs and spices and thick sauces those are highly viscous.
Preparation of tomato ketchup: Tomato ketchup is the commercial product made either from fresh
tomato by converting them into juice/pulp or by using tomato puree or tomato paste. It is made by
concentrating tomato juice or pulp without seeds and skin. Spices, salt, sugar, vinegar, onion, garlic etc
are added to the extent that the ketchup contains not less than 12% tomato solids and minimum of 25 %
total soluble solids (w/w). The juice or puree prepared earlier can be used for preparation of tomato
ketchup.

Problem in the preparation of sauces/ ketchups

Black neck: Formation of a black ring in the neck of bottles is known as black neck. It is caused by the
iron which gets into the product from the metal of the equipment and cap/crown cork through the action
of acetic acid. This iron coming into contact with tannins in spice forms ferrous tannate which is oxidized
to black ferric tannate. Black neck can be prevented by
1) Filling hot sauce at a temperature not less than 85oC
2) Leaving very little head space in bottles (the more the air, the greater is the blackening)
3) Reducing contamination by iron, sources of iron being salt and metal equipment
4) Partial sugar replacement by corn/glucose syrup which has sulphur prevents blackening
5) Addition of 100ppm sulphur dioxide or 100mg ascorbic acid
6) Storing bottles in horizontal or inverted position to diffuse the entrapped air throughout the bottle
thus reducing its concentration in the neck sufficiently to prevent blackening
7) Using cloves only after removing the flower/head

10. Puree: Puree and more rarely mash are generally terms for cooked food, usually vegetables or
legumes that have been ground, pressed, blended and /or sieved to the consistency of a soft creamy paste
or thick liquid.
Tomato puree and paste: Tomato pulp without skin or seeds with or without added salt and containing
not less than 9% of salt free tomato solids is known as medium tomato puree. It can be concentrated
further to „heavy tomato puree‟ which contains not less than 12% solids. If this is further concentrated to
not less than 25% tomato solids, it is known as tomato paste. On further concentration to 33% or more
solids, it is called concentrated tomato paste.
Introduction
Fruit juice and beverages generally comprise of naturally extracted juices, drinks, ready to serve (RTS)
beverages, nectars, squashes, cordials and appetizers etc. These products are highly refreshing, thirst
quenching, appetizing and nutritionally superior to many synthetic and aerated drinks. Fruit juice is the
natural liquid expressed by pressure or other mechanical means from the edible portion of the fruit. Fruit
juices are generally extracted from fruits in a number of ways, depending on their structure and
composition.

The composition of juice is unaltered during preparation and preservation while for fruit beverages like
drinks, squashes, cordial etc the fruit juice or pulp, sugar, acid, colour, flavour etc are mixed in
appropriate proportions to a desirable taste. Apple juice, orange juice, mango squash, guava drink,
pineapple juice and squash, mixed fruit drink, mango nectar etc are the commercial products available in
the market.

Types of fruit juice and beverages

a)Unfermented beverages: Fruit juices which do not undergo alcoholic fermentation are termed as
unfermented beverages. They include natural fruit juices, sweetened, ready to serve drinks, nectar,
cordial, squash, crush, syrup, fruit juice concentrate and fruit juice powder. They are prepared by
following minimum standards as prescribed under Food Safety and Standards Regulation, 2011 and Fruit
Products order (Table 8.1) and discussed as under
Fruit Products Order (FPO) specifications for fruit beverages
Product Minimum % of total Minimum % of Maximum
soluble solids in final fruit juice in final acidity
product (w/w) product (w/w) expressed as
citric acid (%)
Unsweetened juice Natural 100 3.5
Fruit syrup 65 25 3.5
Crush 55 25 3.5
Squash 40 25 1.5
Fruit nectar 15 20 1.5
(excluding orange
and pineapple)
Orange and 15 40 1.5
pineapple nectars
Cordial 30 25 3.5
Sweetened juice 10 85 -
Lime/lemon Ready 10 5 -
to serve beverage
Ready-to-serve 10 10 -
beverage/drink
Fruit juice 32 100 -
concentrate
Synthetic 65 - -
syrup/sherbet

Preservative SO2/BA ppm specified by Food Safety and Standards Regulation, 2011. SO2- sulphur
dioxide; BA- benzoic acid

Fruit juice: It is a natural juice pressed out of the fruit and remains practically unaltered in its
composition during processing and preservation. It is also called as unfermented fruit juice or pure fruit
juice, for example apple juice.
Fruit juice beverage: It is fruit juice which is considerably altered in composition during preparation. It
may or may not be diluted before consumption. Ready to serve (RTS) drinks, nectar, squash, cordial,
appetizer are all fruit juice beverages.

Synthetic drinks: Synthetic drinks are prepared by using sugar, water, flavourants, acidulents, colour
etc. These drinks do not contain any fruit juice or pulp.

Ready to serve (RTS) drink: This is a type of fruit beverage which contains atleast 10% fruit juice (for
lime drink 5% juice) and not less than 10% total soluble solids. The acidity in these drinks shall not
exceed 3.5% as citric acid. RTS beverages are preserved by using class II preservatives not exceeding 70
ppm SO2 or 120 ppm benzoic acid. It is not diluted before serving hence it is known as ready to serve
drink for example mango drink, guava drink, pineapple drink etc.

Fruit nectar: This type of fruit beverage contains atleast 20% fruit juice or pulp and 15% total soluble
solids and is preserved by heat processing. The acidity in fruit nectars shall not exceed 1.5% as citric
acid. No class II preservative like SO2 or benzoic acid is permitted in fruit nectar as per Indian Food
Laws. It is not diluted before serving.

Squash: Fruit squash consists of fruit juice or pulp to which cane sugar is added for sweetening.
According to Indian Food Laws, the fruit squash shall contain atleast 25% fruit juice or pulp and not less
than 40% TSS. It shall not contain class II preservative in excess of 350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm benzoic
acid. Acid content in squashes generally remain between 1-1.5% but shall not exceed 3.5% as citric acid.
Squash is generally diluted with water in 1:3 ratio before serving. Lime, lemon, mango, orange, guava
and pineapple squashes are commercially manufactured.

Fruit juice cordial: It is a sparkling, clear, sweetened fruit juice from which pulp and other suspended
substances have been completely removed. It contains atleast 25% juice, 30% total soluble solids and not
exceeding 350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm benzoic acid as preservative. It is also used for mixing with
alcoholic drinks for example lime juice cordial.

