N. Rajagopalan_ PREFACE Transportation Needs commensurate with infrastructural development demand shortest routes to cover distances. Such short routes require crossing of number of obstacles such as rivers, railway lines and existing roads. Bridge structures are the only solutions for such problems. Traditionally arches and suspension systems are used to cross over the obstacles. These two structural forms carry the load mostly as direct forces, namely, compression and tension, They are found to be costly and erection wise inconvenient for covering short and medium spans. With development of science and technology these structures could be designed economically using flexural clements for short and medium spans. For a good design which is functionally efficient, aesthetically pleasing and easily constructable, it is necessary to have a proper understanding of the behaviour of such structures and to choose appropriate methods of analysis and suitable design procedures fulfilling the requirement of safety and serviceability. This book fulfils the above requirements for various types of bridge decks normally used for short and medium spans. The support for the bridge superstructure could be different depending on site conditions. These supports do play a major role in affecting the behaviour of the structure hence the analysis and design. The support elements called bearings have also been included as a chapter for discussion in this book. The various chapters covered in this book are: Chapter | Bridge Decks and Structural Forms Chapter 2 Behaviour and Modelling of Bridge Decks Chapter 3 Beam and Slab Bridge Decks Chapter 4 Box Girder Bridge Decks Chapter 5 Skew Slab Bridge Decks Chapter 6 Voided Slab Bridge Decks Chapter 7 Continuous Bridges Chapter 8 Bearings and Expansion Joints Chapter 9 Construction Methodologies and Erection Techniques Scanned with CamScannerCONTENTS Foreword ;, Preface vii Acknowledgements ix |. Bridge Decks and Structural Forms ' 1.1 General 1 1.2. Structural Forms and Behaviour 2 121 SlabDecks 3 122 Voided Slab Deck 4 1.23 Pseudo Slab 5 124 Maunsell Top Hat Beam = $ 125 BeamandSlab 5 126 BoxGirders 6 1.27 Curved and Skew Decks 6 References 6 2. Behaviour and Modelling of Bridge Decks 2.1 General 2.2 Simple Beam Model (Method) 2.3 Plate Model (Method and Analogy) 23.1 Orthotropic Plate Behaviour of Bridge Decks 10 232 Semi Continuum Plate Analogy 11 24 Articulated Plate Theory 12 2.5 Characterizing Parameters for Longitudinal Bending Moments in Highway Bridges 13 25.1 Multicell Box Girders 14 2.6 Grillage Method 5 2.7 Discrete Methods 18 27.1 The Finite Element Method of Analysis 18 272 Finite Sip Method 19 wou Scanned with CamScannerxii Bridge Superstructure 2.8 Bridge Responses 28.1 Longitudinal Bending M 282 Transverse Bending Moment 20 283 Longitudir 284 Longitudis nent 20 | Twisting Moment and Transverse Twisting Moment 21 and Transverse Shear 21 References 21 3. Beam and Slab Bridge Decks 3.1 General 3.2 Courbon’s Method of Analysis 32.1 Reaction Factors for Longitudinal Girders 23 3.3. Orthotropic Plate Method 33.1 Basic Analysis 27 332 Design Approach 29 333 Design Curves for Right Bridge Decks 30 34 Application of Morice, Little and Rowe Curves for Cases of T Beam and Slab Bridges 3.5 Local Wheel Load Effects 35.1 Slab Supported on Two Opposite Sides (Spanning in One Direction) 50 452 Cantilever Slab 51 3.6 Dispersion Along the Span 36.1 Slabs Spanning in Two Directions 52 3.6.2 Pigeaud’s Method has the Following Limitations 53 363 Influence Surfaces for Moments $3 3.7 IMlustrative Example References 69 4, Box Girder Bridge Decks 4.1 Evolution of Box Girders 4.2 Preliminary Design and Analysis 4.3. Structural Action 4.4 Analysis for Individual Structural Actions 44.1 SignConvention 78 4.4.2 Analysis for Longitudinal Bending and St Venant’s Torsion (f,,.\,,.¥,,) 78 4.4.2.1 Analysis for distortion of the Section (f, 4.4.2.2 Distortional warping stress 81 44.2. 81 Beam on elastic foundation analogy for analysis of distortion and distortional warping 81 443. Analysis for Transverse Bending (f,,,) 88 444 Other Structural Action 88 4.5 Illustrative Example 45.1 Basic Data for Analysis and Design 88 Scanned with CamScanner 47 49 70 7” 7 nr 78 88452 Sectional Properties of Box Girder Cross Section 89 453 Loads 90 454 Analysis for Longitudinal Flexural Stresses 93 455 Analysis for Longitudinal Stresses Due to Distortional Warping (f,,.) and Analysis for Transverse Bending Due to Asymmetric Loading (/,,,) 94 4.5.5.1 Analysis for distortional warping 95 4.5.5.2 Analysis for transverse bending 103 4.5.5.3 Combination of stresses 107 4.6 Approach by Newmark’s Method 4.7 Illustrative Example 4.7.1 Distortional Analysis of Box Girder Bridge Decks Using The Beam ~ on ~ Elastic Foundation Analogy 111 References 121 5. Skew Slab Bridge Decks 5.1 General 5.2 Behaviour of Skew Bridge Decks 5.3 Characteristics of Skew Deck 5.4 Method of Analysis and Design Procedure 5.5 Influence Surface Method 5.6 Grillage Analogy Method $6.1 Behaviour of Right Slab and Grillage 134 5.6.2 Behaviour of Skew Slab andGrillage 135 5.7 Finite Element Method 5.8 Reinforcement for Flexure 5.9 Stiffening Edges 5.10 To jal Reinforcement 5.11 Bearings 5.12. Prestressing of Skew Slabs 5.12.1 Longitudinal Prestressing 141 $.122 Transverse Prestressing 143 References 143 6. Voided Slab Bridge Decks 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Cross Section Dimensions 146 62 Analysis of Structures 63 Methods of Analysis 63.1 Orthotropic Plate Theory 148 632 Lateral Distribution Coefficients for Voided Slabs 149 633 Design in Longitudinal Direction 151 634 Design in the Transverse Direction 152 6.3.4.1 Evaluation of transverse shear force Q, 153 Scanned with CamScanner 107 Wh 123 124 126 132 133 164 136 137 138 139 139 141 145 145 7 148xiv Bridge Superstructure 635 Design of Bottom Flange 153 636 Design of Top Flange 156 637 Design of Web 156 6.3.7.1 Tensile stress less than allowable stress 158 6.3.7.2 Tensile stress greater than allowable stress 158 64 Grillage Analysis 160 64.1 Discretization of the Deck as Grillage 161 Design for Longitudinal Action 162 643 Design for Transverse Action 162 65 Finite Element Analysis 162 References 165 . Continuous Bridges 166 7.1 Introduction 166 7.2. Types of Continuous Bridges 167 72.1 Precast Simply Supported Girder with Cast in-situ Continuous Slabs 167 7.2.1.1 Continuity detail type 1: Tied deck slab 168 7.2.1.2 Continuity detail type 2: Narrow in-situ integral crosshead 168 7.2.1.3 Comtinuity detail type 3: Wide in-situ integral crosshead 169 7.2.1.4 Continuity detail type 4: Integral crosshead cast in two stages 170 7.2.1.5 Continuity detail type 5: Continuous deck slab with