For Print A Concise Book On Biology For Upper Secondary School Students by Prodeep Paudel

A Concise Book On Biology For Upper Secondary School Students By Prodeep Paudel
A Concise Book On Biology

For Upper Secondary
School Students
Part I
A compilation of lecture
notes
Prodeep Paudel
1
A Concise Book On Biology

For Upper Secondary
School Students
Part I
A compilation of lecture
notes
First Edition: 2020
Copyright: Solely on Author
No of copies: 150
Price: Rs 300
2
In Revered Memory of my Grandmother
Late Tulasi Paudel (1980 B.S. - 2068 B.S.)
It was her perseverance and integrity that helped her thrive during the era
of extreme patriarchal society, and raise us.
I am always inspired by her courage, empathy, self-esteem, gregarious
nature, dexterity, hard work and creativity.
I feel honoured and happy to dedicate this piece of work to her loving
memory.
3
Preface
This book “A Concise Book On Biology For Upper Secondary School Students” is
an attempt at delivering concise concepts (lecture notes) on biology to upper
secondary school students. In addition, I believe that the book will be very helpful to
those fresh graduates who have just transitioned from classroom benches to the fronts
of classrooms as a teacher of Biology.
The book contains updated contents on various topics on biology. Illustrative figures
and tables have been meticulously selected. Possible sample project works on each
lecture topics have been included. I personally believe that the core strength of the
ammended curriculum is that it allows students to participate in different project
works which will help students hone their understandings on their interested topics.
Some of these project works might be extended into businesses in families of the
students or later in the lives of individual students.
The assignment and MCQs following each lecture topics was reluctantly omitted
during the finalization of the book, before it became available in printed form. This
was done in order to increase the affordability of this book to as many students as
possible. However, I will regularly keep updating the assignment and MCQs on each
topics on a regular basis to the valued readers through suitable online platforms.
The readers of this book can also join my facebook group, the link of which I will
send them individually through emails. The links to my own available recorded
lecture videos will also be provided. Via zoom meetings or other similar platforms, at
scheduled intervals, I am also planning to get connected with the readers of this book
so as to give and receive feedbacks.
Biology is a dynamic science and is impossible to learn the topics solely through
static figures and texts in the books. The readers of the book will be sent links to
animations and youtube videos which they might find interesting and supportive in
their studies.
I am very thankful to my family for their invaluable support and inspirations. I am

also thankful to the senior lecturers, colleagues, students, relatives, friends, readers
and all others who have helped me in every possible ways during the preparation of
this book.
Further suggestions from everyone will be gratefully acknowledged and will be

appropriately addressed in upcoming editions.
Prodeep Paudel, M.Sc.

January 13, 2020
4
Contents
Unit 1 (Biomolecules and Cell Biomolecules (Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids,

Biology) Nucleic acids, Minerals, Water Enzymes,)
Cell (Introduction, Prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cell, cell wall, cell membrane, mitochondria,
plastids, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies,
lysosomes, ribosomes, nucleus, chromosomes,
cilia and flagella, cell inclusions)
Cell division (cell cycle, amitosis, mitosis,
meiosis)
Three domains of life, binomial nomenclature,

Unit 2 on Floral Diversity five kingdoms of classification, fungi, Mucor,
Yeast, Mushroom, Lichens, Algae, Spirogyra,
Bryophytes, Marchantia, Pteridophytes,
Dryopteris, Gymnosperms, Pinus, Cruciferae,
Solanaaceae, Fabaceae, Liliaceae)
Unit 3 on Introductory
Microbiology Monera, Bacteria, Cyanobacteria, Virus, Impacts
of biotechnology in the field of microbiology.
Concept of ecology, Ecological factors, Pond

Unit 4 on Ecology ecosystem, Forest ecosystem, Trophic level,
Productivity, Carbon cycle, Nitrogen cycle,
Succession, Xerophytes, Hydrophytes, Green
house effect, Ozone layer depletion, Acid rain,
Biological invasion.
Unit 5 on Vegetation Types of vegetation in Nepal, In-situ and ex-situ

conservations, Natural environment-Vegetation
and Human activities.
5
Lecture 1
Introduction and Functions of Carbohydrates
Biomolecules
Biomolecules are the molecules present in living organisms that are basic and
essential to the life. Biomolecules include both organic compounds (e.g.
carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acids) and inorganic compounds (e.g. water,
mineral and salts).
Carbohydrates:-
They are organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, where the
hydrogen and oxygen are present in the ratio of 2:1 as in water. Thus they are known as
hydrates of carbon. The general formula of carbohydrates can be written as Cn(H2O)n. The
carbohydrates containing ketone group (C=O) are called ketoses, and those containing
aldehyde group (-CHO) are called aldoses.
Classification of carbohydrates:-
Carbohydrates are classified into three groups on the basis of their chemical complexity.
i. Monosaccharides
ii. Oligosaccharides
iii. Polysaccharides
i. Monosaccharides
They are chemically simplest forms of carbohydrate. They can’t be hydrolyzed

(broken down) into smaller carbohydrates. They are highly soluble in water and are
sweet in taste. They are composed of 3 to 7 carbon atoms. For eg:- glucose, fructose,
ribose sugar, deoxyribose sugar etc.
ii. Oligosaccharides:-
Oligosaccharides are those sugars which contain 2 to 10 molecules of

monosaccharides. The monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic bond. Common
oligosaccharides found in nature are disaccharides.
Disaccharides:-
Disaccharides are the simplest oligosaccharides. They are made up of two similar or
dissimilar monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic linkage. On hydrolysis, it
gives monosaccharides. They are soluble in water and sweet in taste.
6
For eg:- maltose (glucose + glucose), lactose (glucose + galactose), sucrose (glucose
+ fructose) etc
iii. Polysaccharides:-
Polysaccharides are the complex molecules made up of more than ten molecules of
monosaccharides that are linked together by glycosidic linkage. On hydrolysis,
polysaccharides release many monosaccharides. They are insoluble in water and not
sweet in taste. For e.g. starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, glycogen, dextrin etc.
Functions of Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are a source of energy.

 Carbohydrates act as building blocks of our body.
 Carbohydrates are structural components of cell wall, RNA, DNA etc.
 Carbohydrates (e.g. starch and glycogen) act as reserve food material.
 They help in synthesis of fats and amino acids.
Project work:
Collect commonly available biscuits, noodles, chocolates and other food items. Check
their labels and list the carbohydrates present in the food items including artificial
sweeteners and preservatives listed along with or without INS (International
numbering system) number. Use this link to help you with your work:
https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-carbohydrates.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starch
Lecture 2
Proteins
Proteins are polymers of different kinds of amino acids. In proteins, amino acids
are linked by peptide bonds. Proteins are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorous.
 Classification of Protein:-
a. Classification of proteins on the basis of chemical nature.
1. Simple proteins :-
These are formed of peptide chains and give only amino acids on
hydrolysis. For e.g. albumin, globulin, histones, protamines etc.
7
2. Conjugated Proteins:-
These are formed by the combination of simple proteins and non-
protein substances (prosthetic groups). For e.g. glycoprotein (protein +
carbohydrate ), lipoprotein (proteins + lipid) , nucleoprotein (protein +
nucleic acid) etc.
3. Derived Proteins:-
These are formed by the partial hydrolysis of simple and conjugated
proteins. For e.g. peptones, proteoses, etc.
b. Classification of Protein on the basis of shape
i. Fibrous Proteins:-
They are thread-like in shape. They are insoluble in water. For e.g. keratin, elastin,
collagen etc.
ii. Globular Proteins:-

They are oval or spherical in shape. They are mostly soluble in water. For e.g.
albumin, globulin etc.
 Structure of protein:-
Proteins have four different structures:-
I. Primary Structure:-
Primary structure of protein is basic, temporary and first-formed structure. In the
primary structure, amino acids are linked only by peptide bonds, so the primary
structure is linear in shape.
II. Secondary structure:-

Secondary structure is formed from primary structure due to the formation of
hydrogen bonds. A hydrogen bond is formed between oxygen of one amino acid and
hydrogen of another amino acid.
III. Tertiary structure:-

Secondary structure is further folded to form 3 dimensional structure which is called
tertiary structure. Tertiary structure is formed due to the formation of covalent bond,
ionic bond, disulphide bond and hydrophobic bond.
IV. Quaternary structure:-

