Journal of
Marine Science
and Engineering
Article
Numerical Simulation of Unsteady Cavitation Flow
in a Low-Specific-Speed Centrifugal Pump with an Inducer
Baoling Cui * , Xiaotian Han and Yinchu An
Citation: Cui, B.; Han, X.; An, Y.
Numerical Simulation of Unsteady
Cavitation Flow in a
Low-Specific-Speed Centrifugal
Pump with an Inducer. J. Mar. Sci.
Eng. 2022, 10, 630. https://
doi.org/10.3390/jmse10050630
Academic Editor: Unai
Fernandez-Gamiz
Received: 24 March 2022
Accepted: 3 May 2022
Published: 5 May 2022
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iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 630. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10050630
Key Laboratory of Fluid Transmission Technology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University,
Hangzhou 310018, China; a939190068@163.com (X.H.); 202030606349@mails.zstu.edu.cn (Y.A.)
* Correspondence: blcui@zstu.edu.cn
Abstract: Cavitation is an undesirable phenomenon in the pumps. In this paper, unsteady cavitation
flow in a low-specific-speed centrifugal pump with an inducer is investigated based on the full
cavitation model and standard k-ε turbulence model using the commercial software PumpLinx. The
numerical results of external performance curve and cavitation performance curve of design condition
agree well with that of the experiment. The bubbles in the inducer mainly appear on the outer blade
leading edge. The regions of larger vapor volume fraction in the inducer and impeller increase with
the decreasing of NPSHa. The regions of larger vapor volume fraction in the inducer expand from
the outer edge of the blade inlet to the hub on suction surface. Under very low NPSHa, the impeller
may be filled with bubbles in the passage and the pump head drops drastically, and there exist
distinct back flows near the suction surface of the blade and impeller outlet. Affected by pre-swirl of
inducer outlet and the circle flow of impeller blade inlet, the amplitude of pressure fluctuation near
the impeller inlet is obviously larger than that at the inlet in the inducer. The dominant frequency of
pressure fluctuation for four monitoring points is shaft frequency. Compared with the non-cavitation
flows, the maximum amplitudes of pressure pulsation increase for cavitating flow.
Keywords: centrifugal pump; inducer; cavitation; unsteady flow; pressure pulsation
1. Introduction
Low-specific-speed centrifugal pumps are widely used in petrochemical, aerospace,
and chemical industries to deliver low flow rate and high-head liquids, but there exist many
problems to be solved, such as poor cavitation performance [1]. Cavitation is a process
of vapor bubble formation in low-pressure flow regions and an undesirable phenomenon
in pumps. Cavitation induces pressure fluctuation and uneven load distribution, thereby
seriously reducing the efficiency of pumps and affecting their operational stability [2].
Therefore, pump cavitation, as a main cause of pump damage, should be avoided.
Many studies have been done to investigate the cavitation in pump by numerical
simulation and experiment. Tan et al. [3] studied unsteady cavitation flow in a centrifugal
pump operating under off-design conditions using the transport equation-based cavitation
model coupled with the re-normalization group RNG k-ε turbulence model. Fu et al. [4]
analyzed the flow characteristics in the impeller passage of a nuclear centrifugal pump
model under steady and transient cavitation conditions based on the SST k-ω turbulence
model and Zwart–Gerber–Belamri model for cavitation simulation. Xu et al. [5] analyzed
the influence of blade surface roughness on the cavitation flow field and found that the
volume fraction of bubbles in the impeller increases with the increase in wall roughness.
Fu et al. [6] analyzed the flow instabilities and cavitation phenomenon in a centrifugal
pump operating at low flow rates and found that the different flow rates correspond to
different kinds of cavitation flow structures. Puplaa et al. [7] investigated the transient
cavitating behavior and characterized the influence of low inlet pressure on the startup
of the pump. Fecser et al. [8] measured the cavitation performance of the centrifugal
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jmse
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 630 2 of 12