separated beams 170 722 Preference for Type of Continuity 170 723 Type4 Method 171 724 Type3 Method 172 72S Type2Method 173 73 Analysis 173 73.1 Stage | Analysis: Evaluation of Stresses 174 Stage I Analysis 176 References 177 . Bearings and Expansion Joints 178 8.1 General 178 82 Bearings 179 821 Classification and Types of Bearings 181 82.1.1 Roller bearings 181 8.2.1.2 Rocker bearings 182 8.2.1.3 Knuckle pin bearings 182 8.2.14 Leafbearings 182 8.2.1.5 Link bearings 182 8.2.1.6 Sliding bearings 183 8.2.1.7 Elastomeric bearing 183 82.18 Pot/PTFE bearings 183 82.1.9 Dischearings 187 822 Guidelines for Selection of Bearings 187 Scanned with CamScanner823 Design Considerations 189 8.2.3.1 Forces applied to bridge bearings 190 8.2.3.2 Downward force 190 8.23.3 Transverse force 190 8.2.3.4 Longitudinal force 190 8.2.3.5 Upliftforces 190 8.2.3.6 Otherforces 190 82.3.7 Bearing reactions 190 824 Basis for Design of Metallic Bearings 191 8.2.4.1 Evaluation of stresses 191 8.2.4.2. Estimation of movements and rotations 191 825 Ferrous Bearings of Traditional Types 192 8.1.5.1 Free bearings 192 82.5.2 Fixed bearings 192 826 Simple Design Examples 193 8.2.6.1 Rocker bearing 193 8.2.6.2 Knuckle pin bearing 194 8.2.6.3 Leafbearing 194 .27 Design of Bearings of Different Capabilities and Usages 195 8.2.7.1 Design of POT/PTFE Verso-biaxial bearing 196 828 Design of Elastomeric Bearings 202 82.8.1 Designrules 203 8.3 Expansion Joints 208 8.4 Lock-up Device — Shock Transmission Units 83.1 Requirements of Expansion Joints 208 83.2 Sources of External Load Induced Movements 209 833 Sources of Movements Caused By Non-Structural Effects 209 834 Typesof Expansion Joints 210 835 Basis for Selection of Type of Joints 210 83.5.1 Sliding plate joints 211 83.5.2 Buriedjoints 211 8.3.5.3 Asphaltic plug joints 212 83.5.4 Compression seal joints 213 8.3.5.5 Reinforced elastomeric joints (Slab Seal Joints) 214 8.3.5.6 Elastomeric with metal runners (Single or Modular Strip Seal Joints) 215 8.3.5.7 Cantilever comb or tooth joints (Finger Type) 216 836 Design Basis 216 837 Modified IRC Interim Specifications for Expansion Joints by Ministry of Surface Transport (Road Wing) 218 838 Criteria for Adoption of Different Types of Expansion Joints 219 839 Discussions 220 221 a: 84.1 Description of STU 842. STUs for Strengthening of Existing Bridges References 226 re) 8 Scanned with CamScannerxvi Bridge Superstructure 9. Construction Methodologies and Erection Techniques 227 9.1 General 27 9.2. Span by Span — One-go Construction 27 92.1 Simply Supported Spans 228 922 Continuous Spans 228 9.23 Erection of ‘I’ Girders Using Overhead Launching Truss 229 9.3. Span-by-Span - Segmental Construction 230 93.1 Simply Supported Spans 230 932 Erection of Pre-cast Segments Using Under-slung Trusses 233 9.4 Cantilever Construction 236 94.1 Cantilever Segmental Construction by Launching Girders 237 9.5 Cantilever Travellers for Special Type of Bridges 237 9.6 Erection of Girders by Push Launching 240 9.7 Analysis 243 97.1 Analysis for Service Load Stage 243 972 Analysis forErection Stages 244 973 Precamber Analysis for Continuous Bridges 244 97.3.1 Deflection at various phases of construction 244 9.7.3.2 Creep factors 245 17.3.3 Evaluation of creep factors for phase! 246 7.3.4. Evaluation of creep factors for phase I 247 9.7.3.5. Calculation of creep factors for phase II 247 974 Evaluation of Deflection 248 9.7.4.1 Deflection in phase I stage 248 9.7.4.2 Computation of deflection 249 9.7.4.3 Deflection in phase I stage 251 9.7.4.4 Deflection in phase Ill stage 252 9.75 Precamber forthe Bridge Deck 253 References 254 255 Scanned with CamScanner1 Chapter BRIDGE DECKS AND STRUCTURAL FORMS j1. | GENERAL Architect Sullivan said that ‘FORM’ follows function and fulfilment of functional effects leads to a proper form and that is the first step in aesthetics of bridges. Any structure to cross over an obstruction is defined as a bridge and it consists of a system of combination of various elements such as the deck, substructure and foundation. Harmonious proportioning, dimensioning and co-ordination of various elements to achieve the form, is the basis of any design. These are dependent on choice of the materials and the type of force transfer, While a road transfers the load it carries continuously to Mother Earth, a bridge transfers the load to the earth at discrete points called foundations through a system of structural elements, n a structural system, which transfers the forces to the foundation in a most efficient gincer. It is known that any material is way with minimum use of mate most efficiently used if subjected to direct forces and hence the form should be so chosen that the als is the job of a design e1 material is subjected mostly to direct forces on the elements. In general itis seen that during load transfer internal forces are generated in the structural elements. In reality there are only two types of forces, they being compression and tension. A combination of these leads to the resistance to yarious structural action. Tension and compression form a couple to resist flexure, Compression and tension elements can be conn ed at discrete points to form a truss. If these forces are continuously connected by an element called web, a beam is formed. The two forces, namel: normal to axis of an element. Then it is called torsion. compression and tension may also form a couple Failure is mainly caused by tension. Too much of compression also leads to tension in orthogonal direction culminating in failure but defined as compression failure. High rotation leads to compression on one face and tension on the other, which initiates failure, The shape and form should be so chosen that, failure is avoided and force transfer is smooth and efficient. The force flow should take the fastest path to reach the foundation, namely, the Mother Earth Scanned with CamScanner2 Bridge Superstructure Arch bridge, suspension bridge and cable stayed bridge are typical examples of transferring force mostly by direct force. Slab bridges, beam and slab bridges, box or cellular girder bridges resist the Joads by flexure caused by a couple. These are structural systems. The bridges are designed for carrying moving loads and personnel. They need a flat surface for movement. This flat surface is called the deck surface. The deck may consist of a slab, a beam and a slab, a grillage, a box girder, multi beam, etc. The cross over length between two foundations/substructures is normally defined as @ span in engineering connotation. By intuition as well as construction experiences, engineers have suggested various types of structural systems and related structural forms for various spans as