Fruit Appetizer: Fruit appetizer is similar to fruit squash but also contains spices, condiments and herb
extract. Spices like black pepper, cumin, large cardamom, ginger along with mentha extract and salt are
used for manufacture of appetizer. They are also called as spiced fruit squash. Plum and apricot
appetizers are quite common.

Fruit crush: Fruit crush contains minimum of 25% fruit juice or pulp, 55% total soluble solids (TSS)
and not exceeding 350 ppm of SO2 or 600 ppm of benzoic acid. It is diluted before serving.

Fruit syrup: It is prepared by using minimum of 25% fruit juice or pulp and sweetened by using cane
sugar. It shall contain not less than 65% total soluble solids and not exceeding 350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm
benzoic acid as class II preservative.

Synthetic syrup: Heavy sugar syrup of 70-75 percent strength is used as the base of all synthetic syrups,
which are flavoured and coloured with artificial flavour and colours. They may or may not contain fruit
pulp or juice. Rose, sandal, almond, khuskhus, kewra sherbets/syrups are quite common.

Carbonated fruit beverages: It is a ready to serve fruit juice beverage which contains variable amount
of fruit juice, sugar, acid etc and impregnated with carbon dioxide gas. Apple juice, lime, lemon and
grape juice can be used for the preparation of carbonated fruit juice beverages. They are prepared either
by pre mix or post mix method.

Fruit juice concentrate: It is a fruit juice, which has been concentrated by removal of water either by
evaporation, freezing or reverse osmosis. Several products can be made from fruit juice concentrate.
Apple juice concentrate, orange juice concentrate etc are commercially prepared in the industry.
Fruit juice powder: This is a fruit juice which has been converted into a free flowing powder. They can
be prepared either by freeze drying, foam mat drying or spray drying processes. They are readily
reconstituted to yield full strength fruit juice drinks.

b) Fermented beverages :Fermented fruit beverage is a fruit juice which has undergone alcoholic
fermentation by yeast like Saccharomyces cerevisae. The product contains varying amount of ethyl
alcohol. Apple cider, plum wine, grape wine, vermouth etc are common fermented beverages.

Method for preparation of fruit juice beverages

SELECTION OF FRUITS: All fruits are not suitable because of difficulties in extracting the juices or
due to poor quality juice. The variety and maturity of the fruit and locality of cultivation influence the
flavour and keeping quality of its juice. Only fully ripe fruits are selected. Over ripe and unripe fruits
adversely affects the quality of the juice.

SORTING AND WASHING: Diseased, damaged or decayed fruits are rejected or trimmed off. Dirt and
spray residues of arsenic, lead etc are removed by washing with water or by using dilute hydrochloric
(HCl) acid solution (0.5%) followed by washing in water.

JUICE EXTRACTION: Generally juice is extracted by crushing or grating the fruit and pressing the
crushed mass in a basket or hydraulic press. Juice can also be extracted by using a screw type juice
extractor. Common equipment used for juice extraction are fruit grater or mill, basket or hydraulic press,
screw type juice extractor, rosing or burring machine, fruit pulper etc. There are two types of extraction
methods i.e., single and double operation system.

Single operation: In single operation, screw type, plunger type or roller type press is generally used to
crush and press the prepared fruit to extract the juice. Citrus fruit segments are fed through a hopper,
passed through conical screws and the juice flows out through the perforations while the pomace comes
out at the end of the conical jacket. The screw type extractor is operated either manually or by using
electricity depending upon the requirement. The juice extracted is generally thick and cloudy and
contains a considerable amount of macerated pulp. Care should be taken to remove the rind of citrus
fruits completely otherwise it makes the juice bitter. Citrus fruits like lemon, kinnow etc can also be
extracted by using a rosing or burring machine. Finally, the juice is strained through a thick cloth or a
sieve to remove seeds.

Double operation: In this system, the fruits are crushed and then pressed separately. Fruit like apple,
aonla, berries, grapes, jamun, phalsa etc are crushed in fruit grater or crusher and the crushed mass is
pressed by means of basket press and hydraulic press.

Process variables for juice extraction for some fruits are:

Soft fruits such as berries or tomatoes can be pressed through a fruit press or pulped by using a juicer
attachment to a food processor.
Citrus fruits are usually reamed to extract the clear juice.
Harder fruits like pineapple are peeled, pulped and pressed to extract the juice.
Apple and pear fruits are crushed in a fruit grater and pressed in a hydraulic/basket press to extract a clear
juice.
Passion fruit juice is prepared by using a pulper-finisher that separates skin and seeds from the pulp.
The fruits like mango, guava, apricot, peach etc from which the clear juice extraction is difficult are
passed through the pulper to make pulp and then the pulp is utilized for preparation of juice, fruit drinks
and ready to serve beverages

DEAERATION: Freshly extracted juice contains appreciable quantity of oxygen which may affect the
quality of juice if not removed before packing. Air in juice is due to the presence of intra-cellular spaces
present in the fruits. Most of the air as well as other gases are removed by subjecting the fresh juice to a
high vacuum. This process is called as deaeration and the equipment used for the purpose is known as the
deaerator. Heating of juice during heat processing also helps in removal of the air.

Aseptic canning/ Thermal processing of fruits and vegetables

The process of sealing foodstuffs hermetically in containers and sterilizing them by heat for long
storage is known as canning. In 1804, Nicolas Appert in France invented a process of sealing foods
hermetically in containers and sterilizing them by heat. Appert is known as the „Father of Canning‟. In
honour of him, canning is also known as appertizing.

Saddington in England was the first to describe a method of canning foods in 1807. In 1810, Peter
Durand, another Englishman, obtained the first British patent on canning of foods in tin containers. In
1817, William Underwood introduced canning of fruits on a commercial scale in USA. Fruits and
vegetables are canned in the season when the raw material is available in plenty. The canned products are
sold in the off-season and give better returns to the grower.

Principle of canning: Destruction of spoilage organisms within the sealed container by means of heat.

Process of canning

1. Selection of fruits and vegetables

a. Fruits and vegetables should be absolutely fresh
b. Fruits should be ripe, firm and uniformly mature. Over ripe fruits should be rejected because they
are infected with microorganisms and give a poor quality product. Unripe fruits are rejected
because they generally shrivel and toughen on canning.
c. All vegetables except tomatoes should be tender
d. Tomatoes should be firm, fully ripe and of deep red colour.
e. Fruits and vegetables should be free from dirt.
f. They should be free from blemishes, insect damage or mechanical injury.
2. Grading: The selected fruits and vegetables are graded according to size and colour to obtain uniform
quality. This is done by hand or by machines such as screw grader and roller grader. Fruits like berries,
plums and cherries are graded whole, while peaches, pears, apricots mangoes, pineapples, etc. are
generally graded after cutting into pieces or slices.