pump and performed the simulation to present the occurring processes during cavitation.
Bachert et al. [9] observed that the cavitation mainly occurs in the area of impeller inlet by
high-speed camera and found that cavitation will cause severe erosion to the solid surface
of centrifugal pump. Al-Obaidi A. R. [10] clarified that the level of cavitation within a
centrifugal pump linked with the flow rate and rotational speed through the vibration
technique. Lu et al. [11] investigated the pressure fluctuations in the different positions of
pump under the unsteady cavitation conditions and indicated that the dominant frequen-
cies of the pressure fluctuation at pump inlet and out are the shaft frequency and blade
passing frequency, respectively.
An inducer placed upstream of the centrifugal impeller is an effective method to
improve its cavitation resistance. Jiang et al. [12] used the RNG k-ε turbulence model and
the Schnerr–Sauer cavitation model to simulate the cavitation performance of high-speed
centrifugal pump and found that the variable pitch inducer can effectively improve the
cavitation performance. Choi et al. [13] experimentally and numerically studied the cav-
itating flow in a turbopump inducer and analyzed the influence of the cavitation on the
performance of the inducer. At the same time, the studies, by changing the geometric
parameters of the inducer, have been carried out to analyze the influence on the cavita-
tion in the centrifugal pump. Guo et al. [14] analyzed the influence of the inducer blade
number on the anti-cavitation and external performance of centrifugal pump and found
that a centrifugal pump with a 3-bladed inducer has a better performance. Kang et al. [15]
investigated the number of blades on the performance and cavitation instabilities of a turbo
pump inducer with an identical solidity based on numerical simulation and experiment.
Campos-Amezcua et al. [16] investigated the influence of radial tip clearance on cavita-
tion behavior based on the full cavitation model. Pace et al. [17] investigated the main
effects of different inlet tip blade angle and outlet hub radius on hydraulic performance
and flow instabilities of the pumps under non-cavitating and cavitating conditions and
revealed that inducers with sharp corners at the leading-edge tips get slightly superior
pumping performance.
Though many experimental and numerical studies have been conducted to understand
and avoid the harmful effects of cavitation in the inducer or pump, there are few works on
low-specific-speed centrifugal pump with an inducer. In this paper, unsteady cavitation
flow in a low-specific-speed centrifugal pump with an inducer are investigated based on
the full cavitation model and standard k-ε turbulence model using the commercial software
PumpLinx. The external and cavitation characteristic experiments are carried out, applying
a closed hydraulic test rig.

2. Geometric Model and Experimental System

2.1. Geometric Model and Mesh Generation
The design parameters of centrifugal pump are the flow rate Qd of 12 m3 /h, head Hd
of 35 m, and rotating speed nd of 2900 r/min. The specific speed is ns = 42.5. The flow parts
of the pump shown in Figure 1 include inducer, impeller, and volute. The main geometrical
parameters are as follows: the diameter at the inlet and discharge of impeller is 70 mm and
148 mm, the width of blade at the inlet and discharge of impeller is 4 mm and 10 mm, the
installation angle at inlet and discharge of impeller is 19◦ and 33.5◦ , and the numbers of
impeller and inducer blades are eight and two.
The flow field in the centrifugal pump with an inducer was meshed by ANSYS.
Structural grids are used for impellers and the unstructured grids with good adaptability
are used for the domains with complex structures, such as inducer and volute shown in
Figure 2. The mesh independence shown in Table 1 is carried out in steady flow calculations
under non-cavitation conditions. Five groups of grids are established to verify the grid
independence. According to the numerical results, the difference of head is small, and the
head fluctuation is 0.08% when the total number of grids exceeds 3,275,154. Meanwhile,
when the total number of grids exceeds 5,065,316, the efficiency fluctuation did not exceed
0.07%. Thus, in order to save computing resources and better capture the flow details of the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 630 3 of 12

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, x FOR PEERcentrifugal

REVIEW pump, therefore, the grid number of 5,065,316 is chosen for further computation.
3 of 13
The minimum orthogonal quality of the mesh is 0.3, while the skewness of the mesh is
around 0.35 domain
Figure 1. Computational ~ 0.75 and thecentrifugal
of the minimum aspect ratio is 0.35.
pump.

The flow field in the centrifugal pump with an inducer was meshed by ANSYS. Struc-
tural grids are used for impellers and the unstructured grids with good adaptability are
used for the domains with complex structures, such as inducer and volute shown in Fig-
ure 2. The mesh independence shown in Table 1 is carried out in steady flow calculations
under non-cavitation conditions. Five groups of grids are established to verify the grid
independence. According to the numerical results, the difference of head is small, and the
head fluctuation is 0.08% when the total number of grids exceeds 3,275,154. Meanwhile,
when the total number of grids exceeds 5,065,316, the efficiency fluctuation did not exceed
0.07%. Thus, in order to save computing resources and better capture the flow details of
the centrifugal pump, therefore, the grid number of 5,065,316 is chosen for further com-
putation. The minimum orthogonal quality of the mesh is 0.3, while the skewness of the
Figure 1. Computational
1.
Figure0.35
mesh is around ~ 0.75 and thedomain
Computational domain of
of the
minimum centrifugal
theaspect ratiopump.
centrifugal pump.
is 0.35.

The flow field in the centrifugal pump with an inducer was meshed by ANSYS. Struc-
tural grids are used for impellers and the unstructured grids with good adaptability are
used for the domains with complex structures, such as inducer and volute shown in Fig-
ure 2. The mesh independence shown in Table 1 is carried out in steady flow calculations
under non-cavitation conditions. Five groups of grids are established to verify the grid
independence. According to the numerical results, the difference of head is small, and the
head fluctuation is 0.08% when the total number of grids exceeds 3,275,154. Meanwhile,
when the total number of grids exceeds 5,065,316, the efficiency fluctuation did not exceed
0.07%. Thus, in order to save computing resources and better capture the flow details of
the centrifugal pump, therefore, the grid number of 5,065,316 is chosen for further com-
putation. The minimum orthogonal quality of the mesh is 0.3, while the skewness of the
mesh is around 0.35 ~ 0.75 and the minimum aspect ratio is 0.35.
(a) (b)
Figure 2. The grid 2.
Figure of The
computational domain for domain
grid of computational pump: (a)
forWhole
pump:computational domain; (b)domain;
(a) Whole computational Grid (b) Grid
for impeller.for impeller.