It is the most complex structure of protein. Quaternary structure is formed by two or
more similar or dissimilar polypeptide chains. These polypeptide chains are held
together by hydrogen bond, ionic bond, disulphide bond etc.
8
 Functions of proteins :-
1. Structural proteins like ossein of bone, keratin of hair or skin etc

take part in building or repairing tissues.
2. Enzymatic proteins catalyze various biochemical reactions. For e.g.
pepsin, amylase etc help in digestion of food.
3. Many hormones are proteins that help in regulation of metabolism.
For e.g. insulin regulates sugar metabolism.
4. Transport proteins help in transport of materials. For e.g.
hemoglobin (Hb) helps in transport of O2 and CO2.
5. Plasma proteins such as prothrombin and fibrinogen help in clotting
of blood.
6. Actin and myosin are contractile proteins that help in locomotion.
7. Some proteins act as storage protein. For e.g. casein of milk.
8. Antibodies or immunoglobulins are defensive proteins that fight
against foreign bodies.
9. Rhodopsin and iodopsin are protein pigments present in rods and
cones of retina and help in vision .
10. Protein is a source of energy. (4 kcal/gram)
Project work:
I. Collect the labels of commonly eaten food items (e.g. corn flakes, horlicks, baby foods like
cerelac, sarbottam lito etc, noodles, biscuits, cheese balls etc), bacterial growth media, plant
tissue culture media, protein powder, protein bars and cakes, poultry and cattle feed etc.
List the protein concentration per 10 or 100 grams of the food or feed items.
Check the ingredients of the food or feed items that contain the top three most concentrated
protein in your project.
From your findings, suggest people what they should eat or feed their cattle for the largest
protein intake.
II. Find the amino acid sequence of one of the simplest proteins. Use plastic balls coloured
differently (with labeled amino acids) to show its primary structure. Use binding wires, sticks,
threads or other local materials to show how would the protein look like in its secondary,
tertiary and quaternary structures.
Lecture 3
Introduction and Functions of Lipids
Lipids are the esters of fatty acids and alcohol. Lipids are the group of fats and
fats-like substances. They are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but the
number of oxygen is less compared to carbohydrates. They are insoluble in water,
but are soluble in organic solvents such as alcohol, ether, benzene etc.
Fatty acids:
Fatty acids are the large molecules containing acidic group. The general formula of
fatty acid is R-COOH, where R means hydrocarbon chain.
Types of fatty acid:
9
They are of 2 types:-

1. Saturated fatty acid
2. Unsaturated fatty acid
Differences between saturated and unsaturated fatty acid:
Saturated fatty acid Unsaturated fatty acid
1. They have only single bonds 1. They have one or more than one
between carbon atoms. double or triple bonds between
carbon atoms
2. They have high melting point. 2. They have low melting point.
3. They are most abundant in fats. 3. They are most abundant in oils.
4. For e.g. stearic acid, palmitic acid 4. For e.g. oleic acid, linoleic acid,
etc. linolenic acid etc.
Classification of lipids
Lipids are divided into 3 categories on the basis of chemical composition.
a. Simple lipids
Simple lipids are the esters of fatty acids and alcohol. Simple lipids are divided into 3
types. They are:-
I. Neutral Fats:
 They are the esters of fatty acid(s) and glycerols (glycerides).
 Fats are solid or semi-solid at room temperature.
 They are rich in saturated fatty acids.
 Fats are commonly obtained from animals.
 For e.g. ghee, vanaspati ghee etc.
II. Oils
 They are the esters of fatty acid(s) and glycerols (glycerides).

 Oils are liquid at room temperature.
 They are rich in unsaturated fatty acids.
 Oils are obtained from all plants and some animals.
 For e.g. mustard oil, sunflower oil etc.
III. Waxes
1. Waxes are the esters of long chain fatty acids with long chain monohydric alcohols.
2. Waxes are solid at room temperature.
3. Waxes are found both in animals and plants.
4. For eg:- plant waxes (found in leaves and stems of certain plants), bee’s waxes etc.
10
b. Complex lipids (Conjugated lipids)

When simple lipids combine with other compounds (e.g. carbohydrates, protein,
phosphates etc), they form complex lipids. For e.g. lipoprotein (lipids+ protein),
glycolipid ( lipids + carbohydrate), phospholipids (lipids + phosphate) etc.
C. Derived lipids
These are compounds derived from processing (e.g. hydrolysis) of simple and
complex lipids by. For e.g. glycerol, fatty acids, steroids such as cholesterol etc.
Cholesterol:
It is white, crystalline, steroid alcohol ( C27 H45 OH) that is soluble in fat solvents. It is
found in every animal cell. Normal cholesterol level in human blood is 150 -
270mg/dl. Cholestrol deposits on the inner walls of the arteries resulting in high
blood pressure. Vitamin D, bile acids and sex hormones are synthesized from
cholesterol.
Functions of lipid:-
1. Source of energy
Lipids release large amount of energy (9kcal/gm) after their oxidation.
2. Storage food
Triglycerides are principal food reserve.
3. Formation of carbohydrates
Fats can be converted into carbohydrates (sucrose) during germination of seeds.
4. Heat insulation
Sub-cutaneous fats help in heat insulation.
5. Act as shock-absorbing cushions

Vital organs of the body like eye ball, kidney etc are surrounded by shock-
absorbing cushion of fat.
6. As solvent
Fats act as a solvent for fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K.
7. Formation of sex hormones and vitamin D requires lipids.
8. Lipoprotein can prevent bacterial diseases.
11
Project work:
A. Collect cosmetics and pharmaceutics products such as ointments, handcreams etc, lipsticks,
eye makeup products (e.g. eyebrow pencils, mascara etc), different food and feed items
(e.g. noodles, biscuits, cooking oil etc) and other items you suspect they have fats in them.
Make a list of the lipids contained by each of these products. Also, mention the state of the
lipid at a room temperature.
B. Observe the procedure of making ghee at your home and write a protocol for the
production of ghee so that one of your friends could learn how to make ghee from the milk
by following your protocol.
Lecture 4
Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)
Nucleic acids are the most essential molecules of life. They contain C, H, O, N and P.
Nucleic acid is the polymer of nucleotides. Basically, nucleotide (a nucleoside + a
phosphate molecule) is composed of three components. They are:-
i. Pentose Sugar
ii. Nitrogenous base
iii. Phosphoric Acid
i. Pentose Sugar:-
Two types of pentose sugars are found in nucleic acid. RNA contains
ribose sugar while DNA contains deoxyribose sugar.
ii. Nitrogenous base:-

Two types of nitrogenous bases are found in nucleic acid. They are:-
a. Purines:-
They are two-ringed structural compounds. Purines are adenine
(A) and guanine (G).
b. Pyrimidines:-
They are single-ringed structural compounds. Pyrimidines are
cytosine (C), uracil (U) and thymine (T).
12
A purine is attached to its specific pyrimidine base with hydrogen bond i.e. adenine
(A) binds thymine (T) with two hydrogen bonds, and guanine (G) is attached to
cytosine (C) by 3 hydrogen bonds. They are called complementary base pairs.
iii. Phosphoric Acid:-

It contains a phosphate group. It combines two nucleotides by phosphodiester bond.
 Types of nucleic acid:

The two types of nucleic acids are:-
1. DNA
2. RNA
1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid):-

DNA is located in the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast and cytoplasm. DNA is
a macromolecule formed of several thousand monomers. These monomers are
called deoxyribonucleotides.
Watson and Crick (1953) proposed the double helix model of DNA molecule for
which they were awarded Nobel Prize. The structural features of the model are as
follows:
13
a. DNA consists of two polydeoxyribonucleotide chains spirally twisted around

each other.
b. The deoxyribonucleotide consists of deoxyribose sugar, phosphate and
nitrogenous base.
c. The two strands are anti- parallel.
d. These helical strands have sugar-phosphate chain on outside, whereas
nitrogenous bases lie on the inner side of helix.
e. The distance between two strands is 20 Å.
f. The distance of one complete turn of helix is 34 Å. In one complete turn of
helix, there are 10 nitrogenous base pairs.
g. The distance between two adjacent bases of a strand is 3.4 Å.
h. Purine bases pair with pyrimidine bases i.e. A+T and G+C. Therefore,
number of purine is equal to number of pyrimidine (Chargaff’s rule).
i. The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between
complementary base pairs. The A-T pair has 2 hydrogen bonds and G-C pair has 3
hydrogen bonds.
j. Deoxyribonucleotides in a helix are joined together by phosphodiester bond.
k. There are major and minor grooves along the surface of the DNA molecule.
 Functions of DNA
1. It carries genetic characters from one generation to another.
2. It controls the biological activities of the cell.
3. It synthesizes RNA.
4. It can replicate to form new DNA molecules.
2. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid):-

RNA is generally a single-stranded nucleic acid that acts as genetic material in some
viruses. It is synthesized in nucleus but is found in nucleolus, cytoplasm and
ribosome.
 General characteristics of RNA:-
a. It is single- stranded. It consists of polyribonucleotides.

b. RNA consists of ribose sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous bases.
c. Nitrogen bases in RNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil.
14
d. The ribonucleotides are connected by phosphodiester bonds.

e. Number of purine may not be equal to number of pyrimidine.
 Types of RNA
On the basis of molecular size and functions, RNA is divided into 3 types:-
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA):-
It forms not more than 5% of total RNA present in cell. mRNA

carries genetic information from DNA for protein synthesis.
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):-
It forms about 80% of the total RNA in the cell. It is the major
component of the ribosome. It also provides binding site for the
mRNA on the ribosome during protein synthesis.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA):-

It is also known as soluble RNA. It forms about 10-15% of the total
cellular RNA. It carries amino acid molecules to the site of protein
synthesis.
 Functions of RNA
1. It plays an important role in protein synthesis.
2. It is the hereditary material in some viruses.
Functions of nucleic acids:
1. DNA carries genetic characters from one generation to another.