3. Washing: It is important to remove pesticide spray residue and dust from fruits and vegetables. One
gram of soil contains 1012 spores of microorganisms. Therefore, removal of microorganisms by washing
with water is essential. Fruits and vegetables can be washed in different ways. Root crops that loosen in
soil are washed by soaking in water containing 25 to 50 ppm chlorine (as detergent). Other methods of
washing are spray washing, steam washing, etc.

4. Peeling: The objective of peeling is to remove the outer layer. Peas are shelled, carrots are scraped and
beans are snapped or trimmed. Peeling may be done in various ways.

a. Hand peeling: It is done mostly in case of fruits of irregular shape e.g., mango and papaya, where
mechanical peeling is not possible.
b. Steam peeling: Potatoes and tomatoes are peeled by steam or boiling water.
c. Mechanical peeling: This is done in case of apples, peaches, pineapples and cherries and also for
root vegetables like carrots, turnips and potatoes.
d. Lye peeling: Fruits like peaches, apricots, sweet oranges, mandarins and vegetables like carrots and
sweet potatoes are peeled by dipping them in 1 to 2% boiling caustic soda solution (lye) for 30
seconds to 2 minutes depending on their nature and maturity. Hot lye loosens the skin from the flesh
by dissolving the pectin. The peel is then removed easily by hand. Any trace of alkali is removed by
 washing the fruit or vegetable thoroughly in running cold water or dipping it for a few seconds in
0.5% citric acid solution. This is a quick method where by cost and wastage in peeling is reduced.
e. Flame peeling: It is used only for garlic and onion which have a papery outer covering. This is just
burnt off.
5. Cutting: Pieces of the size required for canning are cut. Seed, stone and core are removed. Some fruits
like plum from which the seeds cannot be taken out easily are canned whole.

6. Blanching: It is also known as scalding, parboiling or precooking. Fruits are generally not blanched
leaving the oxidizing enzyme system active. Sometimes fruit is plunged for a given time – from half to
five minutes, according to variety – into water at from 82oC to 93oC and then immediately cooled by
immersion in cold water. The object is to soften the texture and so enable a greater weight to be pressed
into the container without damage to the individual fruit. Blanching is usually done in case of vegetables
by exposing them to boiling water or steam for 2 to 5 minutes, followed by cooling. The extent of
blanching varies with the food. This brief heat treatment accomplishes the following:

b. Inactivates most of the plant enzymes which cause toughness, discolouration (polyphenol oxidase),
mustiness, off-flavour (peroxidise), softening and loss of nutritive value.
c. Reduces the area of leafy vegetables such as spinach by shrinkage or wilting, making their packing
easier.
d. Removes tissue gases which reduce sulphides.
e. Reduces the number of microorganisms by as much as 99%.
f. Enhances the green colour of vegetables such as peas, broccoli, and spinach.
g. Removes saponin in peas.
h. Removes undesirable acids and astringent taste of the peel, and improves flavour.
i. Removes skin of vegetables like beetroot and tomatoes which helps in their peeling.

Disadvantages
a. Water soluble sugars and anthocyanin pigments are leached by boiling water
b. Fruits lose their colour, flavour and sugar

7. Cooling: After blanching, the vegetables are dipped in cold water for better handling and keeping
them in good condition.

8. Filling: Before filling, cans are washed with hot water and sterilized but in developing countries, these
are subjected to a jet of steam to remove dust and foreign material. Automatic, large can-filling machines
are used in advanced countries but choice grades of fruits are normally filled by hand to prevent bruising.
In India, hand filling is the common practice. After filling, covering with syrup or brine is done and this
process is called syruping or brining. A 1-lb butter size can should hold 230 to 285g of fruit slices and a
A 2½ size can 510 to 565g. Recently a midget can which holds 165ml of beverage has become popular.

a) Syruping: A solution of sugar in water is called syrup. White, refined sucrose is employed, either of
cane or beet origin. Normally sucrose syrup is used in canning. Syrup is added to improve the flavour and
to serve as a heat transfer medium for facilitating processing. Syruping is done only for fruits. Strained
hot syrup of 20 to 55o Brix is poured on the fruit.

Fruits rich in acid require more concentrated syrup than less acid ones. The syrup should be filled
at about 79 to 82oC, leaving a head space of 0.3 to 0.5cm. Sometimes citric acid and ascorbic acid are
also mixed with the syrup to improve flavour and nutritional value, respectively.

b) Brining: A solution of salt in water is called brine. The objective of brining is similar to that of
syruping. Only vegetables are brined. Common salt of good quality free from iron should be used. Hot
brine of 1 to 3% concentration is used for covering vegetables and is filled at 79 to 82oC, leaving a head
space of 0.3 to 0.5cm. The brine should be filtered through a thick cloth before filling. Salt of high
chemical and bacteriological purity is used in vegetable canning.

After syruping or brining, the cans are loosely covered with lids and exhausted. Lidding has
certain disadvantages such as spilling of the contents and toppling of the lids. Hence, lidding has now
been modernized by „clinching‟ process in which the lid is partially seamed. The lid remains sufficiently
loose to permit the escape of dissolved as well as free air from the can and also the vapour formed during
the exhausting process.

9. Exhausting: The process of removal of air from cans is known as exhausting. After filling and lidding
or clinching, exhausting is essential. The major advantages of exhausting are:

a. Corrosion of the tinplate and pin holing during storage is avoided.

b. Minimizes discolouration by preventing oxidation
c. Helps in better retention of vitamins particularly vitamin C
d. Prevents building of pressure in cans when stored in hot climate or at high altitude
e. Reduces chemical reaction between the container and the contents
f. Prevents development of excessive pressure and strain during sterilization
Containers are exhausted mechanically or by heating. The heat treatment is generally used. The
cans are passed through a tank of hot water or placed in the exhaust box at 82 to 100oC. The level of
water remains 4-5cm below the tops of cans. Exhausting is done until the centre of the can shows a
temperature of 79oC. The time of exhausting varies from 6 to 10 minutes. Cans are exhausted at a lower
temperature for a longer period to ensure uniform heating of the contents.

10. Sealing: Immediately after exhausting, the cans are sealed airtight by means of a can sealer. In case
of glass jars, a rubber ring should be placed between the mouth of the jar and the lid, so that it can be
sealed airtight. During sealing, the temperature should not fall below 74oC.