given in table 1.1. The simplest form of the concrete deck is a solid skab, which could be reinforced or prestressed. As the span increases the self-weight increases and the unnecessary material in the middle depth of the cross section could be removed. This has lead to the formation of voided slab. For ease of construction, these voided slabs could be generated by packing up ‘I’ beams together and this type of voided slabs are also called pseudo slabs. From slabs came the development of ‘I’ beams and *M’ beams (Maunsell top hat beam). For larger spans with eccentric Joading, box girders are found to be most suitable. These types of bridge decks can also be made use of for skew crossing where the structural effects are different from that of a right slab, The scope of this book is limited to the structural forms as listed above to be used as bridge decks. A few of the structural forms mainly adapted in bridges are shown in figs. 11, 1.2 and 13 Table 1.1 Span lengths for bridge structures [after O'Connor (1971) updated to 1974] ‘Structural ‘Material ‘Span range ‘Maximum system im) i) constructed Slab Concrete | 0-12 0-40 Pseudo-slab | Concrete | 10-40 30-140 Beam Concrete | 12-210 | 40-700 Bendort 208m Steel 30-300 | 100-860 | Rio-Niteroi 300m Truss Stee! 90-550 | 300-1800 | Quebec 549m Arch nib Concrete | 90-130 | 300-1000 | Gladesville 305m Stee! 120-370 | 400-1200 | Fremont 382m Arch truss | Steet 240-520 | 800-1700 | Bayonne 504m Cable-stayed | Concrete | 90-270 | 300-800 | Waal 267m Steel 90-350 | 300-1100 | Duisburg 350m | Great Belt 600m Suspension | Steel 300-1400| 1000-4500] Verrazano 1298m | Humber 1400m {under constn,) STRUCTURAL FORMS AND BEHAVIOUR Behaviour of different forms of decks for bridge loading may be different depending on the structural forms and the elements forming the deck. Accordingly they have to be mathematically modeled and analyzed. The detailed behaviour of different decks is discussed below. A few of them have been well described by E.C. Hambly”, Scanned with CamScannerBridge Decks and Structural Forms 3 ria Cc SS Uniform thickness-Stab Deck Variable thickness~Siab Deck oOo00000 Voided Slab Deck Concrete T-beam Deck ‘Steel Concrete Composite Deck e J @ / / Concrete Box Beam Deck with Stee! Concrete Composits-Box Beam twin call Deck Fig. 1.1 Types of concrete bridge deck: (a) Slab (b) Pseudo slab (c) Beam and slab (4) Cellular (eer lnverted T-beams oiio bbeams Fig. 1.2 PCDG standard precast, pretensioned bridge beams 1.2.1 Slab Decks ‘The slab deck behaves like « flat plate, which is a structural continuum for transferring moments, shears and torsion in all directions in the plane of the plate. Based on support conditions the slab deforms. Normally in a bridge deck two sides will be supported on bearings over piers and the remaining (wo sides will be either free or stiffened by edge beams corresponding to elastic supports. Scanned with CamScanner(b) Fig. 1.3 The MoT/CACA M-beam (a) Pseudo box (b) T-beam The slab deforms locally in the form of a dish causing two-dimensional moments, which share the load from the deck (fig. 1.4). The deformation is a function of the stiffness of the slab in the corresponding direction. Concrete slab decks are normally used for span up to 10 m. For higher spans the required thickness of the slab becomes large and accordingly the self-weight becomes large. If the thickness of the slab is large the shear deformation plays an important role and it is defined as thick slab. The mathematical modelling and analysis of the same will be different. 1.2.2 Voided Slab Deck Generally, the flexural behaviour is such that the middle portion of the slab will be practically not stressed at all. It simply adds to the weight of the structure, In case of large spans, increase in weight is large. To lighten the structures, voids of cylindrical or rectangular shapes are introduced Fig. 1.4 Load distribution in slab deck by bending and torsion in two directions Scanned with CamScannerBridge Decks and Structural Forms 5 atthe middle height of the cross section. If the depth and width of the voids are less than 60 per cent of the over all depth, then the variation of the stiffness is very small and the deck behaves effectively asa plate. If the void size exceeds 60 per cent of the depth, the deck is generally considered as cellular construction, the behaviour of which will be different because of the local bending of the slab over the voids. 1.2.3 Pseudo Slab Pseudo slabs are erected by means of standard beams closely packed with she slabs are analyzed in longitudinal and transverse direction dir. ly. The analysis will be similar to that of grillage systems. In- tween the standard beams is known as shear keys. The main application for these slabs is for bridges erected over busy roadways and railways (fig. 1.5), connectors. The Iment of portion in- Fig. 1.5 Differential deflections of beams in shear-key deck resisted by torsion of beams 1.2.4 Maunsell Top Hat Beam Small hollow rectangular beams with flanges extended on one side could also be packed to form a deck with a screed layers of concrete on top forming a cellular deck called Maunsell top hat beam. The behaviour of this type of slab will be very similar to that of Pseudo slabs (fig. 1.6), 1.2.5 Beam and Slab A beam and slab deck consists of number of longitudinal beams connected at the top with continuous structural slab. These beams could also be transversely connected by diaphragm or cross girder to Scanned with CamScanner6 Bridge Superstructure give transverse stiffness for the deck. The load distribution of this system can be understood by the grillage analysis and idealized accordingly. The same could also be converted into equivalent slab of varying longitudinal and transverse stiffness. The decks of this nature could be + A prestressed concrete beam or a reinforced concrete beam with cast in-situ reinforced concrete slab on top + A steel beam with cast-in-situ reinforced concrete slab on top The construction of this type of deck will be simpler and faster. Nowadays use of internal diaphragms is becoming less popular because of construction problems. The localized stiffness attracts force and leads to stress concentration and corresponding problems. Beam and slab decks can be divided into (wo main groups, namely, those where the beams are packed side by side or those where the beams are situated reasonably farther away from each other. ‘These deck systems could easily be adopted up to 25 m of span. 1.2.6 Box Girders As the span and also the width increases, the bottom of the beam and slab deck are to be tied at the bottom to keep the geometry. This has lead to evolution of box girders, Any eccentric load will also cause higher torsional forces, which could be better counter acted by a box section. The analysis of such sections are more complicated due to combination of flexure, shear, torsion and distortion, But it is structurally a more efficient cross section. It is chosen for large spans with wide decks. It could be adopted for spans up to 150 m depending on the type of construction methods. Normally for long spans, prestressing is resorted to. Cantilever construction is one of the regularly used and accepted method of construction. 