2. DNA controls the biological activities of the cell.
3. DNA synthesizes RNA.
4. DNA can replicate to form new DNA molecules.
5. RNA plays an important role in protein synthesis.
6. RNA is the hereditary material in some viruses.
Project work:
 Draw a model of DNA using sticks, threads (GI wire), colours and other commonly available
materials.
 Draw a model of RNA using commonly available materials.
 Draw structures of nucleotides, nucleosides, purines and pyrimidines using metallic wire and
other commonly available materials.
15
Lecture 5
Introduction and Functions of Minerals and Water
Minerals
Minerals are the inorganic substances that are present in small amounts (2 - 3% of
the cell) and are essential in metabolism, growth and development of body.
Categories of minerals
Depending upon their concentration required, essential minerals are categorized as
follows:
I. Micronutrients (microelements or trace elements)

The essential elements that are required in very small amounts (less than 10
mmol/kg of dry matter) are called micronutrients. For e.g. manganese, molybdenum,
boron, copper, zinc, iron, nickel etc.
II. Macronutrients (Macroelements)

The essential elements that are required in large amounts (more than 10 mmol/kg of
dry matter) are called macronutrients. For e.g. phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium,
calcium, magnesium etc.
Function of Minerals
1. Nitrogen is necessary for the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids,
chlorophyll etc.
2. Phosphorous is the structural component of ATP, DNA, RNA, protein,

phospholipids etc.
3. Potassium ions involve in opening and closing of stomata in plants,

conduction of nerve impulses etc.
4. Calcium provides rigidity and strength to bones and teeth. It is also

needed in formation of middle lamella and primary cell wall in plants.
5. Magnesium forms structure of chlorophyll pigment.
Water
Water is the most abundant substance in all living organisms. The 60-90 % weight of
organisms is due to water.
Structure of water
Water is composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. The
hydrogen bonds hold together the water molecules.
16
Biological roles of water:-

i. Solvent
Water has power to dissolve many different solutes. So, it is also known as universal
solvent. Water along with nutrients dissolved in it is conducted through xylem
vessels owing to high surface tension and cohesive nature of water.
ii. Digestion
Water is necessary for the hydrolysis of cellulose, protein, lipids etc into their
respecive monomeric forms.
iii. Source of electron

Water provides electron to chlorophyll molecules during photosynthesis.
iv. Movement
Plant movements such as opening and closing of stomata is due to gain and loss of
water.
v.Habitat
A number of aquatic organisms live in water.
vi. Germination of seeds and spores

Water is necessary for the germination of seeds and spores.
Vii. Temperature stabilizer

Large amount of heat can be lost with minimum loss of water. For e.g. perspiration
(in animals) and transpiration (in plants) allows to cool the organism’s body.
Project work:
Design a hydroponics experiment to study the roles of essential mineral elements in
growth and reproduction of plants.
Design an experiment to show that water moves through the xylem vessels in the plants.
Take a piece of meat. Weigh it. Then, dry it in the sun or flame and weigh it. Use the
values to calculate the percentage of water in meat.
17
Take some soil and dry it in the sun or flame. Sow seeds on it. Also, use control experiment
where moist soil is used in sowing seeds. Explain the roles of water in the experiment
after few days.
Design experiment to show transpiration in plants using plastic bag and potted plant.
Lecture 6
Enzymes
Enzymes are commonly proteinaceous substances which are capable of catalysing
chemical reactions of biological origin without themselves being used up. They are
commonly called as biocatalysts.
Characteristics of Enzymes
 Chemically, enzymes are generally globular proteins. (Some RNA molecules

called ribozymes can also be enzymes.)
 The external energy required to start a chemical reaction is called activation
energy. Enzymes reduce the activation energy of the reaction which they
catalyze.
 Many enzymes require a non-protein cofactor to assist them in their reaction.
The protein portion of the enzyme (apoenzyme) combines with the cofactor to
form the whole enzyme or haloenzyme. Some cofactors are ions such as Ca++,
Mg++, and K+. The other cofactors are organic molecules called coenzymes which
serve as carriers for chemical groups or electrons. For e.g. NAD+, NADP+, FAD,
coenzyme A (CoA) etc.
 Anything that an enzyme normally combines with is called a substrate. Enzymes
are very efficient. An enzyme generally can typically catalyze between 1 and
10,000 molecules of substrate per second.

 Enzymes are only present in small amounts in the cell since they are not altered
during their reactions, and they are highly specific for their substrate.

 Enzymes are also affected by the presence of inhibitors. Competitive inhibitors
are similar in shape to the normal substrate molecules and compete with the
substrate for the active site of enzyme. Non-competitive inhibitors bind
permanently to th enzyme causing a change in shape of the active site.

 Enzyme activity is influenced by temperature, pH, concentration of substrates
and enzyme concentration.
18
Factors influencing Enzyme Activity

1. Temperature
An enzyme is active within a narrow range of temperature. Temperature at which
enzyme is most active is called optimum temperature. The enzyme activity decrease
above and below this temperature.
2. pH
Most enzymes work fastest at neutral pH. Some enzymes such as pepsin work best
at acidic pH, while lipase and others work best at alkaline pH.
3. Concentration of Substrate
Increase in substrate concentration initially increases the rate of reaction until all the
enzyme active sites are occupied by the substrate. Further increment in substrate
concentration does not increase the rate of the reaction.
4. Enzyme concentration
Increment in enzyme concentration leads to increment in rate of reaction provided

substrate concentration is not limiting.
Classification of enzymes:
Enzymes are classified into 6 types depending on the chemical nature of reactions
they catalyze.
1. Oxidoreductases
They carry out oxidation or reduction of substrates. For e.g. alcohol dehydrogenase
etc.
2. Transferases
They carry out transfer of functional groups between two or more substrates. For e.g.
hexokinase etc.
3. Hydrolases
They carry out breakdown of substrate molecule in the presence of water.For e.g.
lipase etc.
3. Lyases
They carry out breakdown of bonds in substrate molecule without presence of water
or they carry out formation of bonds between molecules without presence of ATP.
For e.g. aldolase, fumarase, pyruvate decarboxylase etc.
4. Isomerases
19
They carry out transformation of one chemical isomer into another. For e.g. triose
phosphate isomerase, phosphoglucose isomerase etc.
5. Ligases
They carry out formation of chemical bonds between substrates if ATP is present.
For e.g. succinate thiokinase, pyruvate carboxylase etc.
Functions of enzymes:
I. Enzymes help in digestion of macromolecules. For e.g. lipase and pepsin help in
digestion of fats and protein respectively.
II. Enzymes help in generating energy. For e.g. ATP synthase helps in ATP (energy
currency of cell) generation.
III. Many enzymes are involved in cellular metabolism. For e.g. glycolytic enzymes
are involved in glycolysis.
IV. Purified enzymes are used to diagnose and treat diseases.
V. In industries, enzymes are used to breakdown macromolecules such as sugars,

pectin, lipids, proteins etc. Enzymes are also used in manufacture of detergents.
VI. Enzymes help in signal transduction and aid in cellular communication. For e.g.
protein kinases catalyze protein phosphorylation and induce cellular response.
Project work:
1. Visit local pharmacist’s shop and ask him to provide you some medicines that contain enzymes in
them (for e.g. digestive aids). List the enzymes in the medicine and ask the pharmacist the indication
for its use.
2. Visit the laboratory section of a polyclinic or a hospital. Ask the laboratory personnel to provide
you with the literature of the tests that uses enzymes for disease diagnosis. If possible, ask him/her to
demonstrate how the test is performed. Discuss with them the significance of making such tests.
3. Collect infant feed products, detergents and find out what enzymes are used in making them or is
actually there. Write the purpose of such enzymes. Also, find out the ways to prove that they have
actually worked or are there.
20
Lecture 7
Introduction to Cell
Cell:
Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. The cell may be
defined as the unit of biological activity delimited by a selectively permeable
membrane and capable of self-reproduction.
Discovery of the cell:

i. In 1590, Jansen discovered compound microscope.
ii. In 1665, Robert Hooke introduced the term cell after he discovered cells in a
slice of cork.
iii. In 1674, Antony Van Leeuwenhoek observed bacterial cells, the first living
plant cells in spirogyra and other cells.
iv. In 1831, Robert Brown observed nucleus of plant cells.
v. In 1839, Purkinje introduced the term protoplasm.
vi. In 1855, Rudolph Virchow stated that cells arise from pre-existing cells.
The cell theory:

The combined views of Schleiden and Schwann led to the formulation of the cell
theory in 1839. The statements of cell theory are:
1. All living organisms are made up of cells.