11. Processing: Heating of foods for preserving is known as processing, however, in canning technology,
processing means heating or cooling of canned foods to inactivate bacteria. Many bacterial spores can be
killed by either high or very low temperature. Such drastic treatment, however, affects the quality of
food. Processing time and temperature should be adequate to eliminate all bacterial growth. Moreover,
over-cooking should be avoided as it spoils the flavour as well as the appearance of the product.

Almost all fruits and acid vegetables can be processed satisfactorily at a temperature of 100°C,
i.e., in boiling water. The presence of acid retards the growth of bacteria and their spores. Further, they do
not thrive in heavy sugar syrup which is normally used for canning of fruits. Vegetables (except the more
acid ones like tomato and rhubarb) which are non acid in nature, have a hard texture, and proximity to
soil which may infect them with spore- bearing organisms are processed at higher temperatures of 115 to
121oC.
Bacterial spores can be more easily destroyed at pH 3.0 (fruits) than at pH 5.0-6.0 (vegetables
except tomato and rhubarb). Bacterial spores do not grow below pH 4.5. Thus, a canned product having
pH less than 4.5 can be processed in boiling water but a product with pH above 4.5 requires processing at
115-121oC under a pressure of 0.70 to 1.05kg/cm. It is essential that the centre of the can should attain
these high temperatures.

The temperature and time of processing vary with the size of the can and the nature of food.
Larger the can, the greater is the processing time. Open type cookers, pressure cookers and vertical
stationary retorts are used for processing. The level of water is maintained 2.5 to 5.0cm above the cans
during processing. The period of sterilization (processing) is counted from the time the water starts
boiling.
12. Cooling: After processing, the cans are cooled rapidly to about 39oC to stop the cooking process and
to prevent stack-burning. Cooling is done by the following methods

a. Dipping or immersing the hot cans in tanks containing cold water

b. Letting cold water into the pressure cooker specially in case of vegetables
c. Spraying cans with jets of cold water
d. Exposing cans to air
Generally the first method is followed for cooling. If canned products are not cooled immediately
after processing, many vegetables develop flat sour (become sour).

13. Storage: After labelling the cans, they should be packed in strong wooden cases or corrugated
cardboard cartons and stored in a cool and dry place. The outer surface of the cans should be dry as even
small traces of moisture sometimes induce rusting. Storage of cans at high temperature should be
avoided, as it shortens the shelf-life of the product and often leads to the formation of hydrogen swell.

The marketable life of canned products varies according to the type of raw materials used. Canned
pineapple, beans, spinach, peas and celery can be stored for about two years, while, pear, apricot, carrot,
beetroot and tomato can be stored for a short period only.

Containers for packing of canned products: Both tin and glass containers are used in the canning
industry, but tin containers are preferred.

Tin containers: Tin cans are made of thin steel plate of low carbon content, lightly coated on both sides
with tin metal. It is difficult to coat the steel plate uniformly and during the process of manufacture small
microscopic spots are always left uncoated, although the coating may appear perfect to the eye. The
contents of the can may react with these uncoated spots resulting in discolouration of the product or
corrosion of the tin plate. When the corrosion is severe, black stains or iron sulphide are produced. It is
necessary, therefore, to coat the inside of the cans with some material (lacquer) which prevents
discolouration but does not affect the flavour or wholesomeness of the contents. This process is known as
“lacquering”. Two types of lacquers are used:

a. Acid-resistant: Acid-resistant lacquer is a golden coloured enamel and cans coated with it are called
R-enamel or AR. cans. These cans are used for packing acid fruits which are of two kinds: (i) Those
fruits whose colouring matter is insoluble in water (peach, pineapple, etc.) are packed in plain cans and ii)
those fruits in which colouring matter is water-soluble (raspberry, strawberry and coloured grapes) are
packed in lacquered cans.

b. Sulphur-resistant: This lacquer is also of a golden colour and cans coated with it are called C-enamel
or SR. cans. They are meant for non-acid foods only and should not be used for any highly acid product
as acid eats into the lacquer. These cans are used for peas, corn, lima bean, red kidney bean, etc.

Tin containers are preferred to glass containers because of certain advantages like ease of
fabrication, strength to withstand processing, light weight, ease in handling, cheapness and tin cans can
be handled by high speed machines.

Glass containers: Glass containers possess two distinct advantages over tin cans: a) the contents being
visible can be easily displayed, and b) they can be used over and over again. Moreover, glass of high
quality does not contaminate the contents and hence preferred for packing baby food, but being fragile
require extra care during handling and processing.

In recent years, plastic containers and heat-sealable pouches have been successfully tried in
various research and development laboratories as possible substitutes for tin and glass containers.
Packaging

Definition- "Packaging can be defined as the means of providing protection to the product in order to
ensure safe delivery from the place of manufacture to the point of sale or use at minimum overall cost"

Qualities / benefits of package

1. Packaging serves as an efficient handling unit and a convenient storage unit
2. Packaging protects from mechanical damages, moisture loss
3. Packaging may provide beneficial modified atmosphere
4. Packaging provides clean produce and prevents pilferage
5. Provides service and sales motivation
6. Reduces cost of transport and marketing
7. Facilitates use of new modes of transportation
Thus, packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, and sells the produce.

Various methods of packaging

1. Bags – Like gunny bag, hessian bag in crops such as potato, onion, garlic, carrot etc.

2. Plastic film bags – Widely used for consumer size packs in fruit and vegetables marketing. Retain
water vapour so as to reduce H2O loss from the content.

3. Net / mesh bags – Widely used for packing fruits like apple, citrus, guava, sapota, ber etc.

4. Sleeve packs – Immobilization of packed fruits, superior visibility, gives good sales appeal.

5. Plastic boxes/ crates – Rigid containers, suited for soft and delicate commodities.

6. Trays and Packs – Consumer trays, jumble packs (Apples in plastic bags), pattern packs (citrus
packed in boxes), tray or cell packs (tomatoes and apples) etc.

7. Volume or box packing – Fruits are poured into the carton, after filling, pack is vibrated to tight
packing within box (e.g. Apple, orange, tomato etc.) on a standard weight.

8. Polypropelene boxes – Highly suitable for long markets it can be reused

9. Bamboo mat holed boxes – Suitable for transportation of apple

10. Corrugated fiber board – Suitable for fruit and vegetable and most economical.

11. Wooden packaging – used for packing fruits and vegetables. Similar to plastic crates.

12. Tetrapackaging – It is used to store the fruit beverages and RTS beverages

13. Bundles - Vegetables (drumstick, curry leaf, green leafy vegetables, onion tops etc.).

14. Package insert – Moulded pulp or plastic trays to isolate the individual fruits. These are expensive
but are used in delicate and costly fruits like mango and are ready for retail displays.