Table 1. Geometrical parameters of the 10-stage model pump.

Table 1. Geometrical parameters of the 10-stage model pump.
Group Elements Head Efficiency
Group Elements Head Efficiency
Grid 1 1,289,484 34.25 m 57.23%
GridGrid
2 1 1,289,484
1,786,352 34.5234.25
m m 51.64%57.23%
Grid 2 1,786,352 34.52 m 51.64%
GridGrid
3 3 3,275,154
3,275,154 35.5835.58
m m 49.68%49.68%
GridGrid
4 4 5,065,316
5,065,316 35.6035.60
m m 49.41%49.41%
Grid 5 5
Grid 6,148,215
6,148,215 35.61 m m
35.61 49.34%49.34%

(a) (b)
2.2. Numerical Simulation Method
Figure 2. The
The grid
fluid of computational
flow in the pump domain for pump:
is dominated by (a) Whole
basic computational
laws domain; (b) and
of mass, momentum, Grid
for impeller.
energy conservation. In this paper, heat transfer in the pump is not considered, thus, its
basic equations consist of continuity and momentum equations. Standard k-ε turbulence
Table 1. Geometrical parameters of the 10-stage model pump.
model was chosen for the numerical simulation in the pump.
The full cavitation
Group model used in Elements
PumpLinx is based on two-phase flowEfficiency
Head theory, con-
sidering the compressibility
Grid 1 of fluid and vapor’s
1,289,484 vaporization and
34.25 m condensation processes
57.23%
in the meanwhile.
Grid 2It takes vapor and undissolved
1,786,352 gas into account
34.52 m by introducing
51.64% the
conception of mixing
Grid 3 density, thus, the prediction
3,275,154 of cavitation is
35.58 m more reliable. For non-
49.68%
condensable gas, constant gas mass fraction is chosen to calculate the dynamic process of
Grid 4 5,065,316 35.60 m 49.41%
Grid 5 6,148,215 35.61 m 49.34%
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 630 4 of 12

bubbles’ generation, flow, and dissolution. The expression for the mixture density ρm is
given as [18]:
1 fυ fg f
= + + l (1)
ρm ρv ρg ρl
αv ρv
fv = (2)
ρm
αg ρg
fg = (3)
ρm
αl ρl
fl = = 1 − fv − f g (4)
ρm
where fv , fg , and fl are the component mass fractions of the vapor, gas, and liquid, ρv , ρg ,
and ρl are the component densities, and αv , αg , and αl are the component volume fractions.
The working fluid is water, and the temperature is 25 ◦ C. The calculation of the mixture
density is modified as:
1 fυ 1 − fυ
= + (5)
ρm ρv ρl
∂
(ρm f v ) + ∇ · (ρm ν f v ) = ∇ · (Γ∇ f v ) + Re − Rc (6)
∂t
where the source terms Re and Rc denote vapor generation and condensation rates.
The Navier–Stokes equation based on the Newtonian fluid was used in this simulation.
The equation was formulated in the Cartesian coordinate system as:

∂ρm ∂(ρm u j )
+ =0 (7)
∂t ∂x j
" !#
∂ ( ρ m ui ) ∂ ( ρ m ui u j ) ∂p ∂ ∂ui ∂u j 2∂ui
+ =− + ( µ m + µT ) + − δ (8)
∂t ∂x j ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j ∂xi 3∂x j ij

where the subscript i, j indicates the coordinate direction, xi , xj are the coordinates in the i
and j directions, t indicates the time, δij indicates the shear stress, µT indicates the turbulent
viscosity, µm denotes vapor–liquid phase laminar viscosity.
The boundary conditions for non-cavitation and cavitation simulations are basically
the same. The pressure is chosen as the inlet boundary condition for the suction pipe.
For cavitation simulation, a series of different pressure have been step-by-step assigned
at the inlet boundary. The volume flow rate is given as the boundary condition for the
pump outlet. The surfaces of impeller and inducer are chosen as a rotating wall, while all
the other walls are stationary. The methods of frozen rotor and transient rotor stator are
applied to couple the rotation and station domains for steady and unsteady calculations.
The time of each rotation for impeller is 0.02068 s. Three degrees is set as a time step, so it
is 0.0001724 s. The results of steady simulation are employed as the initial solution for the
unsteady simulation.