1.2.7. Curved and Skew Decks ‘The bridge decks could be on a straight span or a skew or a curved span leading to additional structural forces which have to be considered while arriving at design forces. The problem of analysis becomes complicated and detailing plays a major role in such structures. ‘The next few chapters deal with various types of bridge decks, their behavioural aspects, the analysis for evaluating the design forces, and the choice of effective cross sections with proper materials and boundary conditions References 1. Cusens, A.R. and R.P. Pama (1975), Bridge Deck Analysis, Wiley, London, 2 Hambly, E. C. (1991), Bridge Deck Behaviour, Second edition, EXFN Spon, London. Scanned with CamScanner2 Chapter BEHAVIOUR AND MODELLING OF BRIDGE DECKS EBM cenerar Bridge decks normally consists of a combination of various structural elements like longitudinal girders, transverse girders, deck slabs, etc. Bridge decks could be formed with monolithic construction or by composite construction of different individual elements or by segmental construction by assembling number of individual segments with prestressing. Accordingly, the behaviour of bridge decks is much controlled by the behaviour of individual elements, their connection with each other and by the method of formation of the deck The joints between individual elements may be capable of transferring moments, torsion and shear or moment and shear, or shear only. Depending on the possible transfer of forces between different elements, the deck has to he analyzed and designed. The analysis is done after making a mathematical model of the bridge deck depending on the force transfer and the force flow. In the analysis of the modelled unit, assumptions have to be made which have to be validated after the analysis is completed. The typical mathematical models, which are adaptable for analysis, are: Simple Beam Plate Articulated Plate Grillage Continuum or Semi Continuum models Wbwpo ‘The choice of models for different types of decks are different. All models are not applicable for all types of bridge decks Methods of analysis for design forces are identified based on the chosen mathematical model Each of the above models and the corresponding method of analysis have their own limitations and will be applicable only for certain types of bridges. While performing the analysis, the variable parameters can be minimized or optimized by grouping certain parameters together and identifying them as ‘characterizing parameters’ Scanned with CamScanner8 Bridge Superstructure The behaviour in general can be understood by the deformation profile of the bridge deck under loading. The deformation profile of the deck is described by the deflection function w;,,,. The mn the properties of the bridge deck which have the leading influence on the deflection pattern can be grouped together to form non-dimensional terms and these terms are defined as the ‘characterizing parameters’. Hence the behaviour of the bridge decks could well be defined or understood from the values of the ‘characterizing parameters’ Characterizing parameters for the various models and the corresponding methods of approach are discussed under each heading separately factors derived fr SIMPLE BEAM MODEL (METHOD) In the beam method, the bridge deck is assumed to behave as a simple flexural element between the supports in the longitudinal direction only and in the transverse direction at ai deformation of all points are the same, This behaviour is applicable for narrow slab bridges or a bridge deck having a single beam with a top slab. They are adopted mainly for footbridges, The behaviour is governed by the equation cross section dw, er = po) and El is the flexural parameter defined by D,. This is the characterizing parameter for these types of bridges PLATE MODEL (METHOD AND ANALOGY) In this analogy the bridge deck is assumed to deform both in the longitudinal direction and in the transverse direction, This means there is a curvature and elastic curve both in the longitudinal direction and transverse direction. The curvature in the longitudinal direction caused by flexure depends on the flexural rigidity in that direction defined by the term D, and the curvature in the transverse direction depends on the flexural rigidity in the transverse direction called D,.. The curvature in the longitudinal direction leads to a twisting of the element in the transverse direction. Hence the curvature in the longitudinal direction is controlled by the torsional rigidity of the element in the transverse direction and vice versa. The torsional rigidity is defined by the term D,, and D,,. Hence the deformation profile of the plate or the deflection of « particular point in the plate defined by w, is the function of D,, D,. D,, and D,, Though there are four different physical factors of the bridge deck, which affect the behaviour, they can be grouped into two characterizing parameters as could be seen later. Before going 10 puping of these physical factors, it could be seen that certain physical factors could be neglected or ignored depending on the type of monolithicity of the materials. Pa Ue monolithicity is fully assured, the behaviour will be a function of all the physical factors D,, . D,, ot if the monolithicity is limited in such that the deformation caused by a Scanned with CamScannerBehaviour ond Modelling of Bridge Decks 9 structural action in one direction does not affect the deformation in the other direction, some of the physical parameters, could be ignored in modeling the behaviour. The physical behaviour of bridge decks with longitudinals and transversals are discussed by Cusens and Pama! 10 give an idea of force transfer with monolithicity of different levels in the longitudinal and transverse structural elements, The bridge deck shown in fig. 2.1a, which carries uniformly loaded for full width of the cross section, hus longitudinal girders connected by cross girders. The deflection of the transverse section will be uniform and accordingly the individual girders will have equal loads. If the loading is as shown in fig. 2.1b the deflection in the transverse section will not