15. Wrapping
Covering the fruits after harvest with any material in order to improve its postharvest life is
known as wrapping. The materials commonly employed as wrappers are tissue papers, waxed paper,
pliofilm (transparent sheet made of chlorinated rubber), cellophane paper, aluminium foils and alkathene
paper etc. E.g.: Papaya, gourds

16. Punnet packing – soft fruits such as strawberry, grapes, minimally processed products

17. Pre-packaging
Pre-packaging is generally defined as packaging the produce in consumer size units either at
producing centre before transport or at terminal markets. Packaging of fresh produce in consumer unit
packs protects the produce against the damage and excess moisture loss. Among the different types of
packaging films, polyethylene film finds the maximum use. Materials for pre-packaging include bags,
plastic-film bags, mesh bags, consumer trays, shrink-film wraps, stretch-wraps, boxes, baskets and cups.

18. Modified atmosphere package (MAP)

MAP can be defined as the enclosure of food products in a barrier film in which the gaseous
environment has been changed or modified to slow respiration rates, reduce microbiological growth and
retard enzymatic spoilage with the intent of extending shelf life.

Types of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)

a. Commodity generated or passive MAP

b. Active MAP

19. Vacuum packaging

Vacuum packing involves packing appropriate types of foods in an airless environment, and
storage at reduced atmospheric pressures usually in an air-tight pack or bottle to prevent the growth of
microorganisms. Vacuum packaging of food can extend its life by up to 3-5 times.

20. Modified humidity packaging

Mostly used for highly perishable commodities like green leafy vegetables. MHP systems are
designed to control not only dehydration but also condensation. Water absorbents like CaCl 2, sorbitol or
xylitol in the package or the use of packaging with good permeability enables to provide required MHP
system.
21 Active packaging – Also called as smart packaging. It is actively involved with food products or
interacts with internal atmosphere to extend shelf life by maintaining quality and safety.

22. Antimicrobial packaging – Incorporating antimicrobial agents into polymer surface coatings and
surface attachments.

23. Individual seal /cling /shrink wrap packaging technique

One of the newest trends in produce packaging is the shrink wrapping of individual produce
items. Individual seal packaging may be considered as the MAP for an individual fruit or vegetable. It
involves sealing of a fruit in a plastic film with or without heat shrinking to conform to the shape of a
fruit.

24. Palletization
Loading and unloading are done manually in India. Due to low unit load, there is a tendency to
throw, drop or mishandle the package, damaging the commodity. This loss can be considerably reduced
by using pallet system. Once standardized for a commodity, mechanical loading and unloading become
very easy with the fork-lift system.

Handling produce as units of 24-60 containers on a pallet has greatly improved produce handling and
efficiency in marketing. Pallets are made from a range of materials e.g. wood, moulded plastics.
Disposable pallets have also been developed using plastic and fibreboard. Pallet sizes; 1200 x 1000 mm
is the most common pallet size although many shippers also use 1200 x 800 mm size.

For processed fruit and vegetable products

Aluminium cans, Tin containers, collapsible tubes, glass containers, plastic containers – low
density polyethylene (LDPE) HDPE, PP (Polypropylene), PVC (Polyviny), chloride, polytysrons (PS),
biodegradable plastics, Phetodegradable plastics, laminate, coextruded films, retortable pouch, bulk
packaging, aseptic packaging, etc.

Packaging materials

1. Natural materials
Baskets and other traditional containers are made from bamboo, rattan (cane), straw, palm leaves,
etc. Both raw materials and labour costs are normally low and if the containers are well made, they can
be reused.

2. Natural and synthetic fibers

Sacks or bags for fresh produce can be made from natural fibers like jute or sisal. Bags usually
refer to small containers of up to about 5 kg capacity. They may be woven to a close texture or made in
net form. Nets usually have a capacity of about 15 kg. Bags or sacks are mostly used for less easily
damaged produce such as potatoes and onions, but even these crops should have careful handling to
prevent injury.

3.Wooden boxes
Wood is often used to make reusable boxes or crates, but less so recently because of cost.
Wooden boxes are rigid and reusable and if made to a standard size, stack well on trucks.

4. Wire-Bound Crates
Wire-bound crates are used extensively for commodities that require hydro cooling. Wire-bound
crates are sturdy, rigid and have very high stacking strength that is essentially unaffected by water. Wire-
bound crates have a great deal of open space to facilitate cooling and ventilation. Although few are re-
used, wire-bound crates may be dissembled after use and shipped back to the packer.

5. Wooden Crates and Lugs

Wooden crates, once extensively used for apples, stone fruit and potatoes have been almost totally
replaced by other types of containers. The relative expense for container, greater concern for tare weight
and advances in material handling has reduced their use to a few specialty items.

6. Wooden Baskets and Hampers

Wire-reinforced wooden baskets and hampers of different sizes were once used for a wide variety
of crops from strawberries to sweet potatoes.

7. Corrugated Fibreboard (CFB)

Corrugated fibreboard is manufactured in many different styles and weights. Because of its
relativity low cost and versatility, it is the dominant produce container material.

There are numerous styles of corrugated fibreboard containers. The two most used in the produce
industry are i) regular slotted container (RSC) and ii) full telescoping container (FTC). A third type of
container is the Bliss box, constructed from three separate pieces of corrugated fibreboard. The Bliss box
was developed to be used when maximum stacking strength is required. The bottoms and tops of all three
types of containers may be closed by glue, staples or interlocking slots. Shallower and open topped CFBs
are called trays.

The ability to print the brand, size and grade information directly on the container is one of the
greatest benefits of corrugated fibreboard containers. Corrugated fibreboard containers are either post
printed or pre printed.

8. Glass containers
Glass containers are ideally suited for the packaging of fruit and vegetable juices, fruit squashes,
jam, jelly, marmalade, pickles. The transparency of glass makes it the ideal choice for many products
displayed for the consumers on the retail shelf. In addition, the sealable, non-corrosive and easy storage
characteristics of glass containers give them added consumer appeal.

9. Tin containers
Among metal containers, tin plate cans fabricated from low carbon steel coated with thin layer of
tin on either side are ideal for packaging, but due to shortage of metallic tin and its high cost, tin plate is
replaced by chromium coated steel plate (tin free steel) and aluminium cans. Tin plate is an ideal
packaging material for processed foods and beverages. Low tin coated steel (LTS) is produced by a
nominal tin coating mass of 1.1g/m2.