2. Cells are the structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
3. All cells arise from pre- existing cell.
4. All cells are basically alike in chemical composition.
5. Cells contains hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell
division.
6. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.
However, cell theory does not apply for all organisms and exceptions of cell theory
include:
1. Viruses are the living organisms which lacks the cellular organization.
2. Bacteria and blue green algae lack true nucleus.
3. Some lower plants like Mucor, Vaucheria, Rhizopus etc are coenocytic i.e. contain
more than one nuclei in a cell.
21
The Cellular Totipotency

Haberlandt first stated that every living plant cell should be able to regenerate a whole
plant. The potential of every vegetative cell of a plant body to grow into a new plant is
known as cellular totipotency.
The experiment conducted by Steward and his co-workers to understand the concept
of cellular totipotency is described below:
Fig: Steward’s experiment on cellular totiptency in carrot
i. They took small pieces from phloem tissue of carrot roots composed of
mature non-dividing cells.
ii. They put these pieces in a liquid nutrient medium having coconut milk.
iii. By gently shaking the medium, the cell clusters became free from one
another.
iv. Some of the cells multiplied and formed root clumps.
v. Cell clusters (embryoid) with roots were then transferred to culture tubes
containing a semi-solid medium of the same composition.
vi. A new plant was formed from the embyoid. The newly developed plant when
transferred into pots developed into a flowering plant.
From the experiment, Steward et. al concluded that even mature cells, when separated
from the plant body, have the capacity to develop into new plants. This was referred
to as cellular totipotency.
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UNICELLULAR AND MULTICELLULAR ORGANISM:
1. Unicellular organisms:
 Organisms which are made from just one cell are known as unicellular organisms.
 Their single cell performs all metabolic functions such as growth, respiration,
digestion etc.
 Their cell is generally large in size.
 Their cell possesses power of division.
 Any injury to the cell may lead to the death of the organism.
 For example: amoeba, Euglena etc.
2. Multicellular organisms:
 Organisms which are made from many cells are called multicellular organisms.
 Their single cell performs one or few functions. Each cell cannot perform all the
activities.
 A number of cells work together in a co-ordinated and an efficient manner. For e.g.
muscle cells coordinate to pump the heart.
 Their cells are smaller in size.
 Some dead cells e.g. xylem vessels have special functions.
 They have great capacity to survive as dead cells are continuously replaced by the
new cells.
 For example: Spirogyra, human beings, Pinus etc.
STRUCTURE OF CELL:
There are two types of cells on the basis of cell organelles and organization of DNA.
1. Prokaryotic cell:
Fig: Prokaryotic cell
23
A cell in which genetic material is not enclosed by a membrane to form an organized

nucleus and also lacks the membrane bound cell organelles is known as prokaryotic
cell.
Characteristics of Prokaryotic cells

i. They are primitive type of cells.
ii. Membrane bound cell organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplast, golgi

bodies etc are absent
iii. Cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan.
iv. Ribosomes are of 70S type.
v. Respiration occur by cytoplasmic membrane.
vi. Nucleus lacks nuclear membrane, nucleolus and nucleoplasm.
vii. Their genetic material is a circular double stranded DNA. The DNA is not
bound by basic histone protein.
viii. Plasmid is present.
ix. Centrioles are absent.
x. Mitotic cell division is absent.
xi. Cytoplasmic streaming does not occur.
xii. Chlorophyll, if present, is located in lamellae, not in chloroplast.
xiii. For example: Bacteria and Cyanobacteria (Nostoc, Anabaena, Lyngbea etc.)
Project Work:
1. Try to replicate Steward’s experiment at your home or school laboratory. If you do not succeed,
enlist the reasons for it. If you succeed, write a protocol that you followed to replicate the
experiment.
2. Observe cells from different plants, animal parts (e.g. throat swab, cheek cells etc), human blood,
human urine and stool, drinking water, spermatozoans in semen, cow dung and all other available
cells under the microscope. Write the common findings you see in all these types of cells.
3. Observe the temporary or permanent slides of at least one unicellular organism and cells of a
multicellular organism under a microscope. Write the differences between the cell types.
24
Lecture: 8
2. Eukaryotic cell:
Eukaryotic cell is a well-organized cell which possesses membrane bound organized
nucleus and all other cell organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
golgi complex and so on.
Characteristics of eukaryotic cell

i. They have true nucleus i.e. nuclear membrane and nucleolus are present in
nucleus.
ii. Basic histone protein binds the DNA.
iii. Membrane bound cell organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, plastids,

mitochondria, chloroplast, lysosome, etc. are present.
iv. Ribosomes are of 80S type.
v. Cell wall, if present, is made up of cellulose or chitin.
vi. Plasmid and pili are absent.
vii. Cell division takes place by mitosis, meiosis and amitosis (eg in Paramecium,
amoeba)
viii. Centriole is present in animal cells.
ix. Photosynthesis occurs inside chloroplast in photosynthetic eukaryotes.
x. Respiration occurs in mitochondria and cytoplasm.
xi. Cytoplasmic streaming occurs.
xii. For example: plant cells, animal cells, amoeba etc.
Structure of Eukaryotic Cells
A. Plant cells
25
Their characteristics include:
i. Cell wall is made up of cellulose.

ii. Plastids are present.
iii. They have large central vacuole.
iv. Centriole is absent.
v. Nucleus is pushed to one side in the peripheral cytoplasm by vacuole.
vi. Cytoplasm divides by cell plate formation method.
vii. Plant cells are capable of forming all the amino acids, co-enzymes and
vitamins.
B. Animal cells
26
Their characteristics include:
i. The cell wall is absent. The cell is enclosed by a plasma membrane.

ii. Plastids are absent.
iii. Vacuoles are either small or absent.
iv. Cytoplasmic division takes place by furrow formation.
v. Centrioles are present.
vi. Nucleus lies near the centre.
vii. Animal cells cannot form all the amino acids, co-enzymes and vitamins.
Detailed Structure of Eukaryotic Cells
1. Composition, Structure and Functions of Cell wall
Cell wall is outermost, thick, rigid, protective and supportive layer found in all plant
cells, bacteria, cyanobacteria, fungi and some protists (e.g. algae). It is non-living and
permeable in nature.
The plant cell wall consists of following layers and structure (plasmodesmata):
1. Middle lamellae:
It is thin cementing layer between two adjacent plant cells and is formed
during cell division. It is composed of pectates of calcium and magnesium.
2. Primary wall:
It is found inner to the middle lamella. It is made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin. It is elastic, comparatively thin and permeable.
3. Secondary wall:
The secondary wall is laid down on the primary wall when the latter has
finished its growth. It is thick, rigid, inelastic and thick. This layer is
chemically made up of lignin in addition to cellulose, hemicellulose and
pectin.
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4. Plasmodesmata:
The primary cell wall and middle lamella never occur in continuous layers, but
have a minute aperture through which cells of the tissue maintain cytoplasmic
relation with each other. Such cytoplasmic bridges are known as
plamodesmata.
Functions of cell wall:

1. It gives mechanical support to the cell and plant as a whole.
2. It gives definite shape to the cell due to its rigidity.
3. It protects inner content of cell from mechanical injuries and checks the entry of
germs.
4. Cell wall of root hairs absorbs water and minerals from the soil.
5. Being permeable in nature, it allows exchange of substances through it.
6. Cutin and suberin present in cell wall of stems and leaves help them reduce the rate
of transpiration.
Project work:
1. Prepare models of plant cell, animal cell and cell wall using locally available materials. (Use tether
model for primary cell wall structure for your comfort.)
2. Prepare an analysis report on the usage of cell wall for a diverse benefits to mankind. Some
examples on the usage include manufacture of paper from wood pulp, production of biofuel etc. At
the end, write a paragraph on why research on cell wall structure should move ahead even at a faster
rate than ever before.
Lecture 9
Structure, Composition and Functions of Cell Membrane
(Plasma membrane or Plasmalemma)
Plasma membrane is thin, transparent, electron microscopic, elastic and selectively
permeable structure that forms a barrier between cytoplasm inside the cell and the
environment outside the cell. It is also known as cell membrane.
The plasma membrane and all the membranes covering various cell organelles present
inside the cell have same ultra structure and are collectively called biomembranes.
Chemical composition of cell membrane:

Cell membranes are lipo-proteinaceous in nature. They are chiefly composed of lipids
(about 40% by weight), protein (about 50% by weight) with some carbohydrates
(about 10% by weight). The three main lipid constituents of cell membranes are
phospholipids, glycolipids and sterol. The membrane contains three different classes
of proteins, i) structural proteins, ii) enzymes and iii) carrier proteins.
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Structural models of plasma membrane:

Several models have been proposed to explain the organization of plasma membrane.
A few of them are explained below:
A. Sandwich Model:
This model was proposed by Daniell and Davson. It states
that:
i. Plasma membrane is a lipoproteinous, trilaminar membrane. A

phospholpid bilayer is sandwiched between outer and inner globular
protein monolayers.
ii. Phospholipid is a polar molecule with hydrophilic head and hydrophobic

tails.
iii. Heads of phospholipid molecules are directed in opposite directions and

are associated with protein molecules by mainly electrostatic
ineractions. The fatty acid tails of two layers face each other and are
held by weak Van der Waals force
Drawbacks:
i. It does not explain the functional specificity and variability in the
biomembranes.
ii. It does not explain active transport and movement of water-soluble
substances.
B. Fluid-Mosaic Model:
Fluid mosaic model is widely accepted model proposed by Singer and

Nicholson in 1972. It states that “plasma membrane is formed of protein
icebergs in a sea of lipids”. The important features of this model are as
follows:
29
i. Plasma membrane in lipoproteinous.
ii. Phospholipid bilayer is fluidy in nature, and two types of movement

occur:
a. Transition movement (molecules change their position within the
same layer)
b. Flip flop movement (molecules of two layers can be interchanged)
iii. Proteins are globular and are of two types:

a. Extrinsic or peripheral proteins (lie outside the outer surfaces of
outer and inner phospholipid layer)
b. Intrinsic or integral proteins (partially or fully embedded in the
phospholipid bilayer)
iv. Each phospholipid molecule is a polar molecule with a hydrophilic head

of glycerol and hydrophobic tail of fatty acids.
v. Heads of phospholipid molecules of two layers are directed in opposite

directions while tails of two layers face each other.
vi. Oligosachharides (glycolipids or glycoproteins) located on outer surface

of plasma membrane help in cellular interaction, cell recognition,
blood grouping, immune response etc.
Function of plasma membrane:

1. Plasma membrane is selectively permeable. It allows only selected substances pass
through it.
2. It protects the cell from injury.
3. Transportation of materials takes place through plasma membrane by different
processes e.g. diffusion, osmosis etc.
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4. It functions as receptor site for various stimuli such as hormone, antigen etc.
5. Endocytosis, a process by which large sized solid or liquid materials are taken
inside the cell, occur through plasma membrane.
6. Pseudopodia are modified cell membrane in amoeba, W.B.C. of blood,
macrophages etc which help in locomotion.
Project work:
A. Use locally available materials to prepare a fluid mosaic and sandwich models of plasma
membrane.
Lecture 10
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are known as power house of cell because a huge amount of energy is
liberated in the form of ATP during aerobic respiration.
They are absent in prokaryotes but are present in all eukaryotic cells except mature
mammalian RBCs.
The mitochondria may be rod-shaped, filamentous, somewhat spherical, oval,

globular, cylindrical, sausage-shaped, spiral or cup-shaped and are able to change
their shapes.
Ultrastructure of mitochondria
Mitochondria are bounded by two membranes; the outer and inner membrane. The
space between two membranes is called the outer chamber which is filled with watery
fluid known as intermembrane matrix. The space enclosed by the inner membranes is
called inner chamber. It is filled with a matrix which contains insoluble inorganic salts,
ribosome (70S type), double stranded circular naked DNA etc. The enzymes of
Kreb’s cycle are located in the matrix.
The outer membrane is smooth whereas the inner membrane is folded inward to form
finger-like projection called cristae which increases surface area of cellular respiration.
Associated with cristae, there are several thousands small tennis racket-like small
particles known as oxysomes. Each oxysomes consist of head, stalk and base. On the
31
head of oxysomes, ATP synthase is present which is an enzyme responsible for the
synthesis of ATP. Therefore, oxysomes are also known as ATP particles and are the
functional unit of mitochondria.
Functions of mitochondria
1. Mitochondria are known as power house of the cell as these are sites of
ATP formation.
2. Few amino acids e.g. glutamic acid, aspartic acid etc are synthesized in
mitochondria.
3. They regulate calcium ion concentration inside the cells.
4. They help in yolk formation during the development of ovum.
5. They form middle piece of sperm during sperm maturation.
6. They are the site of synthesis of haeme of hemoglobin and myoglobin.
Project Work:
Prepare a model of mitochondria using locally available materials.
Prepare a model of ATP production in oxysomes. (consultation with the teacher required for this
project)
Lecture 11
Plastids
Plastids are the double membrane bound cell organelles of plant cells. They are absent
in animals, fungi, bacteria and blue green algae (BGA). They may be colourless or
coloured.
Plastids are of three types according to the structure, pigments and functions. They are
chloroplast, chromoplast and leucoplast. One form of the plastid can change into
another form. For example, in young tomato fruit, leucoplast gradually change into
chloroplast and finally into chromoplast.
Chloroplast:
They are the most common type of plastid found in green parts of plants. They are
commonly called kitchen of the cell because food is prepared in it using
carbondioxide and water in presence of sunlight in a process known as
photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts are found in all light-exposed photosynthetic cells of plants. They are
also found in some protists, e.g. Euglena.
The shape of chloroplast varies widely. In higher plants, chloroplasts are generally
biconvex or plano-convex. In other plant cells, it may have shapes such as
filamentous, ovoid, discoid, spheroid, star-like, spiral ribbon-like,
cup-shaped etc.
Ultrastructure:
32
Chloroplast is bounded by two membranes. Internally, it is filled with matrix known

as stroma. The matrix contains DNA, RNA, 70S ribosomes, water, minerals and
enzymes. It is the site of dark reaction of photosynthesis. In stroma,
chlorophyll-bearing sac-like structure called thyllakoids or lamellae are present. The
group of thyllakoids is called granum. Each granum consists of 2 - 100 thyllakoids
placed one above the other like stack of coins. The grana are interconnected by a
network of stroma lamellae. The thyllakoid membrane contains all the enzymatic
components required for photosynthesis. They are the site of light reactions of
photosynthesis.
Functions:
1. The most important and fundamental function of chloroplast is photosynthesis and
it is also known as kitchen of cell.
2. They evolve oxygen for respiration of all the aerobes, and keep balance of oxygen
and carbondioxide.
3. They prevent global warming by reducing carbondioxide concentration.
4. They provide green colour to the plant parts.
Leucoplast:
They are colorless plastid found in storage organ where light is not available (for e.g.
underground stem, roots and meristematic cells). They also possess double-layered
membrane and contain granular matrix. They possess few lamellae and changes to
chloroplasts on exposure to sunlight.
Functions:
33
1. Leucoplasts are mainly concerned with the storage of reserve food materials
like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins etc.
Chromoplast:
They are the colored plastids which contain the variety of pigments other than green.
They are found in coloured parts of the plants such as flowers, fruits, leaves etc. They
also contain the color pigments like carotene (orange or brown), xanthophyll (yellow
or orange), anthocyanin (violet, purple, blue, brown and red flower) etc. They are not
photosynthetic due to lack of chlorophyll.
Chromoplasts are bounded by double-layered membrane which encloses matrix or
stroma, but there is no lamellae and grana.
Functions:
Chromoplasts make flowers and fruits showy and attractive to invite insects
and animals, which help in pollination and dispersal of seeds.
Project work:
A. Prepare a model of chloroplast using locally available materials.
B. Write an essay on “Consequences of sudden chloroplast removal from all photosynthetic

organisms on Earth”. (If you are interested on this essay, please review evolution of life that you study
in your Zoology classes)
Lecture 12
Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER)
It is a well-developed electron microscopic network of interconnected cisternae,
tubules and vesicles present throughout the cytoplasm.
It is present in all eukaryotic cells except germinal cells and mature mammalian
RBCs.
It is an extensive network of three kinds of structures described below:
1. Cisternae:
34
They are long, flattened, sac-like, narrow, two layered and unbranched tubules found
near the nucleus. They lie one upon the other and are interconnected. The outer
surface of cisternae bears ribosomes.
2. Vesicles:
They are oval, membrane-bound vacuolar structures that often remain scattered in the
cytoplasm.
3. Tubules:
They are tubular and branched structure forming reticular system along with cisternae
and vesicles. They are present near the cell membrane. They are without ribosomes
and are more in lipid forming cells.
Depending on the nature of its membrane, endoplasmic reticulum are of two types:
i. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER):
 It does not bear ribosomes over its membrane.

 It mainly consists of tubules.
 It involves in the synthesis and storage of lipids.
 They are mainly found in lipid forming cells.
ii. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER):
 It bears ribosomes over its membrane.