3. Experimental System
The experimental system of the pump shown in Figure 3 is a closed circulatory system.
The experimental method is to use the vacuum pump to change vacuum degree above the
liquid surface of cavitation tank that is to change the pressure of pump inlet. Thus, the
cavitation tests of centrifugal pump are carried out. The experimental liquid flows out from
cavitation tank, then across the brake valve, inlet pipe, test pump, outlet pipe, steady-flow
tank, and measure part, another steady-flow tank, then returns to the cavitation tank at
last. The flow is measured by the electromagnetic flowmeter LGD-DN80 with an accuracy
of ±0.3%. The pressure sensor SCYG310 is installed at the inlet and outlet of the pump
to obtain the pressure, and its uncertainty was ±0.25%, and the output electrical signal is
processed by an AVANT-MI-7016 signal collector which was made by Econ Technologies.
 pipe, steady-flow tank, and measure part, another steady-flow tank, then returns to the
cavitation tank at last. The flow is measured by the electromagnetic flowmeter LGD-DN80
with an accuracy of ±0.3%. The pressure sensor SCYG310 is installed at the inlet and outlet
of the pump to obtain the pressure, and its uncertainty was ±0.25%, and the output elec-
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 630
trical signal is processed by an AVANT-MI-7016 signal collector which was made by Econ5 of 12
Technologies.

(a)

(b)
Figure 3. Test-loop system:
Figure 3. (a) system:
Test-loop Sketch map of the
(a) Sketch experimental
map system;system;
of the experimental (b) Test(b)centrifugal pump.
Test centrifugal pump.
1—vacuum pump; 2—air–water
1—vacuum segregator;segregator;
pump; 2—air–water 3—brake3—brake
valve; 4—inlet pipe; 5—jetting
valve; 4—inlet device;
pipe; 5—jetting 6—test
device; 6—test
pump; 7—torque
pump;instrument;
7—torque 8—motor;
instrument;9—outlet
8—motor;pipe; 10—feed-back
9—outlet pipe; 11—on–off
pipe; 10—feed-back valve; 12—
pipe; 11—on–off valve;
steady-flow tank; 13—measure part; 14—cavitation tank; 15—exhaust pipe.
12—steady-flow tank; 13—measure part; 14—cavitation tank; 15—exhaust pipe.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. The Performance Curves of Centrifugal Pump
The available net positive suction head (NPSHa) is defined as Equation (9), where p
and v are pressure and velocity of the pump inlet, and pv is the vapor pressure.

pin v 2 pv
NPSHa = + 1 − (9)
ρl g 2g ρl g

The performance obtained from the numerical simulation is shown in Figure 4 for
the centrifugal pump with and without the inducer. Figure 4a shows the comparison of
the external characteristic of the pumps under non-cavitation condition. The head and
efficiency of the centrifugal pump decreases and increases with the increase of the flow rate,
respectively. The head and efficiency of the centrifugal pump with an inducer are slightly
higher than that without the inducer due to the energy provided by the axial inducer added
at the impeller inlet. Figure 4b is cavitation performance curve at design flow rate (Qd ). The
anti-cavitation performance of centrifugal pump with an inducer is better than that without
 the centrifugal pump with and without the inducer. Figure 4a shows the comparison of
the external characteristic of the pumps under non-cavitation condition. The head and
efficiency of the centrifugal pump decreases and increases with the increase of the flow
rate, respectively. The head and efficiency of the centrifugal pump with an inducer are
slightly higher than that without the inducer due to the energy provided by the axial in-
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 630 6 of 12
ducer added at the impeller inlet. Figure 4b is cavitation performance curve at design flow
rate (Qd). The anti-cavitation performance of centrifugal pump with an inducer is better
than that without the inducer. Even if the inducer is present, when the NPSHa drops to
the m
1.32 inducer.
marked Even
b inifFigure
the inducer
4b, theishead
present, when
drops the NPSHa
rapidly drops
due to the to 1.32 m
cavitation marked b in
development
Figure 4b, the head
and deterioration. drops rapidly due to the cavitation development and deterioration.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure4.4.Performance
Performancecomparison
comparisonof of
centrifugal pumps
centrifugal with
pumps an inducer
with and and
an inducer without inducer:
without (a)
inducer:
External performance curve; (b) Cavitation performance curve at Q .
(a) External performance curve; (b) Cavitation performance curve at Qd .
d

The
Theperformance
performancecurves curvesofofcentrifugal
centrifugalpump
pumpwith withananinducer
inducerareareshown
shownininFigure
Figure5,5,
where
whereFigure
Figure5a 5aisisthe
theexternal
externalperformance
performancecurve curveunder
undernon-cavitation
non-cavitationcondition
conditionand and
Figure5b
Figure 5bisiscavitation
cavitation performance
performance curve
curve at design
at design condition
condition (Qd(Q d ). From
). From FigureFigure
5a, it5a,
canit
can
be be that
seen seennumerical
that numerical results
results agreeagree wellthat
well with withofthat
the of the experiment.
experiment. The maximum
The maximum error
error between
between the experimental
the experimental and numerical
and numerical head is head is 4.61%,
4.61%, and theandmaximum
the maximum onethe
one for for
the efficiency
efficiency is is 3.88%.
3.88%. At At design
design flow flow
rate Q drate
, theQexperimental
d , the experimental
head is head m
34.75 is 34.75
and m nu-
the and
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13
the numerical
merical head ishead is 35.6
35.6 m. Them. The experimental
experimental efficiency
efficiency η is 45.73%
η is 45.73% and the and the numerical
numerical effi-
efficiency is
ciency η is 49.41%.
η 49.41%.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure5. 5.
Performance curves
Performance ofof
curves centrifugal pump
centrifugal with
pump anan
with inducer: (a)(a)
inducer: External performance
External curve;
performance curve;
(b)(b)
Cavitation performance curve at Qd.
Cavitation performance curve at Q . d