10. Aluminium cans

Aluminium being one of the versatile media has over the years, found extensive applications in
the field of packaging. Apart from the number of advantages like light in weight, compatibility with
foods, the most important merit of aluminium is recycling. Aluminium foil (more than 0.015mm thick) is
totally impermeable to moisture, gases, light and microorganisms.

11. Plastic containers

Another alternative to the wood for packaging is plastics. Use of plastics in packaging of fresh
horticultural produce helps in minimizing the cost of packaging materials and makes the whole process
less dependent on scarce materials like wood, thereby, resulting in conservation of environment. The
important plastic materials that can be used for packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables include
polypropylene boxes, moulded expanded polystyrene boxes, stretch film, film wrap, moulded plastics,
plastic bags, shrink wraps, rigid plastic packages, foam sleeves etc.

12. Pulp Containers

Containers made from recycled paper pulp and a starch binder is mainly used for small consumer
packages of fresh produce. Pulp containers are available in a large variety of shapes and sizes and are
relatively inexpensive in standard sizes. Pulp containers can absorb surface moisture from the product,
which is a benefit for small fruit and berries that are easily harmed by water. Pulp containers are also
biodegradable, made from recycled materials, and recyclable. Package inserts are also made using pulp.

13. Paper and Mesh Bags

Consumer packs of potatoes and onions are about the only produce items now packed in paper
bags. The more sturdy mesh bag has much wider use. In addition to potatoes and onions, cabbage, turnips
and some specialty items are packed in mesh bags. In addition to its low cost, mesh has the advantage of
uninhibited air flow. Good ventilation is particularly beneficial to onions.

However, bags of any type have several serious disadvantages. Large bags do not palletize well
and small bags do not efficiently fill the space inside corrugated fibreboard containers. Bags do not offer
protection from rough handling. Mesh bags provide little protection from light or contaminants. In
addition, produce packed in bags is correctly perceived by the consumer to be of lower grade.
Specific packing for export of mango, banana, grapes, sweet orange and mandarins

Mango
 More uniform ripening and better quality mangoes are observed when fruits are packed in
ventilated wooden boxes.
 Partitioned corrugated fiber board (CFB) boxes recorded less bruising, slow ripening, reduced
shriveling and less spoilage as compared to fruits packed in wooden boxes.
Banana
 For export, it is recommended to cut the individual hands of fruits from the stalk, wash them briefly
to prevent staining by the exuded latex, treat the cut surface with fungicides and pack the hands in
cartons or boxes. The cartons often contain polyethylene film lining to protect the bananas from
abrasion during transport.
 In the other methods, banana bunches are packed in polyethylene tubes of specific gauge,
dimension and ventilation holes.
Grape
 The grapes are harvested in baskets and brought to packing sheds
 Packed in wooden boxes (4 kg) and corrugated fiber board cartons (1, 2, 4 and 5kg).
 Ventilated CFB cartons have substituted other containers, such as wooden boxes and bamboo
baskets. Butter papers are used as lining material.
 Different packaging materials like kraft paper, butter paper and soft tissue paper for preparation of
grape guard are used.
 Grape guards are inserted into the boxes of 2 or 5kg capacity and exported. Grape guards contain 6-
9g of sodium bisulphite which controls berry decay and berry drop and extend the shelf life of
grapes up to 15 days at ambient temperature and up to 75 days under cold storage conditions.

Sweet orange and Mandarins

 In some countries, the fruits are packed in polymeric films using shrink wrapping technique. And
later the fruits are placed in CFB boxes or wooden boxes.

Pomegranate
 For export market, the fruits are wrapped in tissue paper and arranged in two rows in CFB boxes.
Depending upon the size, up to two dozen fruits are packed in each box.

Fermented Beverages:
These have been known to mankind from the time immemorial. But development of biochemical
principles of fermentation was originated by Lavoisier in France in 1789 by way of analysing the
chemical composition of sugar and fermentation products such as ethanol, carbon dioxide and a trace of
acetic acid. Much later in 1860, the fellow countryman Louis Pasteur carefully analysed fermentation
products and showed that in addition to ethanol and carbon dioxide, other compounds such as glycerol
and succinic acids are also produced.
Fermentation process in beverage preparation is mediated through yeast and in the process it
produces a range of products such as organic acids, alcohols esters and sulphurous compounds. Grape
wine is the oldest example of a fermented beverage.
1. Wine: Wine is defined differently in the laws of different countries, e.g., in China wine is considered
to be an alcoholic beverage and the Chinese word for it may be translated as appetite wine. In California,
it is defined as the fermented juice of various fruits. But wine generally denotes the product produced by
fermentation of grape juice. The most satisfactory definition seems to be "wine is a beverage resulting
from the fermentation by yeasts of the grape juice with proper processing and addition."
 In other words, wine strictly signifies the fermented alcoholic beverage produced from grape juice
without distillation.
Grapes have been historically associated with wine-making because of following advantages:
 Juice is extremely rich in natural sugar
 Natural association of fermentative yeasts with berries
 High content of nitrogenous matters in promoting growth of yeast and hence fermentation
 High acidity of juice favouring yeasts and protecting against other bacterial fermentation
 High alcohol and acid content in the fermented wine keep it stable and safe for prolonged storage
The varieties of wines are endless and they differ in so many attributes that it is difficult to
classify them. According to colour, there are two types, red and white. In making red wines, the grapes
are crushed and stemmed but the skin and seeds are left in the must. White wines are made from white or
greenish grapes or from the juice of grapes from which the skin have been removed.
Grape wines are of two kinds, dry and sweet. Dry wines are those which contain very little or no
sugar that can be detected by testing. In sweet wines, the sugar content is high enough to be detected by
taste. The alcohol content of these two kinds of wines ranges from 7 to 20 per cent. Wines with 7 to 9
percent alcohol are known as "light", those with 9 to 16 percent "medium", and those with 16 to 21 per
cent "strong".
Sparkling wines contain carbon dioxide, they are made effervescent by secondary fermentation in
closed containers, generally in the bottle itself, still wines are those which do not contain carbon dioxide.
Fortified wines contain added alcohol in the form of brandy, generally wines with more than 12 percent
alcohol are fortified with fruit brandy (alcohol) prepared by distilling grape wine.