be uniform and accordingly the reactions taken by such longitudinal girders vary. The amount of load shared by the longitudinal girders depends on the deflection profile, which is a function of the flexural stiffnesses of the members. Let the flexural rigidity be defined as D, in the longitudinal direction and D, in the transverse direction for the given bridge and the torsional stiffness be defined as D,, and D,,, respectively. The behaviour could be in any one of the ways as described under 3 cases and it is dependent on the monolithicity of the materials connecting them. Fig. 2.2a shows a set of longitudinal girders connected by cross girders hinged into longitudinal girders, The hinges are not universal hinges. They do not allow any moment transfer to the cross girders, that is, the longitudinal girders do not twist but the cross girders do have flexural stiffness. This case is defined as the first case [D, is positive Dy, =0), If 4 load is applied on one edge beam, it will be shared by all members in certain proportion pap Se ere _ a re ee | ————— ed @ ©) ae () Fig. 2.1 Transverse deflection profiles of a bridge under various types of loading Fig. 2.2b shows a set of longitudinal girders connected by cross girders hinged to longitudinal girders. These hinges are also not universal hinges and they do not allow moment transfers to the cross girders. But the hinges, which are longitudinal in nature, transfer the longitudinal deformation of the main girder causing twisting for the tansverse girders (D,, exist). Considering the bending behaviour in the transverse direction, the transverse beam takes any shape which means that the transverse flexural rigidity is 0 (D, = 0). This is the second case of a plate bridge deck. Consider a simple plate with flexural stiffnesses in.x and y direction to be the same (D, = D,). Any load applied on the plate causes a deformation pattern, which has continuity in.x andy directions and hence the load is distributed more evenly. This refers to the third case of the slab bridge deck. Beyond these, there is a case of bridge deck where in the flexural stiffness in transverse direction is comparatively very high and the deck will behave as shown in fig. 2.2c, There will be only a rotation of the deck about its longitudinal axis, when it is loaded with an eccentric load, This is Scanned with CamScannerRSetetaO Fees @ 0, = Positive 0, = Positive (o) D, = Positive Dy=0 Pya0 Behaviour of an open grilage under concentrated load SSS) C} D, = D,= Positive Dyy = Dye Positive Fig. 2.2 Modelling of behaviour of slabs referred as a fourth case. This type of bridge deck can be simplified to that of a beam in the longitudinal direction with a rotation in the transverse direction. This assumption calls for certain dimensional constraints. They are approximated as the following conditions are satisfied: * The ratio of span to width is greater than 2 but less than 4. * The longitudinal girders are interconnected by atleast 5 symmetrically spaced cross girders. + The cross girders extend to a depth of at least 0.75 of the depth of longitudinal girders Simplified method of analysis for such type of bridge decks is developed by Courbon and hence, named after him as ‘Courbon’s Method of Analysis’. This method of analysis is the extended beam method and hence the characterizing parameters for this type of bridge is only the flexural rigidity of the individual elements in the longitudinal direction namely D,,. D>. te. The bridge decks covered under Case 1, Cases 2 and 3 can be solved using the differential equation for an orthotropic plate referred later in article 2.3.1. 2.3.1 Orthotropic Plate Behaviour of Bridge Decks The behaviour of a bridge could be modeled as a plate with facility of bending in both directions and also with a facility of interaction of such bending in both directions. The interaction is based on the torsional rigidity of the deck both in longitudinal and transverse direction, The behaviour can be mathematically defined by the general equation of a plate bending, namely: atw aw at D, Sart (Dy + Dy + Dy + Dy) SEs + Dy Sr = Ply) The entire behaviour is represented with one variable, namely, the deflection at any point. The other parameters are the physical property parameters of the This equation is recast in terms of dimensionless quantiti yes aes ss F and y'= 7 where L is the span and h is the half width, then Scanned with CamScannerBehaviour and Modelling of Bridge Decks U1 and so that the plate equation expressed above becomes D, dw , (Dy + D, Lf ax" L where @(x' y') is the expression of the externally applied load in terms of x! and y! Multiplying throughout by 1°4°/(D, D,)"* it becomes, atw 1 tw ; 2 Ox, 9) @ ay" (D,D,)' Heer Behaviour of all types of orthotropic plates can be defined with 2 dimensionless parameters orand @and the external loading. ‘These dimensionless parameters = and @ are referred to as characterizing parameters. @ is referred to as flexural parameter and « is referred to as torsional parameter. The detailed use of these parameters to arrive at design forces is explained in Chapter 3 where as D,, + D,, + D, + Dy o-(2)(3 2(D,D,) iD 2.3.2 Semi Continuum Plate Analogy Unlike in orthotropic plate analysis wherein the flexural and torsional rigidities are uniformly spread throughout the width of the plate, in this approach, a hybrid concept is assumed. Longitudinal structural action in flexure is taken care of by the discrete longitudinal girders with defined flexural rigidity. The torsional effects as a consequence of the longitudinal bending can be resisted along the full length of the deck uniformly by the torsional rigidity of the longitudinals. The transverse structural action in flexure is taken care of uniformly by the full length of the deck. The flexural stiffness of cross girders or transverse girders provided, will be distributed for the full length of the deck and considered as an equivalent thickness of slab. Hence a strip of unit width with flexural rigidity D, can be considered for taking care of transverse bending. But the torsional effects due to transverse bending have to be discretely taken care of at specific points wherever the longitudinal girders are existent. In short, the deck is considered to have discrete longitudinal girders and uniformly distributed transverse slab (cross girder and the slab). Scanned with CamScanner12. Bridge Superstructure This concept is originally introduced by Hendry and Jaeger’. At the first instance, the torsional rigidities of the longitudinal and transverse strips were considered to be zero. Accordingly, the effect of longitudinal bending brought in only shears to be transferred to transverse strips and vice versa. It is Bakht and Jaeger’ who introduced the torsional rigidities for the deck also for load transfer be ARTICULATED PLATE THEORY It was noted earlier with reference to fig. 2.3 that there are certain kinds of bridges in which transverse bending stiffness is very small and load distribution takes place mainly by shear forces. This behaviour leads to the consideration of a particular class of orthotropic plate in which the transverse flexural rigidity D, and the transverse torsional rigidity D,, both approach zero. The rigidities D, and D, also become zero in this case, since the two-way bending coupling action is eliminated. The result is an articulated plate. As D, approaches zero, it is clear from the expression for crand @ given in article 2.3.1 that both of them approach infinity. However, eliminating D, between those two expressions lead to the definition of a parameter, 6/ Yergiven by va (2) 2] Multiplying 4 verby a factor v2 sand defining it as 8. B becomes B= r(2bIL) (D,ID,,!"