From
FromFigure
Figure5b,5b,ititcan
canbe be seen
seen that cavitation
cavitation performance
performancecurve
curve(NPSHa-H)
(NPSHa-H)atatdesign de-
sign condition is obtained when inlet pressure changes a large range from
condition is obtained when inlet pressure changes a large range from non-cavitation to non-cavitation
tocavitation
cavitationcondition
condition for for the experiment and and numerical
numericalsimulation.
simulation.From Fromthethenumerical
numerical
results, the
results, thehead
headis is
almost
almost same
same until
untilthe NPSHa
the NPSHa drops toto
drops 1.32 mm
1.32 marked
marked b in
b in Figure
Figure5b,5b,
where
wherethethehead
headdrops
drops3% 3%and andNPSHa
NPSHaisisdefined
definedasasrequired
requirednet netpositive
positivesuction
suctionheadhead
(NPSHr).
(NPSHr).WhenWhen NPSHa
NPSHa is is
1.67, 1.32,
1.67, 1.32,1.05, and
1.05, and0.65
0.65 mmcorresponding
corresponding toto
a, a,
b,b,c, c,
andandd,d,the
the
numericalheads
numerical heads33.73,
33.73,33.45,
33.45, 32.2,
32.2, and 28.73
28.73 mmdrop
drop2%,2%,3%,
3%,6.4%,
6.4%,and 16.6%,
and 16.6%, respectively.
respec-
FromFrom
tively. the experimental
the experimentalresults, the NPSHr
results, is 1.36 is
the NPSHr m1.36
whenm the
whenhead
thedrops
head3%.dropsAdditionally,
3%. Ad-
it can be seen
ditionally, it canthat the error
be seen that between
the error experimental and numerical
between experimental result is inresult
and numerical a reasonable
is in a
range and range
reasonable numerical
and method
numerical is appropriate
method is to cavitating flow
appropriate in the researched
to cavitating flow in pump.
the re-
searched pump.

4.2. The Development of Cavitation in Inducer and Impeller

The static pressure distributions in the inducer and impeller at design condition are
shown in Figures 6 and 7 when NPSHa is 1.67, 1.32, 1.05, and 0.65 m. From Figure 6, it can
 (NPSHr). When NPSHa is 1.67, 1.32, 1.05, and 0.65 m corresponding to a, b, c, and d, the
numerical heads 33.73, 33.45, 32.2, and 28.73 m drop 2%, 3%, 6.4%, and 16.6%, respec-
tively. From the experimental results, the NPSHr is 1.36 m when the head drops 3%. Ad-
ditionally, it can be seen that the error between experimental and numerical result is in a
reasonable range and numerical method is appropriate to cavitating flow in the re-
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 630 7 of 12
searched pump.

4.2. The Development of Cavitation in Inducer and Impeller

4.2.The
Thestatic
Development
pressureofdistributions
Cavitation in in
Inducer and Impeller
the inducer and impeller at design condition are
shown The static pressure
in Figures distributions
6 and 7 when NPSHa isin1.67,
the inducer
1.32, 1.05,and
andimpeller
0.65 m. at design
From condition
Figure 6, it canare
beshown in Figures
seen that 6 andin
the pressure 7 when NPSHa
the passage ofisinducer
1.67, 1.32, 1.05, and
increases 0.65 m. from
gradually Fromblade
Figureinlet
6, ittocan
be seen
blade outlet that
andthe pressure
pressure in the passage
decreases without of blade
inducer increases
clamping gradually
when from
the fluid blade
is out inlet to
of blade
outlet. Therefore, the distance between blade outlet of inducer to blade inlet of impellerblade
blade outlet and pressure decreases without blade clamping when the fluid is out of is
outlet. Therefore,
important and should thenot
distance
be too between
long. Theblade
loweroutlet of inducer
pressure regiontoinblade inlet ofisimpeller
the inducer mainly is
important
near the outer and should
edge notblade
of the be tooinlet
long.
onThe lowersurface.
suction pressure region
When in the decreases
NPSHa inducer is frommainly
near the outer edge of the blade inlet on suction surface. When
1.67 to 0.65 m, the lower pressure regions expand from the outer edge to the hub. From NPSHa decreases from
1.67 to
Figure 7, 0.65
it can m,be
theseen
lower
thatpressure regions
the pressure inexpand from the
the impeller outer edge
increases to thealong
gradually hub. theFrom
Figure 7, it can be seen that the pressure in the impeller increases gradually
radial direction. The lower pressure region in the impeller enlarges gradually from impel- along the radial
lerdirection. The lower
inlet to passage withpressure region inofthe
the decreasing impeller
NPSHa. The enlarges
lowest gradually
pressure in from
the impeller
impeller inlet
is
to passage with the decreasing of NPSHa.
also near the blade inlet on the suction surface. The lowest pressure in the impeller is also near
the blade inlet on the suction surface.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure 6. Static pressure distributions in the inducer: (a) NPSHa = 1.67 8 of(c)13
Figure 6. Static pressure distributions in the inducer: (a) NPSHa = m;
1.67(b)m;NPSHa = 1.32=m;
(b) NPSHa 1.32 m;
NPSHa = 1.05 m; (d) NPSHa = 0.65 m.
(c) NPSHa = 1.05 m; (d) NPSHa = 0.65 m.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure
Figure7.7.Static
Staticpressure
pressuredistributions
distributionsononmiddle
middlecross-section
cross-sectionofofthe
theimpeller
impellerofofthe
thepump
pumpwith
with
inducer: (a) NPSHa = 1.67 m; (b) NPSHa = 1.32 m; (c) NPSHa = 1.05 m; (d) NPSHa
inducer: (a) NPSHa = 1.67 m; (b) NPSHa = 1.32 m; (c) NPSHa = 1.05 m; (d) NPSHa = 0.65 m.= 0.65 m.