 It mainly consists of cisternae.
 It is involved in protein synthesis.
 It is mainly found in protein-forming cells.
Functions:
1. They act as cell circulatory system and help in the transport of materials.
2. They acts as cytoskeleton and provide the mechanical support and shape to the cell.
3. They help in cell plate formation during the cytokinesis.
4. They involve in synthesis of glycogen, lipid and protein.
5. They take part in detoxification of toxic chemicals.
Golgi complex (Golgi apparatus or Golgi bodies)
Golgi complex is present in all eukaryotic cells except mature mammalian RBCs,
sieve tube of phloem etc.
It is pleomorphic and the shape depends upon the functional state of the cell.
35
Under electron microscope, the golgi body consists of four smooth membranous
compartments viz. cisternae, vacuoles, vesicles and tubules.
i. Cisternae:
They are elongated, double-layered, flattened, curved, sac-like,
unbranched structure. They have dilated ends. They are piled one upon the
other.
ii. Vacuoles:
Vacuoles are spherical and lie towards the maturing face or concave side
of cisternae.
iii. Vesicles:
The small vesicles are intimately associated with the convex surface of the
cisternae. Vesicles are of two types: a. Smooth vesicles and b. Coated
vesicles.
iv. Tubules:
They are short, branched, filamentous, interconnected structures developed
on the peripheral sides. They interconnect with different cisternae.
The golgi body has a definite polarity. Its concave side is always directed towards the
cell membrane while its convex side is towards the nucleus. The golgi body is formed
from the plasmalemma, nuclear envelope and endoplasmic reticulum.
36
Functions:
1. It takes part in the cell plate formation during the cytokinesis in the plant cell.
2. It helps in the synthesis of pectic substance of the cell wall.
3. It helps in the formation of primary lysosome.
4. It helps in the formation of hormones in the endocrine cells, e.g. thyroxin in thyroid
gland cells.
5. It chemically modifies cell proteins, lipids and sterols.
6. It stores, condenses, packages and secretes the cellular materials.
7. Acrosome of sperms is formed by the golgi body.
Project work:
A. Prepare a model of ER. (Include SER and RER, location with respect to nucleus and golgi body and
other considerations).
B. Prepare a model of golgi body (include polarity of golgi body).
C. Write a story on design of protein on nucleus to its formation on RER and then movement through
golgi bodies before it reaches its final destination. What do you think why this happens such stepwise
inside the cell factories? (It is a bit difficult project, and demands voracious reading on relevant
materials. Wait till we study about ribosomes and nucleus so that you will better understand the
story. You can ignore the project if you do not feel comfortable in dealing with it.)..
Lecture 13
Lysosomes:
It is an electron microscopic, single membrane bounded small vesicles containing 40
different hydrolyzing enzymes such as proteases, lipases, nucleases, glycosidase etc.
When the lysosomal membrane is ruptured, the enzymes are released out in the cell
cytoplasm where it digests the cellular contents leading to cell death. Therefore,
lysosomes are known as suicidal bag of the cell.
Lysosomes are present in eukaryotic animal cells (except mammalian RBCs), yeasts,
Euglena etc.
Lysosomes show polymorphism and can be divided into four types on the basis of
nature of the matrix:
Fig: Different types of lysosomes
37
1. Primary lysosomes:
They are newly formed lysososomes either from golgi complex or
endoplasmic reticulum. They have inactive digestive enzymes.
2. Secondary lysosomes:
When the primary lysosome fuses with the other vacuoles containing
extracellular or intracellular materials, it is called secondary lysosome. They
contain ingested food and digestive enzymes.
3. Autophagosomes:
Autophagosomes are formed when the cell feeds on its intracellular organelles
such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum etc by the process of autophagy.
They are formed during deficiency of food.
4. Residual bodies:
They are the lysosomes with only undigested food. These are generally thrown
out of the cell by exocytosis.
Functions:
 Lysosomes take part in both intracellular and extracellular digestion of food.
 Lysosomes of WBCs destroy foreign proteins, toxic substances and
pathogenic microorganisms.
 Old and useless organelles are digested by lysosomes.
 DNAse of lysosomes may cause gene mutation causing diseases like
leukemia.
Ribosomes:
The ribosomes are dense, electron microscopic, rounded, granular organelles attached
either on rough endoplasmic reticulum or floating freely in cytoplasm. They are the
sites of protein synthesis and are known as protein factory of the cell.
Ribosomes are found in all cells, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic (except mature
sperm and RBCs).
Each ribosome is made up of two unequal sub-units, one large and another small
subunit which join at the time of protein synthesis only. Both subunits are made up of
ribonucleoprotein particles. At the time of protein synthesis, many ribosomes are
attached to a single strand of mRNA like beads on a string which is known as
polysome or polyribosome.
38
Types of ribosomes:
Based on the sedimentation coefficient, ribosomes are divided into two types. They
are:
1. 70S ribosomes:
They are smaller in size and are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Their subunits are 30S and 50S. They are also known as organelle ribosomes
because they occur in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
2. 80S ribosomes:
They are found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. Their subunits are 40S
and 60S.
Functions of ribosomes:
i. They are the site of protein synthesis.
ii. They provide the site for the attachment of tRNA and mRNA during protein
synthesis.
iii. They also store proteins temporarily.
Project Work:
A. Prepare a video where you teach one of your friends about lysosomes. You can use
models, boards, chart drawings, animated videos, relevant applications (e.g. zoom), mobile
videos or other videography tools.
B. Write an essay on “The effects of sudden disappearance of ribosomes from the cells”.
Record your essay on recording device and send or share with your friends and teacher.
Lecture 14
Nucleus:
Nucleus is the important component of the cell which contains all the genetic
information, and controls all cellular metabolism. So, it is called brain of the cell.
Nucleus is generally rounded. It may also be oval or elliptical in shape.
Nucleus is found in all eukaryotic cells except mature mammalian RBCs, phloem
sieve tube, tracheids and xylem vessels.
39
An interphase nucleus consists of four different structures;

1. Nuclear membrane
2. Nucleoplasm
3. Chromatin reticulum
4. Nucleolus
1. Nuclear membrane:
It is composed of two membranes i.e. outer and inner membranes. These two
membranes are separated by perinuclear space. The membranes are lipoproteinous.
The outer membrane bears ribosomes, and is also connected with ER. A number of
pores occur in the nuclear envelope, which helps in transfer of substances between the
nucleus and cytoplasm.
2. Nucleoplasm:
It is transparent, semi-fluid matrix present inside the nucleus. It consists of nucleotide,
sugar, minerals, enzymes etc.
3. Chromatin reticulum:
40
In nucleoplasm, there are thin, long, thread-like structures called chromatin fibres.
They are actually elongated chromosomes. They overlap one another to form a
network called chromatin reticulum. Chromatin has two regions:
a. Heterochromatin:
The darkly stained condensed region of chromatin is called heterochromatin. It
contains large amount of RNA and small amount DNA.
b. Euchromatin:
It is true chromatin and is lightly stained, diffuse region of the chromatin. It
contains relatively large amount of DNA.
.
4. Nucleolus:
A nucleolus is membrane-less, dark, spherical body found in nucleoplasm. It
contains nucleoprotein and RNA.
Nucleolus performs the following functions:
 Synthesis of rRNA.
 Formation of ribosomes.
 Formation of spindle fibres.
Functions of nucleus:
i. It controls all the cellular activities of the cell.
ii. It takes part in formation of ribosomes.
iii. It controls the synthesis of structural proteins.
iv. It controls the synthesis of enzymatic proteins and thus controls cellular
functions.
v. It contains the genetic material.
Project Work:
A. Draw a model of nucleus using locally available material. In addition, use models
of euchromatin and heterochromatin, made using thread or bending wires, inside
the nucleus as chromatin.
B. Write a script for a documentary on the basis of sights you will find if you could
travel from the outside of the nucleus to its interior parts. Use the real names of
structures and explain them using your own language.
Lecture 15
Chromosomes:
Chromosomes are long, thin, thread-like structure composed of DNA and protein.
They are found in nucleus and are the carrier of gene or unit of heredity. Though
number of chromosomes varies from one species to other, it is constant for a
41
particular species. For example, humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, whereas

onions have 8 pairs of chromosomes.
The chromosome is defined as the coloured body of nucleus. During metaphase of

cell division, the chromosomes become short and compact with definite shape and
size. Chromosomes are composed of DNA, protein and a small amount of RNA. The
electron microscopic structure of a chromosome includes the chromonema,
centromere, secondary constriction II, nucleolar organizer, telomere and satellite.
i. Chromonema:
The metaphasic chromosome appears to be made up of two subunits called
chromatids. Each chromatid consists of two subchromatids known as the
chromonema.
ii. Centromere:
The chromosome has a constricted region called the centromere or primary
constriction. Four categories of chromosomes are recognized depending on
the position of the centromere. They are:
42
a. Metacentric chromosomes:
The centromere is situated in the middle position of chromosome
which divides the chromosome into two equal halves.
b. Submetacentric chromosomes:
In such chromosomes, the centromere is located slightly away from the
centre and the chromosome has two unequal halves resembling
L-shape.
c.Acrocentric chromosomes:
In acrocentric chromosomes, the centromere is subterminal in position
and chromosome appears rod-like having one smaller arm in
comparison to the other.
d. Telocentric chromosomes:
In telocentric chromosomes, the centromere is located at the tip of
chromosome. Therefore, the chromosome has only one arm.
iii. Secondary constriction II:

The constrictions in chromosomes apart from primary constriction are
known as secondary constriction II. The secondary constriction represents
sites of breakage and subsequent fusion.
iv. Secondary constriction I (Nucleolar organizer):

The constriction near one end of chromosome is called secondary
constriction I. It is also known as nucleolar organizer because it is
necessary for the formation of nucleolus.
v. Satellite:
The part of the chromosome beyond the nucleolar organizer is very short
and appears like a sphere called satellite.
vi. Telomere:
The tips of the chromosomes are called telomeres. The telomeres differ in
structure and composition from the rest of the chromosome. It prevents the
ends of the chromosomes from sticking together.
Functions of chromosomes:
 Chromatin fibres contain DNA which acts as genetic material.

 They control the synthesis of structural as well as enzymatic
proteins.
 The changes in DNA produce variations.
43
Project Work:
A. Using colored threads and other locally available materials, prepare a model of
metaphasic chromosome.
B. Using thread and an adjustable bulbous structure, prepare a model to illustrate the
different types of chromosomes on the basis of position of centromere.
Lecture 16
Cilia and Flagella:
Cilia and flagella are microscopic, hair or thread like motile structures present
extracellularly. Cilia are found in ciliated protozoans (eg Paramecium) etc while
flagella are present in flagellated protozoans (eg Euglena), sperms of bryophytes
and pteridophytes, etc.
Ultrastructurally, both cilia and flagella share similar identical internal structure
though latter is longer than the former. They consist of a pair of central
filaments surrounded by nine peripheral filaments (9 + 2 arrangement). This
bundle of filaments is called an axoneme which is surrounded by thick
protective coat, continuous with plasma membrane.
Functions of cilia and flagella:

 They help in locomotion of cell or organism.
 They create current for obtaining food from aquatic medium.
 Non-motile cilia act as sensors in cells. For e.g. they sense urine flow in
kidney.
 Cilia of nephrons move nephric filtrate.
 Cilia in respiratory tract help in elimination of solid particles from it.
 Flagella helps bacteria adhere to host tissue and colonize it.
Cell inclusions:
Due to metabolic activities in the cell, several non-living substances are produced in it
which are known as cell inclusions. They include proteins, starch grains, latex,
44
mineral crystals, inulin, fats, sugars, oils, pigments etc. They are categorized into
three types. They are:
i. Reserve food materials:
Reserve food materials are organic compounds that are synthesized in cells
and stored in solid or liquid form. They are later on utilized as food. They
are either nitrogenous (e.g proteins) or non-nitrogenous (eg starch,
cellulose, inulin, sugars, fats and oil, glycogen).
ii. Secretory materials:

Secretory materials are chemical compounds which are secreted by
protoplasm in small quantities to perform special functions. For example,
nectar, enzyme, hormone, vitamins, pigments etc.
iii. Excretory materials:

Excretory materials are the by-products of plant metabolism and are of no use to the
plants. In plants, amount of excretory material is very high owing to absence of
excretory system in them. Some examples include alkaloids, organic acids, gums,
tannins, essential oils, latex etc.
Project Work:
A. Observe the motility of a motile microorganism (e.g. bacteria, paramecium,

euglena, antherozoids etc) under the microscope. Next, write an impression notes
describing the patterns of movement, speed and direction of movement and other
movement descriptions.
B. Visit a botanical garden or an area containing few species of plants (e.g. forest,
fruit garden etc). Take photos of few plants (as a whole and its parts separately) that
have cell inclusions in them. Use different apps to recognize the plant (if needed).
Then, write the type of inclusions (and its specific name if possible) you detected.
Lecture 17
CELL DIVISION:
Cell division is the process of formation of more than one daughter cell from a mother
cell. Cell division involves nuclear division (karyokinesis) and cytoplasmic division
(cytokinesis).
Cell cycle:
45
All those changes which occur during the cell division and cell growth are
collectively known as cell cycle. A cell cycle consists of three main stages:
1. Interphase
2. M- phase or mitotic phase
3. Cytokinesis
1. Interphase:
It is the stage between the end of one cell division and the beginning of another cell
division. Metabolically, it is very active phase of the cell division as the cell prepares
itself for the next cell division by a number of biosynthetic activities. Interphase is
further divided into three sub-phases:
i. Gap one (G1) phase:
This phase is characterized by the increase in cell size due to high rate of synthesis of
RNA, protein, carbohydrates and lipids.
ii. Synthetic or S phase:
 Replication of DNA molecules
 Synthesis of histones
 Actual duplication of chromosomal material
iii. Gap two or G2 phase:
 Synthesis of spindle proteins.
 Synthesis and storage of ATP molecules for M-phase.
 Duplication of cell organelles (mitochondria, plastids and centrioles)
46
2. M-phase or mitotic phase:

It follows the interphase and involves the division of the nuclear material
(karyokinesis). The division of nucleus occurs in four main stages- prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
3. Cytokinesis:
It involves division of cytoplasm. It results in the equal distribution of organelles and
cytoplasm in each daughter cells.
Types of cell division:

A cell may divide by any of the following three methods:
1. Direct cell division (amitosis)
2. Indirect cell division (mitosis)
3. Reductional cell division (meiosis)
1. Direct cell division (amitosis):
It is simple and primitive type of cell division. Amitosis is the means of asexual
reproduction in some protozoans, bacteria, yeast etc. Following events occur in the
process:
i. The nucleus first elongates and constricts in the middle.

ii. Elongation of nucleus divides it into two daughter nuclei.
iii. Simultaneously, cytoplasm is divided into two equal halves.
Project Work:
A. Prepare a circular chart (using chart paper, card board or other materials)
representing the various stages of cell cycle. Note that the chart should be
freely rotating. In addition, it should contain all the major changes written
on it along with attractive diagrams.
B. Prepare a model of amitotic cell division using locally available material.
47
Lecture 18
2. Indirect cell division (mitosis):
Mitosis is a kind of cell division in which a mother cell divides into two daughter
cells each having equal number of chromosomes as in the mother cell. Therefore, it is
also called equational cell division. It takes place in somatic or vegetative cells.
Mitosis occurs in three stages. They are:
a. Interphase
b. Karyokinesis
c. Cytokinesis
a. Interphase:
Interphase is the stage between the two successive cell divisions. The stage looks
restive but is metabolically very active.
The features of this stage are:
 Nucleus has intact nuclear membrane and distinct nucleolus.
 Chromosomes appear in the form of diffused, long and coiled chromatin
fibers.
 DNA of chromosomes is duplicated.
 RNA and protein synthesis takes place.
 Cell organelles eg mitochondria, plastid etc are duplicated.
b. Karyokinesis:
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It is the process of the division of the nucleus. The division of the nucleus comprises 4
stages:
i. Prophase
ii. Metaphase
iii. Anaphase
iv. Telophase
i. Prophase:
This is the first visible step in the nuclear division in which following changes take
place in the nucleus:
 Chromosomes appear short, thick and rod-shaped having two chromatids
joined by a common centromere.
 Chromosomes are irregularly distributed throughout the nucleus.
 The centrioles move and come to lie on the two opposite sides of the nucleus.
 At the end of prophase, nuclear membrane and nucleolus completely
diasappear and spindle fibres start to appear.
ii. Metaphase:
Metaphase is characterized by:
 Formation of spindle fibres is completed.

 All the chromosomes are arranged in an equatorial plane of the cell.
 Centromere gets attached with spindle fibre.
 Chromosomes are distinctly visible, thus they can be counted and their shape
and size be determined.
iii. Anaphase
This phase is also called migratory phase which is characterized by:
 The centromere of each chromosome is splitted into two so that each
chromatids have their own centromeres, and daughter chromosomes are
formed.
 Daughter chromosomes with only one chromatid migrate towards the opposite
poles by the contraction of spindle fibres.
 The arms of the chromosomes are directed towards the equatorial region and
the centromere towards the pole.
 Chromosomes appear J, U or V shaped.
 The anaphase ends when all the daughter chromosomes reach the opposite
poles.
iv. Telophase:
It is also known as re-organization phase which is characterized by:
 Chromosomes elongate and overlap one another to form chromatin fibres.
 Spindle fibers disappear.
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.
49
 Two daughter nuclei are formed at each pole.
CYTOKINESIS:
Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm to form two daughter cells. It occurs after
nuclear division. It occurs by two methods:
A. Cell plate formation method:

In plant cells, cytokinesis occurs by cell plate formation. The equatorial part of
spindle enlarges and gets interdigitated with microtubules to form a complex
called phragmoplast. Next, small vesicles produced by golgi complex gather
on equatorial phragmoplast to form cell plate (future middle lamella).
B. Peripheral furrowing method:

Furrowing method of cytokinesis occur in bacteria, fungi and animal cells. In this
method, peripheral cleavage furrow occurs gradually in between two daughter nuclei.
The furrow deepens and when the edges of the furrow meet in the centre of the cell,
the protoplasm is divided into two daughter cells.
Significane of mitosis:
 Mitosis is responsible for growth and development of zygote into adult in
multicellular organisms.
 It keeps the chromosome number constant and produces genetically identical
cells.
 It provides new cells for repair and regeneration of lost parts and healing of
wounds.
 It helps in asexual reproduction by fragmentation, budding etc.
50
Project Work:
A. Using chart paper, colored threads, adhesives and other locally available material, prepare a
model chart of mitotic cell division and cytokinesis.
Lecture 19
Reductional cell division (Meiosis):
It is the type of cell division in which one matured and diploid mother cell produces
four daughter cells; each having half the chromosome number than normal mother
cell. So, it is also called reductional division.
It takes place in reproductive cells at the time of gametes or spores formation. It
comprises two cell divisions: meiosis I and meiosis II.
Meiosis I:
The meiosis I division is also known as reductional division as it involves the
formation of two daughter cells with just half the chromosome as that present in the
mother cell. It is divided into:
A) Karyokinesis I
B) Cytokinesis I
A) Karyokinesis I:
It involves the division of nucleus and is divided into four phases:
1. Prophase I
2. Metaphase I
3. Anaphase I
4. Telophase I
1. Prophase I:
It is a very complex and long phase distinguished into five successive sub-phases.
i. Leptotene
ii. Zygotene
iii. Pachytene
v. Diplotene
vi. Diakinesis
i. Leptotene:
Leptotene is called as thin-threaded stage. It involves the following events:
51
 Size of the nucleus increases.

 Shortening and thickening of chromosomes take place.
 The ends of all the chromosomes are directed towards a small area on one side
of the nucleus appearing like a bouquet. So, this stage is called bouquet stage.
 Each chromosome consists of two chromatids bounded tightly, appearing
thread-like.
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus remain intact.
ii. Zygotene:
It involves the following events:
 Further shortening, thickening and coiling of chromosomes take place.

 Homologous chromosomes start pairing.
 The process of pairing of homologous chromosomes is known as synapsis.
 The paired homologous chromosomes are known as bivalent.
 A nucleoproteinous complex, called synaptonemal complex, is formed
between the homologous chromosomes.
Pachytene:
Following events occur in this phase:
52
 The bivalents show shortening and thickening and become more distinct.
 Each homologous chromosome splits longitudinally except in the centromere
region into two sister chromatids and bivalents appear as tetrads.
 Crossing over takes place. Crossing over is a process of an exchange of
genetic material between non-sister chromatids of each tetrad.
 The nucleolus remains prominent.
Diplotene:
It involves following events:
 The homologous chromosomes start separating because they uncoil and repel
each other.
 The homologous chromosome still remain attached at certain points along
their length. These points are known as chaismata.
 The nuclear membrane and nucleolus start disappearing.
53
Diakinesis:
It involves following events:
The chiasmata moves towards the ends of the chromosomes. This type of movement
of chiasmata is known as terminalization of chiasmata.
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear completely.
The spindle fibres begin to appear.
Project Work:
Using locally available materials, prepare a well-decorated chart of
Prophase I of meiosis I.
Lecture 20
2. Metaphase I:
 The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear and the spindle formation is
completed.
 Bivalents arrange themselves in two parallel equatorial plane.
 Bivalents are attached to the spindle fibre by their centromeres.
54
3. Anaphase I:
 The homologous chromosomes separate from one another and move

towards opposite poles due to contraction of spindle fibres.
 The centromere of chromosome does not divide and two chromatids of
each chromosome remain joined together by centromere.
 The two groups of haploid chromosomes are formed on each pole of the
cell. So, this phase involves the reduction of chromosome number.
4. Telophase I:
 Nuclear membrane and the nucleolus reappear.