* tb) Fig. 2.3 A three-girder articulated plate under symmetric First load (a) Cross section of the structure (b) interactive line loading Scanned with CamScannerBehaviour and Modelling of Bridge Decks 13 So far as the deflections of such a plate are concerned, 3 (or equivalently 6/-Va) is the characterizing parameter. With D,, D,, becoming indefinitely small, the governing differential equation for an orthotropic plate given in article 2.3.1 reduces 10 D, a Los Which on multiplying by (177/D,,) may be written as B atw, atw 4m ax” ax" ay It can be seen that the above equation is defined by one variable f for any number of plates and their behaviour and hence is considered as the characterizing parameter for deflection. Accordingly, the single parameter Balso characterizes longitudinal bending moment, longitudinal shear, and transverse shear. Fig. 2.3 shows three girders each of length L and width /, and of flexural rigidity E/ and torsional rigidity GJ. The girders are simple supported at their ends and are freely hinged along their abutting edges. The middle girder carries a line load P sin (x/L) and the end conditions are such that the rotations of the girders around their longitudinal centre lines are prevented at x= 0 and x= 1, CHARACTERIZING PARAMETERS FOR LONGITUDINAL BENDING MOMENTS IN HIGHWAY BRIDGES ‘The shallow superstructure types, as shown in fig. 2.4 include the solid slab, voided slab, and slab- on-girder bridges. Extensive analysis has shown that the distribution of longitudinal moments in such bridges is given, sufficiently accurately for design purposes, by the grillage analogy or the orthotropic plate method. The longitudinal bending moments are accordingly characterized by parameters arand Os given by equations below, Fig. 2.5 shows a typical (a 8) chart from which a value D can be read. This value could be utilized for evaluating longitudinal bending moment in any longitudinal beam as follows. The beam will be subjected to one line of wheel loads and the simple beam bending moment is evaluated. This should be factored by a fraction given by S/D where *S’ is the spacing between longitudinal beam. Dy, + Dy, + D, + Dy 2D, Dd, )"" Scanned with CamScanner14 Bridge Superstructure (a) a slab bridge (c) a slab-on-girder bridge I I Fig. 2.4 Cross section of shallow superstructures: (a) a slab bridge; (b) a voided slab bridge; (c) a slab-on-girder bridge. 25 225 27 2 0.50 025 0.125 0. 001 oor 0.05 01 o5 10 20 Fig. 2.8 _D values for three-lane bridges (from Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code, 1983)° 2.5.1 Multicell Box Girders In multicell box girder bridges, and in voided slab bridges with large voids, transverse distribution of longitudinal bending moments is affected by deflections due to shear as well as deflections due to bending. Hence in addition to crand @, there is other form which defines the deflection behaviour. It is designated as Sand Scanned with CamScannerBehaviour and Modelling of Bridge Decks 15 3 os an xb | Dd, } U\s where S, is the transverse shear rigidity, being the product of the shear modulus and the equivalent shear area per unit length. At first sight, the fact that there are three parameters (a, @, 5) needed for the characterization would lead one to surmise that the construction of design charts would be difficult. Fortunately, in the multicellular and voided slab bridges, the value of the parameter a hardly varies at all, being always near to 1.0. Hence the distribution of longitudinal bending moments is characterized, sufficiently accurately for design purposes, by the two parameters @, 6. Fig. 2.6 shows a (8, 5) chart from which a modification factor F is read. The modification factor is then applied as divisor to a value of D obtained as for a shallow superstructure type, so as to give a modified D which takes account of shear deformation, The procedure to get the longitudinal bending moment per beam is already explained. os coo o4 03 , 0! three-tane ap bridges 02 +08) cys O41 130 00 O41 02 03 040506 0810 20 30 405060 80100 6 Fig. 2.6 Modification factors F (from Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code, 1983)° GRILLAGE METHOD In reality, the bridge decks consists of more number of elements or single element like slab unless the span to width ratio is large. The plate analogy explained above, is a better idealistic version and applicable for many of the bridge decks. The idealization can be more simplified if one could represent two-dimensional continuum of the deck by assemblage of beam elements in two directions and these beam elements form the grillage. Analysis of the same will be more adaptable for computer-oriented methods. Lightfoot and Sawko® has pioneered the use of computers for using grillage method. The bending and torsional stiffness in every region of the slab is assumed to be concentrated in the nearest grillage beam, The longitudinal stiffness is converted in the longitudinal beam and the transverse stiffness in the transverse beam Scanned with CamScanner16 Bridge Superstructure Hence the deck continuum can be approximated by girders in two directions, which have flexural and torsional stiffness. Considering two grillages as shown in figs. 2.7(a) and 2.7(b), which have equal number of main girders and cross girders carrying similar point loads, but having different overall dimensions *L? and *2b’, it is well understood that the behaviour of these two bridge decks will be similar and not the same. The positions of the loads can be defined in terms of fraction of girder span and fraction ‘of width, which will be the same for both the grillages. If the ratio between structural properties (such as flexural and torsional stiffness