The
Thevapor
vaporvolume
volumefraction
fractiondistributions
distributionsininthe theinducer
inducerand andimpeller
impelleratatdesign
designcondi-
condi-
tion
tionareareshown
shownin inFigures
Figures88and
and 99 when
when NPSHa is 1.67, 1.32, 1.32, 1.05,
1.05, and
and 0.65
0.65m.m. From
FromFigure
Figure8,
8,ititcan
canbebeseen
seenthat
that the
the bubbles
bubbles in in
thethe inducer
inducer appear
appear mainly
mainly in the
in the lower
lower pressure
pressure re-
regions
gions presented
presented in Figure
in Figure 8 when 8 when
NPSHa NPSHa
is 1.67,is1.32,
1.67,1.05,
1.32,and
1.05, and
0.65 m.0.65
These m.bubbles
These bubbles
flowing
flowing
along the along thepassage
spiral spiral passage
will tendwill tend to
to break forbreak for pressure
pressure increasing increasing in the It
in the inducer. inducer.
is at the
Itstage
is at of
the stage ofincipience
cavitation cavitationinincipience
the pumpin the NPSHa
when pump when is 1.67NPSHa
m, and is the1.67 m, and
regions the
of larger
regions of larger
vapor volume vapor in
fraction volume fraction
the inducer areinrelatively
the inducer small.areWhen
relatively
NPSHa small. When
is 0.65 NPSHa
m, the vapor
isvolume
0.65 m,fraction
the vapor volume
in the inducerfraction
becomes in the inducer
larger, andbecomes
the regionslarger, and the
of larger regions
vapor volume of
fraction expand from outer edge of blade inlet to hub on suction
larger vapor volume fraction expand from outer edge of blade inlet to hub on suction surface. Additionally, the
larger vapor
surface. volume fraction
Additionally, the larger appears
vapor near
volumethe trailing
fractionedge in the
appears inducer.
near Thoseedge
the trailing bubblesin
will
the flow into
inducer. the impeller.
Those From
bubbles will flowFigure 9, itimpeller.
into the can be seen FromthatFigure
the vapor bubbles
9, it can develop
be seen that
in vapor
the the impeller
bubbleswith the decreasing
develop of NPSHa.
in the impeller with theThe bubblesoffirst
decreasing appear
NPSHa. The near inlet first
bubbles edge
of blade
appear nearon inlet
the suction
edge ofsurface
blade on when NPSHasurface
the suction is 1.67, when
1.32, andNPSHa1.05 m. This1.32,
is 1.67, will and
affect the
1.05
fluid into the impeller passage and the pump head begins to drop.
m. This will affect the fluid into the impeller passage and the pump head begins to drop. When NPSHa decreases
When NPSHa decreases to 0.65 m, the bubble regions become larger, and they occupy the
space between blade to blade near blade inlets. This will lead to a sudden fall in pump
head shown in Figure 5 and the pump may not work normally. If NPSHa (under d shown
in Figure 5) continues to decrease, the impeller may be filled with bubbles in the passage

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 630
is 0.65 m, the vapor volume fraction in the inducer becomes larger, and the regions of
larger vapor volume fraction expand from outer edge of blade inlet to hub on suction
surface. Additionally, the larger vapor volume fraction appears near the trailing edge in
the inducer. Those bubbles will flow into the impeller. From Figure 9, it can be seen that
the vapor bubbles develop in the impeller with the decreasing of NPSHa. The bubbles first
8 of 12
appear near inlet edge of blade on the suction surface when NPSHa is 1.67, 1.32, and 1.05
m. This will affect the fluid into the impeller passage and the pump head begins to drop.
When NPSHa decreases to 0.65 m, the bubble regions become larger, and they occupy the
to 0.65 m, the bubble regions become larger, and they occupy the space between blade to
space between blade to blade near blade inlets. This will lead to a sudden fall in pump
blade near blade inlets. This will lead to a sudden fall in pump head shown in Figure 5
head shown in Figure 5 and the pump may not work normally. If NPSHa (under d shown
and the pump may not work normally. If NPSHa (under d shown in Figure 5) continues
in Figure 5) continues to decrease, the impeller may be filled with bubbles in the passage
to decrease, the impeller may be filled with bubbles in the passage and the pump head
and the pump head drops drastically.
drops drastically.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW (a) (b) (c) (d) 9 of 13