Equipments used for wine making

1. For crushing and pressing : Roller crusher or basket press
2. Primary fermentation vessel: Open ended cylindrical vessels of suitable size made of plastic or
wood.
3. Secondary fermentation vessel: Narrow mouthed containers of wood, plastic or glass.
Thermometer, hydrometer, hand refractometer, measuring cylinder, syphon tube, filter, bottles,
crown corks and corking machine, etc., are also required.
I. Selection of fruit: The grape berries should be ripe and fresh. Blemished ones should be rejected.
White wine is produced from varieties having greenish or yellowish skin. Red wines derive their
colour from red pigment present in the skin or flesh of coloured varieties. The different species and
varieties of grapes suitable for wine making are given in the following table.
II. Crushing: It is done with the help of a basket press. Before crushing the grapes their stems and stalks
are removed. Crushed material (must) is put in jars which should not be filled more than three-fourths
III. Addition of sugar: Cane sugar is added to maintain at least 20 per cent total soluble solids but not
more than 24 percent. If the grapes are sour, 70 g of sugar are added for each kg of grapes.
IV. Adjustment of pH: If necessary, pH of juice has to be adjusted. If it is too low, the juice is diluted
with water; if too high, tartaric acid is added to lower it. If water is added more sugar has also to be
 added to raise the percentage of total soluble solids. Usually an acid content of 0.6 to 0.8. percent is
maintained.
V. Addition of preservative: Potassium metabisulphite (KMS) is added at the rate of 1.5 g for every 10
kg of grapes, mixed and allowed to stand for 2 to 4 hours. KMS inhibits growth of wild yeasts and
spoilage organisms.
VI. Addition of wine yeast: Wine yeast, e.g., Saccharomyces ellipsoideus inoculum is added at the rate of
20 ml for every 5 kg of grapes, about an hour after the addition of preservative. If the yeast is not
available then potassium metabisulphite is not added. The yeast present in the skin of grapes can also
ferment and produce wine but it is not of good quality.
VII. Fermentation: Grapes are allowed to ferment for two days in a cool place, i.e., at 22 to 28°C. The
mouth of the jar is covered with cloth during fermentation.
VIII. Filtration: The contents are filtered through a thin muslin cloth or a filter aid on the third day and the
filtrate again allowed to ferment in cool place for another ten days without any disturbance. During
this period yeast cells and other solids settle at the bottom.
IX. Racking: Syphoning off the fermented wine to separate it from the solid deposits is known as racking.
X. Fining and Filtration: The newly prepared wine is sometimes not clear and requires fining and
filtration. A suitable fining agent, e.g., bentonite, is added. All the colloidal material settles down
along with bentonite. The clear wine is syphoned off and filtered if necessary. Alternatively, the wine
is stored in a refrigerator for about two weeks and thereafter the clear wine is syphoned off.
XI. Aging (Maturation): The clear wine which is syphoned off is filled into bottles or barrels. These
should be filled completely and seal airtight. The wine is allowed to mature for 6 to 8 months in a cool
place. Sometimes fermentation continues in the bottle with the result that the cork flies off or bottle
cracks. Wine loses its flavour during aging because of which barrels of oak wood are generally used
for storing it. The wood imparts a fine aroma to the wine.
XII. Packing: The volatile acid content of wine, mainly acetic acid, should be low. High content of volatile
acids (0.09-0.20 g/100 ml. in terms of acetic acid) indicates that acetic acid bacteria are active during
fermentation. It is often desirable to pasteurize the wine to destroy spoilage. organisms and coagulate
the colloids that cause cloudiness. Generally wines are pasteurized at 82 to 88°C for 1-2 minutes and
then bottled. The bottles are closed with crown corks of good quality, pasteurized at 65°C for about 20
minutes, then cooled and stored.
TECHNOLOGICAL FLOW-SHEET FOR PROCESSING OF GRAPE WINE
Ripe Grapes
↓
Removal of stems
↓
Crushing (Basket press)
↓
Filling jar upto three fourths
↓
Addition of sugar (20-24% TSS)
↓
Adjustment of pH (0.6-0.8% acid)
↓
Addition of preservative (KMS 1.5g/10 kg grapes)
↓
Keeping for an hour
 ↓
Addition of wine yeast (Saccharomyces ellipsoideus 20 ml/kg of grapes)
↓
Fermentation (for two days)
↓
Filtration
↓
Fermentation (for ten days)
↓
Racking (Syphoning off clear liquid)
↓
Fining and Filtration (Bentonite)
↓
Aging (Maturation) (6 to 8 months)
↓
Pasteurization at 85°C (for 2 minutes)
↓
Bottling
↓
Crown corking
↓
Pasteurization at 82°C (for 20 minutes)
↓
Cooling
↓
Storage

The following are the well-known wines produced in various countries:

2. Champaigne: It is a sparkling wine, made chiefly in France, from certain varieties of grapes such as
Chardonay and Pinot Noir. It is made in other countries as well. The fermentation is allowed to
proceed to completion in bottles which are specially made to withstand high pressure of gas produced
during fermentation.
3. Port: It is fortified, sweet red wine made originally in Portugal, but now in other countries also.
4. Sherry: A Spanish wine, matured by placing the barrels for 3 to 4 months in sun- light, where the
temperature is as high as 54 to 60°C.
5. Tokay: This is a very famous fortified wine made in Hungary.
6. Muscat: It is prepared from Muscat grapes in Italy, Californi, Spain and Australia.
7. Perry: Wine made from pears is known as perry. Its method of preparation is similar to that of apple
cider. Wastes, culled fruits and trimmings left over from canning may also be used for making perry
8. Orange wine: Orange juice is sweetened by adding sugar and then allowed to ferment. The method
of preparation is similar to that of grape wine. Orange oil should not be added to the juice as it
hinders and sometimes stops fermentation.
9. Berry wine: Wines prepared from berries like strawberry, blackberry and elderberrys are known as
'Berry wines'. These products are generally popular in other countries but are not common in India.
10. Nira: It is prepared from the juice of the palm tree.
11. Feni: This is a fermented wine made from cashew apple in Goa.
12. Cider: It is mostly prepared by fermentation of special grade of apples which have a high tannin
content of 0.1-0.3 per cent. However, a great deal of confusion exists as far as the apple cider is
concerned. In the U.S.A., apple cider means non-clarified apple juice, whereas apple juice is the
clarified and treated sparkling juice.
On the contrary in the Europe and in India, apple cider pertains to the fermented apple juice. In
the U.K., special varieties of apples known as cider apples are used For cider preparation apples may be
graded on the basis of tannin and organic acid contents as bitter-sweet, 'bitter-sharp', 'sweet‟ and 'sharp‟
Nearly 60 per cent of full-flavoured cider is prepared using bitter-sweet and bitter sharp apple. Cider
apples are so chosen that their juice contain higher percentage of sugar (i.e., 12.5 per cent) than normal
apple juice (10.5 per cent) with higher proportion of sugar in the form of fructose. In India, cider apples
are not available in sufficient quantity, hence dessert varieties which are easily available, are used. There
are two types of apple cider, dry and sweet.
Fruits such as bael, jamun, phalsa and aonla can also be used for preparation of cider. The
technique of preparation which is more or less similar to that of grape wine.
To attract wider clientele for the cider consumers, most cider preparations are carbonated
nowadays. This is done by refermentation of cider by repeating the process of sugar and yeast additions
in a pressure tank or sometimes by chilling cider prior to subjecting carbon dioxide injection under
controlled pressure. Cider, thus carbonated, is protected from microbial attack by sulphitation and
pasteurization.
MINIMAL PROCESSING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Minimally processed refrigerated (MPR) fruits and vegetables are convenience foods being
produced by unique applications of the basic and food sciences and their supporting technologies and
engineering. Much of the development in this field is being carried out in Western Europe, Japan and the
US in response to strong consumer demand.
Major Unit Operations of MPR fruit and vegetable processing
A. Materials handling operations
 Field processing like depodding, topping, pre cooling etc.
 Transportation
B. Preparation operations
 Grading
 Sorting
 Cleaning
 Trimming
 Peeling
 Dicing / cutting/ Shredding
 Pretreatment
 Surface drying
C. Packaging in suitable film bags
D. Storage at optimum low temperature
Harvesting
Fruit and vegetable harvesting operations vary with different commodities. Harvesting at proper stage of
maturity is an extremely important step. Harvesting at lowest possible temperature (early morning or late
in evening) is advantageous for maintaining fruit quality during handling and storage. Machine
harvesting may improve quality over manual harvesting.
Field processing
Fruit and vegetables are sorted and graded in the field itself. Also shelling and depodding of peas, beans
and lentils can be done in the field. Pre-cooling of the commodity in the field will help in improving the
quality and reduce heat buildup during transport.
Transportation
Harvesting produce should be well packed and transported quickly to the destination. While transporting
fruits and vegetables that require different temperatures, relative humidity conditions and those that are
ethylene producing and non – ethylene producing etc should not be loaded into the same container.
At the destination, the produce has to be transferred immediately to the proper storage area depending on
the chill characteristics of the product.