of individual girders and girders) of one grillage is the same as that of the second grillage then both the grillages will have similar pattern of deflection when subjected to the same pattern of load. Then the ratio between the structural properties of a grillage is called the characterizing parameter for deflection. Similarly, there will be characterizing parameters for bending moments, twisting moments, etc. All these put together, are the characterizing parameters for the structure. The flexural stiffness of the longitudinal girder of the grillage shown in fig. 2.7(a), is assumed as “EI”, torsional stiffness as “GJ”, length “L” spacing of longitudinals “h” and similarly the properties of the transversals in the grillage are “El,". “GJ,". These grillages are subjected to external loading as shown in fig. 2.7. The structural responses may be expressed in the form {K] {a} = (W) Where |W) is a vector of externally applied forces, {) is a vector whose elements depend upon the deflections and rotations of the nodes and have the dimensions of force and [K] is a matrix whose elements have no dimensions. It can easily be seen that the elements of (K] will be a function of stiffness of elements and geometric dimensions. It will consist of non-dimensional parameters such as [LIA)(ELJED [LIGI;/EN and [h/LGI/ET | If two different grillages have the same pattern of external load, then the vector {W) is the same for both, within a simple scalar multiplier. If, further, the two grillages have the same values as the L—2»—-| YYYYy—— BAA Aw rin (a) Fig. 2.7 (a) and (b) Plan of similar grillages Scanned with CamScannerBehaviour and Modelling of Bridge Decks 17 three non-dimensional parameters just identified, then the [K] matrix is the same for both. Hence the vector (a} must be the same for both, within a simple scalar multiplier. ‘Once the vector (a} is known, the patterns of distribution of deflections, bending moments, twisting moments, and shear forces follow directly. Hence, it is concluded that the three non- dimensional parameters given above are the characterizing parameters for all these structural responses. For the purposes of later comparison with orthotropic plate behaviour, it is convenient at this point to express the grillage parameters in terms of an equivalent orthotropic plate, which is obtained by distributing the stiffnesses of the transverse girders uniformly along the length. This means, for example, that the flexural stiffness Ef of a girder is written as El = Dil... Where D, is longitudinal flexural stiffness per unit width of the equivalent orthotropic plate. Three suitable non-dimensional parameters for the grillage, expressed in equivalent orthotropic plate form, are then, where D, the longitudinal rigidity (corresponding to ET in a longitudinal beam) per unit width D, the transverse flexural rigidity (corresponding to ET in a transverse beam) per unit length D,, the longitudinal torsional rigidity (corresponding to GJ in a longitudinal beam) per unit width D,, the transverse torsional rigidity (corresponding to GJ in a transverse beam) per unit length D, the longitudinal coupling rigidity (which is the contribution of transverse flexural rigidity to longitudinal torsional rigidity through Poisson's Ratio) per unit width D,_ the transverse coupling rigidity per unit length ‘The quantity AL. can be eliminated from the second and third of these by multiplying or dividing, as the case may be, by the square root of the first one. Further, inverting the first parameter and then taking the fourth root gives a parameter in which the ratio A/L has the first power, The result of these adaptations is to define the following 2(D,D,)"* 2(D,D,)"* h{ Dy L\D, 028 Scanned with CamScanner18 Bridge Superstructure If two different grillages have the same values, that is, ©), e), and @, then the two grillages will have the same patterns of distribution of deflections, shearing forces and bending and twisting moments when subjected to the same pattern of load. These three parameters are the characterizing parameters for grillage behaviour. ig viscrete MerHops ‘The discrete methods of analysis, namely, finite element method and finite strip method consider the behaviour of bridge decks by treating them as individual discrete elements/strips. In finite element method, the displacements at the nodes are evaluated using energy theorems. From the displacements the stress field in the element could be evaluated. The plate is considered as an assemblage of elements. The boundary nodes of the elements are assured to have the desired degrees of freedom and domains are evaluated. In the finite strip method the deck is divided into number of discrete strips. Along the junction of two strips the displacements are defined as continuous functions in terms of certain displacement, mostly deflection. At the boundary of the individual strips normal to the junction line between the sirip. the boundary conditions are introduced, The displacement function along the length of the strip und the boundary edge displacements at the nodes are evaluated using energy principles. The stress field in the strip domain is then evaluated, 2.7.1 The Finite Element Method of Analysis’ A structure consisting of various structural elements can be analyzed as one unit or can also be analyzed as independent units and the results of such analysis of independent units can be superposed to get the effects on the full-scale structure, During superposition, it should be kept in mind that the equilibrium conditions and the compatibility conditions at the junctions of adjacent units are maintained. In case of structure with highly complicated geometry and complex Joading, more often than not, it is not possible to dissect them into different known structural elements (like beam, slab, etc.) and analyzed. For such complicated structures, with complex boundary conditions and loading, the structure is discretized in to a number of elements. The elements are connected at specific points called nodes and assigned appropriate degrees of freedom at each nodal point. ‘The displacement field inside each element is assumed and related to nodal displacements. The state of strain in individual elements is expressed in terms of these nodal displacements through strain displacement functions. Constitutive relationship for the materials is used to convert strain into stress trom which the forces are calculated. Equilibrium equations are written down relating forces and nodal displacements at each node. The characterizing parameter for such a method of analysis is defined as the stiffness factor, which relates the forces and the displacements, The size of stiffness matrix for