Figure
Figure8. The
8. vapor volumevolume
The vapor fractionfraction
distributions in the inducer:
distributions in the(a)inducer:
NPSHa = (a)
1.67NPSHa
m; (b) NPSHa
= 1.67 =m;
1.32
(b)m; (c) NPSHa
NPSHa = 1.32= m;
1.05
(c)m; (d) NPSHa
NPSHa = 1.05= m;
0.65
(d)m.NPSHa = 0.65 m.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure
Figure9.9.The vapor
The volume
vapor fraction
volume distributions
fraction on the
distributions on middle cross-section
the middle of theofimpeller:
cross-section (a)
the impeller:
NPSHa = 1.67 m; (b) NPSHa = 1.32 m; (c) NPSHa = 1.05 m; (d) NPSHa = 0.65
(a) NPSHa = 1.67 m; (b) NPSHa = 1.32 m; (c) NPSHa = 1.05 m; (d) NPSHa = 0.65 m.m.

The
Therelative
relativevelocity
velocityvectors
vectorsininthe
the impeller
impeller at design condition
at design condition are
areshown
shownininFigure
Figure10
10when
when NPSHa
NPSHa is 1.67,
is 1.67, 1.32,
1.32, 1.05,
1.05, andand0.650.65 m. From
m. From Figure
Figure 10, it10,
canitbecan
seenbethat
seenthethat the
relative
relative velocity vectors are disorganized in the impeller passage and
velocity vectors are disorganized in the impeller passage and at impeller outlet whenat impeller outlet
when
NPSHa NPSHa is m.
is 0.65 0.65There
m. There is obvious
is obvious backflow
backflow nearsuction
near the the suction
surfacesurface
of theofblade.
the blade.
At the
Atimpeller
the impeller
outlet,outlet,
there there
appear appear secondary
secondary flowsflows
whichwhich are perpendicular
are perpendicular to thetodirection
the di-
rection of mainstream.
of mainstream. This be
This may may be affected
affected by thebyunsteady
the unsteady cavitation
cavitation flowflow in impeller
in the the impel- for
lergeneration
for generation and breakup
and breakup of thebubbles.
of the vapor vapor bubbles.
There isThere is difference
a slight a slight difference forinthe
for the flow the
flow in thewhen
impeller impeller when
NPSHa is NPSHa is 1.67,
1.67, 1.32, 1.32,m.
and 1.05 and 1.05 m.

(a)
 10 when NPSHa is 1.67, 1.32, 1.05, and 0.65 m. From Figure 10, it can be seen that the
relative velocity vectors are disorganized in the impeller passage and at impeller outlet
when NPSHa is 0.65 m. There is obvious backflow near the suction surface of the blade.
At the impeller outlet, there appear secondary flows which are perpendicular to the di-
rection of mainstream. This may be affected by the unsteady cavitation flow in the impel-
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 630 9 of 12
ler for generation and breakup of the vapor bubbles. There is a slight difference for the
flow in the impeller when NPSHa is 1.67, 1.32, and 1.05 m.

(a)

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13

(b)

(c)

(d)
Figure 10. Relative
Figure velocity
10. Relative vector
velocity diagrams
vector in in
diagrams thethe
impeller.
impeller.(a)(a)NPSHa
NPSHa= =1.67
1.67m;
m;(b)
(b)NPSHa
NPSHa==1.32
1.32 m;
m; (c)
(c)NPSHa
NPSHa==1.051.05m;
m;(d)
(d)NPSHa
NPSHa==0.650.65m.
m.

4.3.4.3. Pressure
Pressure Pulsations
Pulsations in Inducer
in the the Inducer
In order
In order to analyze
to analyze the the influence
influence of the
of the pressure
pressure fluctuation
fluctuation resulting
resulting fromfrom cavitation
cavitation
on the inlet of the impeller, four monitoring points are set on the inducer
on the inlet of the impeller, four monitoring points are set on the inducer wall to monitor wall to monitor
the the pressure
pressure fluctuation
fluctuation andand marked
marked as p1,
as p1, p2, p2,
p3, p3,
andand p4Figure
p4 in in Figure
11, 11, where
where p1 and
p1 and p4 p4
are are corresponding
corresponding to blade
to blade start
start position
position andand inducer
inducer outlet
outlet position.
position. ForFor
fourfour monitoring
monitoring
points,
points, the frequency
the frequency properties
properties of pressure
of pressure fluctuation
fluctuation at design
at design condition
condition from non-
from non-cav-
itation to cavitation conditions are shown in Figure 12. From Figure 12, it can be seen be
cavitation to cavitation conditions are shown in Figure 12. From Figure 12, it can thatseen
there is almost no change for monitoring p1. Although cavitation first occurs at the outer
edge of blade inlet on suction surface, cavitation along with the rotation of the blades is to
develop into the flow channel. Therefore, cavitation has little effect on pressure fluctuation
of p1. For monitoring p2, p3, and p4, the maximum amplitude of pressure fluctuations
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 630 10 of 12