Preparation operations
Ready–to–cook, ready–to–eat and ready–to–use type convenience fruits and vegetables require a number
of preparation operations. Healthy, sound and commodity without any infection are sorted out for
minimal processing.
Cleaning and washing
Fruits and vegetables are first cleaned i.e., removal of twigs, stalks, dirt, sand, soil, insects, pesticides and
fertilizer residues. Washing is usually done with chlorine water (80-100 ppm) in order to reduce the
surface microbial load. During washing, the quality and sources of water must be considered.
Peeling
Peeling may be done a] by hand b] using peelers c] with lye or alkalies (NaOH, KOH) etc.
Cutting
Cutting operation accelerates respiration and causes mechanical damage. Cut tissues have lower barriers
to gas diffusion and they tolerate higher concentrations of CO2 and lower O2 level than intact
commodities. The produce must be taken to a cold room immediately after the cutting.
Pretreatment / Preservation
Minimally processed products readily deteriorate in quality than the original raw material due to the
alteration of tissue integrity during processing of these products. Injury stresses caused by processing
result in cellular de-compartmentalization or de-localization of enzymes and substrates which lead to
various biochemical deteriorative changes such as browning, off– flavours and texture breakdown
resulting in reduced shelf–life.
The main objective of preservation of MPR fruits and vegetables is to provide maximum food
safety, like – fresh quality and substantial increase in shelf – life.
Preservation methods to extend shelf – life of MPR fruits and vegetables utilize methods such as
heat preservation, utilizing mild heat treatment with quick cooling, chemical preservation including
acidulants, antioxidants, chlorine, antimicrobials and modified atmosphere packaging (hurdle
technology). The above preservation methods are either used alone or in combination to achieve
microbial safety, quality and extended shelf – life.
 MPR fruits and vegetables must be held continuously at refrigerated temperatures and guarded
from temperature abuse in distribution and retailing. Refrigeration probably should be considered an
active method of preservation which is well known to reduce adverse quality and nutritional changes and
greatly extends the shelf – life of MPR fruits and vegetables.
Concept of Hurdle Technology
 Several hurdles at different intensities
 Synergistic effect in combining hurdles to provide greater difficulty for microbial reproduction.
Packaging of Minimally processed fruits and vegetables
After lowering produce temperature, Modified Atmosphere packaging is considered to be the
most effective method for extending the shelf–life of minimally processed produce. The fruits and
vegetables in unit size packs of 250gm, 500 gm etc are stored at optimum low temperature.
Biological and biochemical changes
Minimal processing results in destruction of surface cells and injury of underlying tissues.
Enzymatic reactions cause sensory deteriorations such as off–flavour, discoloration and loss of firmness.
Most of the deteriorative processes can be slowed down by reducing the storage temperature. Also
modified atmosphere packaging can reduce the incidence of physiological disorder, microbiological
spoilage and biochemical deterioration.
Microbiology of minimally processed fruits and vegetables
Fresh raw vegetables support the growth of almost any type of microorganism. Specific genera of
bacteria that are most often isolated from vegetables include Pseudomonas, Erwinia and
Enterobacteriaceae. Also gram-positive bacteria such as bacillus and coryneform bacteria are also
frequently found.
Although these appear to be great potential for abuse with MAP foods, there has been no reported
illness of food borne disease linked to the consumption of these products. The quality of minimally
processed products depends on the technology employed.
Recent investigation in the United States, Japan and Europe have sought to improve the like–fresh
characteristics of minimally processed products and to extend their shelf life thus allowing distribution
within an adequate area. New technologies based on the combination of mild heat treatment, slight
reduction in water activity and addition of permitted antimicrobials (Hurdle Technology) for high
moisture produce like peaches., pineapple, mango, papaya, sapota and banana open new possibilities for
export markets.
Impact of the technology
 Maintains freshness and quality
 Renders fruits & vegetables in convenient and ready – to – cook form
 Extended shelf – life
 Bulk reduction for better storage, easy transportation and packaging
 Boosts export of vegetable in minimally processed form
 Renders 60% value addition
 Low technology without involvement of sophisticated machinery
Requirements to set a minimal processing unit
 Walk–in–coolers / mobile coolers
 Vegetable / fruit peeling machine (brush type)
 Cutting / dicing machine
 Cross flow drier or basket centrifuge
 Filling and sealing machine
 Plastic crates
 Polymeric film bags like polypropylene
 Chemicals (acidulants, antimicrobial agents etc.)

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