the element hence depends on number of degrees of freedom at each node and the number of nodes for each element. Such stiffness matrices of individual elements are combined to form a global stiffness matrix for the structure. The nodal displacements (degrees of freedom) at all nodes and the forces acting on nodes are related using the global stiffness matrix generated. This is nothing but the equilibrium equation for the structure. It is important to understand Scanned with CamScannerBehaviour ond Modelling of Bridge Decks 19 that this method is a versatile one and can be used with the facility of modern gadgets like computers, very effectively. The boundary conditions and the constraints if any, have to be incorporated before basic equilibrium equation is written in terms of nodal displacements and nodal forces. ‘The procedure adopted in finite element method of analysis starting from the displacement as unknown, can also be changed with forces as unknowns, Following the same lines, the final equation will be a compatibility equation. Further, it is also possible to have a hybrid concept of flexibility approach and stiffness approach depending on the nodal displacements or nodal forces which have to be kept as unknowns. The regular use of this method has proved that stiffness approach is more suitable because of the fact that the kinematic conditions can be uniquely defined, and the unknowns can also be uniquely defined whereas the static conditions can be represented in many ways, such as the force equilibrium, moment equilibrium, torsional equilibrium, and so on The analysis by this method will describe the behaviour of bridge decks in full and give the resultant stresses and forces at various points, But, unfortunately, the effects of individual structural actions, which contribute to the stresses in the elements, will not be known, Special finite elements for bridge deck can be created in detail such as box beam element, Tor L beam element (beam and slab element), deep beam element with shear deformation included, beam clement with degrees of freedom including warping, shear lag, etc. Their properties can also be defined. It is possible to develop special purpose element for complicated deck configuration. 2.7.2 Finite Strip Method* ‘The finite strip method is another numerical method and is a special form of displacement formulation of the finite element procedure. In this procedure, the structure is discretized in one direction, and assumed to be continuous in the other. Hence, the displacement function for any point in the domain will be discrete functions in one direction and continuous functions in the other direction, Normal in case of bridges, the traffic direction will be the direction in which the displacement function made continuous, and in the width direction, it will be made discrete. The discretized points being defined by the dimension of the strip element. As in the case of finite element method, the displacements in the domain will be expressed as a function of displacement along nodal lines (degrees of freedom) the strains will then be evaluated using the strain displacement function, The constitutive relationship will come in to define the stress condition, The nodal forces will be calculated from the state of stress and the equilibrium equations will be written relating the nodal line displacements and the nodal line forces, with the term, namely the stiffness of the strip. The characterizing parameter for this method of analysis, is the stiffness of the strip. te strip method also is possible in certain structures Combination of finite element method and like cable stayed bridges. ‘The characterizing parameters as mentioned in articles 2.3.1 to 2.3.4, for various types of bridge decks will be useful for preparation of charts and monograms for design purposes. The charts and monograms practically serve as design aids for engineers and the monotony of tedious analysis for every type of bridge decks is completely avoided. The design procedure leads to the physical dimension, the shape and the material input. But the physical dimensions are required at the Scanned with CamScanner20 Bridge Superstructure beginning of the analysis. Hence, it is always necessary to assume realistic physical dimensions for the structure so that in the final design, only the area of reinforcement, its position, minor modifications in the strength of the concrete etc. are thought of “The use of the charts prepared as design aids for the various methods of analysis are explained in the later chapters. BRIDGE RESPONSES ‘The modelling mentioned in articles 2.2 to 2.7 are meant to arrive at the design values, which are controlled by the corresponding characterizing design parameters for each model, These design values are representatives of the bridge responses for a system of loads either stationary or moving such as dead load, superimposed dead load, live load, wind load, earthquake loads, temperature effects, etc. These responses should lead to design values, namely Longitudinal bending moment Longitudinal shear Longitudinal twisting moment Transverse bending moment Transverse shear Transverse twisting moment Quewpe 2.8.1 Longitudinal Bending Moment The bending moments which cause flexure in the longitudinal vertical plane is referred to as longitudinal moments and this longitudinal direction mainly corresponds to direction of traffic flow, In case of skew bridges these longitudinal moments are different from the direction of principal moment trajectories. These moments are designated for providing materials in the longitudinal direction, In an orthotropic plate, this will be referred to as one of the orthogonal directions, namely, designated as "x" direction. The cross sectional parameters are primarily chosen to resist the bending moment, The effective width, which will correspond to a resistance of a given constant load, has to be defined. It may be noted that the shear lag effect should not have any substantial effect. 2.8.2 Transverse Bending Moment The bending moments in the direction perpendicular to the flow of traffic is defined as transverse bending moments. In case of an orthotropic bridge deck it will be defined as M,. Depending on the type of load, namely, uniformly distributed load over a zone or a concentrated load at a point and the application of the load within the transverse width, the transverse flexure curvature will be defined. The transverse bending moment will be the effect of this curvature for which the materials have to be provided, Even for transverse bending moment there is an effective width over which the transverse bending moment have to be distributed. Scanned with CamScanner