that there is almost no change for monitoring p1. Although cavitation first occurs at the
outer edge of blade inlet on suction surface, cavitation along with the rotation of the blades
is to develop into the flow channel. Therefore, cavitation has little effect on pressure
fluctuation of p1. For monitoring p2, p3, and p4, the maximum amplitude of pressure
fluctuations appears when NPSHa = 1.05 m, and it is obviously larger at p4 than that at
other points. The reason is that the fluid at p4 near impeller inlet is affected by pre-swirl
of inducer outlet and the circle flow of impeller blade inlet. For four monitoring points,
the amplitude of pressure fluctuation is very small when NPSHa = 0.65 m. This is because
J. Mar.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng.
Sci. Eng. 2022,2022,
10, x 10,
FOR x FORthe
PEERPEERcavitation
REVIEW
REVIEW is serious, which destroys the pressure field. The shaft11 frequency
of1113of 13 of the
centrifugal pump is 48.33 Hz. The dominant frequency of the pressure pulsation at four
monitoring points is almost near 48 Hz when the pump begins cavitation.

Figure
Figure
Figure 11. Monitoring
Monitoring
11.Monitoring
11. points
points
points on the
theinducer
oninducer
on the wall.wall.
inducer wall.

(a) (a) (b) (b)

(c) (c) (d) (d)

Figure 12. Frequency properties of four monitoring points at different NPSHa: (a) p1; (b) p2; (c) p3;
Figure 12. Frequency properties of four monitoring points at different NPSHa: (a) p1; (b) p2; (c) p3;
Figure p4. Frequency properties of four monitoring points at different NPSHa: (a) p1; (b) p2; (c) p3;
(d) 12.
(d) p4.
(d) p4.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
Unsteady
Unsteady cavitation
cavitation flowflow
in ain a low-specific-speed
low-specific-speed centrifugal
centrifugal pumppumpwithwith an inducer
an inducer
is investigated
is investigated based
based on the
on the full full cavitation
cavitation model
model andand standard
standard k-ε turbulence
k-ε turbulence model
model us- us-
ing ing
the the commercial
commercial software
software PumpLinx.
PumpLinx. Additionally,
Additionally, the the experiment
experiment for for external
external
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 630 11 of 12

5. Conclusions
Unsteady cavitation flow in a low-specific-speed centrifugal pump with an inducer is
investigated based on the full cavitation model and standard k-ε turbulence model using
the commercial software PumpLinx. Additionally, the experiment for external performance
and cavitation performance are carried out on the pump with an inducer. The numerical
results of external performance curve and cavitation performance curve of design condition
agree well with that of the experiment. Compared with the pump without inducer, the
anti-cavitation performance of centrifugal pump with an inducer is better. With the gradual
decrease of the inlet pressure, the head of the centrifugal pump remains almost unchanged.
While it is less than NPSHr, the head obviously drops due to the cavitation development
and deterioration. The regions of larger vapor volume fraction in the inducer and impeller
increase with the decreasing of NPSHa. The regions of larger vapor volume fraction in the
inducer expand from the outer edge of blade inlet to the hub on suction surface. Under
very low NPSHa, the impeller may be filled with bubbles in the passage and the pump
head drops drastically, and there exist distinct back flows near the suction surface of the
blade and impeller outlet. Affected by pre-swirl of inducer outlet and the circle flow of
impeller blade inlet, the amplitude of pressure fluctuation near impeller inlet is obviously
larger than that at the inlet in the inducer. The dominant frequency of pressure fluctuation
for four monitoring points is shaft frequency.

Author Contributions: Methodology and validation, X.H. and B.C.; formal analysis, X.H. and B.C.;
writing—review and editing, X.H. and Y.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
No. 52076197), Key Research and Development Program of Zhejiang Province (Grant No. 2022C01067),
and Zhejiang Province Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. LZ20E060002).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
fv mass fractions of the vapor
fg mass fractions of the gas
fl mass fractions of the liquid
ρm mixed density
ρv densities of the vapor
ρg densities of the gas
ρl densities of the liquid
αv volume fractions of the vapor
αg volume fractions of the gas
αl volume fractions of the liquid
Re vapor generation rates
Rc vapor condensation rates
δij shear stress
µT turbulent viscosity
µm vapor–liquid phase laminar viscosity
NPSHr required net positive suction head
pin pressure of the pump inlet
pv pressure of the vapor
v1 velocity of the pump inlet
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 630 12 of 12

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