 Each pole receives the one haploid set of chromosome having two chromatids.
 The chromosomes become elongated and uncoiled.
 Spindle fibres disappear.
B) Cytokinesis I:
It may or may not be present. When present, it occurs by cell-furrow
formation in animal cells and cell plate formation in plant cells. The nucleus of
each daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes than the mother cell.
Interkinesis:
55
It is the period between meiosis I and meiosis II. It is similar to

interphase but DNA synthesis does not occur.
Meiosis II:
It is also called equational division because the number of chromosomes remains the
same as after meiosis I. It is divided into two parts: A) Karyokinesis II B) Cytokinesis
II
A) Karyokinesis II:
It is divided into four phases:
1. Prophase II
2. Metaphase II
3. Anaphase II
4. Telophase II
1. Prophase II:
The chromosomes become shorter and thicker and are clearly visible.
Each chromosome consists of two chromatids attached to single centromere.
The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear while spindle fibres appear.
2. Metaphase II:
56
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are absent.

 The chromosomes get arranged on an equatorial plane.
 The centromere of each chromosome is attached with the spndle fibres
from both the poles.
3. Anaphase II:
 The centromere of each chromosome divides longitudinally into two. So,

there is one centromere for one chromatid.
 The sister chromatids move towards the opposite poles due to
contraction of spindle fibre.
 The separated chromatids are now called chromosomes.
4. Telophase II:
 Chromosomes elongate and uncoil to form chromatin fibres.

 Spindle fibres disappear.
 The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.
B) Cytokinesis II:
Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm. It occurs by two methods: i) Successive
method and ii) Simultaneous method. In successive method, there is cytokinesis after
meiosis I too.
i) Successive method:
57
In this method, each karyokinesis is followed by cytokinesis.
ii) Simultaneous method:

In this method, cytokinesis takes place after meiosis II. Four haploid cells
are formed only at the end of meiosis II.
Significance of meiosis:
i. Meiosis maintains a constant number of chromosomes in the organisms by
reducing the number of chromosomes of the diploid germ cells into the
haploid gametes.
ii. It provides a way for the segregation and independent assortment of genes.
iii. Crossing over produces new combination of gene resulting in variation in
organisms.
iv. It helps in alternation of generations of haploid and diploid generations of
plants and animals.
v. Polyploid forms occur due to failure of meiosis, which may lead to
speciation.
Project Work:
Using chart paper and other locally available materials, prepare a well-decorated chart
of Meiosis II.
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Lecture 21
Floral Diversity
Introduction:
Floral diversity includes variation in distribution of all species of plants, and their
genetic constituents, ecosystems and ecological processes. The term floral diversity
refers to the totality of genes, species and ecosystems in a specified region or area. It
includes diversity of plants within species, between species and among ecosystems.
Three Domains of life

Domain is a taxonomic group or unit above the category kingdom. Carl Woese et. al
developed the three domains of life that include Archae, Bacteria and Eukarya
mainly on the basis of unique rRNA.
Archaea:
Archaea (Archaebacteria) are the simplest and most primitive prokaryotic forms of
life living in extreme environmental conditions. They are considered as the oldest
living fossils. The characteristics of Archaea are as follows:
I. They have prokaryotic type of cell structure.

II. They are unicellular.
III. Their cell membrane is made up of branched hydrocarbon chains attached to
glycerol by ether linkage.
IV. Cell wall is made up of polysaccharides and proteins.
V. They contain 16s rRNA.
VI. 70S ribosomes are present.
Types of Archaea
On the basis of metabolic and ecological properties, archaea are classified as follows:
1. Methanogens (Methane producing bacteria)

They convert formic acid or CO2 to methane. For e.g. Methanobacterium etc.
2. Thermoacidophiles
They can tolerate very high temperature and high acidity. For e.g. Thermoplasma
etc.
3. Halophiles
They can survive in highly saline habitat. For e.g. Halococcus etc.
Bacteria:
Bacteria (eubacteria or true bacteria) are prokaryotic organisms having
peptidoglycan in their cell wall. The characteristics of bacteria are as follows:
1. They are prokaryotic unicellular organisms.
59
2. The cell membrane is made up of unbranched fatty acid chains

attached to glycerol via ester linkages.
3. They contain 16s rRNA.
4. Membrane bound cell organelles such as mitochondria, golgi
body, endoplasmic reticulum etc are absent.
5. Cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan.
6. Ribosomes are of 70s type.
Types of bacteria:
Bacteria are of following types:
1. Proteobacteria (e.g. E. coli, S. typhi etc)
2. Cyanobacteria (e.g. Nostoc, Anabaena etc)
3. Eubacteria (e.g. Clostridium, Vibrio etc)
4. Chlamydia (e.g. Giardia, Chlamydia etc)
5. Spirochaetes (e.g. Spirochaete etc)
Eukarya
Eukarya are eukaryotes having well-defined nucleus and membrane-bound cell
organelles. Their characteristics include:
I. They are eukaryotic organisms.

II. The cell membrane is made up of unbranched fatty acid chains
attached to glycerol via ester linkages.
III. They contain 18s rRNA.
IV. Membrane bound cell organelles such as mitochondria, golgi
body, endoplasmic reticulum etc are present.
V. Cell wall, if present, is made up of cellulose and chitin.
VI. 80S ribosomes are found in their cytoplasm.
Types of Eukarya
Eukarya are sub-divided into following kingdoms.
1. Protista
They are unicellular eukaryotes. For e.g. protozoans, diatoms, slime molds etc.
2. Plantae
They are multicellular, eukaryotic producers. For e.g. bryophytes,
pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms and most algae.
3. Animalia
They are multicellular, eukaryotic consumers. For e.g. all animals except
protozoa.
4. Mycota (Fungi)
They are multicellular, eukaryotic decomposers. For e.g. yeast, mushroom
etc.
60
Scientific naming system (Binomial nomenclature)

The scientific name of any species consists of two parts that is generic name
and specific name. Such system of naming of organisms is known as binomial
nomenclature.
Rules of binomial nomenclature

1. Naming of an organism is given in two words, i.e generic and specific
name.
2. Generic name starts with capital letter and others are small letters,
where as all letters of specific name are small.
3. The scientific name is underlined in hand-written form and italic in
printed form.
4. The name of author is used in full or abbreviated after the specific
name. For e.g. Mangifera indica Linn. where Linn. is abbreviated form
of Linnaeus.
Advantages of binomial nomenclature

1. The scientific name of an organism is universal.
2. The nomenclature shows evolutionary relationship among various
species under the same genus.
3. The scientific name makes the communication easier in the
different parts of the world.
4. It helps in the identification of newly discovered organisms.
Project Work:
I. Preserve at least 10 small plants (available on your surroundings) on a

wooden frame or chart paper, and write their common and binomial
nomenclature underneath each of them.
II. Construct a rotating wheel of three domains of life. In another rotating

wheel, write their characteristics (mixed up). Next, practice matching the
domain characteristics with one or more of your friends.
Lecture 22
Five Kingdom system of Classification:-
Robert H. Whittaker (1969) divided all living organisms into five
kingdoms on the basis of complexity of cell, body structure,
phylogenetic relationship, ecological role and mode of nutrition. This
system is known as five kingdom system of classification.
The five kingdoms of five kingdom system are:-
1. Monera
2. Protista
3. Mycota
4. Plantae
5. Animalia
61
 Monera Kingdom:
General characteristics of monera include:-
i. They are unicellular, microscopic, prokaryotic organisms.
ii.They are found in all types of habitats.
iii. They contain incipient nucleus.
iv. They have rigid cell wall.
v.Nutrition may be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
vi. Sexual reproduction is absent.
vii. They are known as decomposers.
For eg:- Cyanobacteria (blue green algae), bacteria
etc.
Protista Kingdom
General characteristics of protista kingdom are:
i.All organisms of this kingdom are unicellular eukaryotes.

ii. Reserve food is either starch or glycogen or fats.
iii. Locomotion takes place by flagella, cilia or pseudopodia.
iv. Mode of nutrition is autotrophic or heterotrophic.
v. Reproduction takes place by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods.
vi. They perform all ecological roles in ecosystem i.e. producer, consumer
or decomposer.
For eg:- Euglena, Plasmodium sp., slime moulds, diatoms etc.
Mycota Kingdom:-
General characteristics of mycota are:-
1. They are very large and diverse group of

achlorophyllous organisms.
2. They are non-vascular, non-flowering, non-seeded,
eukaryotic organisms.
3. Vegetative body is made up of numerous filaments.
62
4. They have heterotrophic mode of nutrition

(saprophytic, parasitic or symbiotic form).
5. Cell wall is made up of chitin (fungal cellulose).
6. Reserve food material is in the form of glycogen and
fats.
7. They reproduce by vegetatively, sexually and asexually.
For eg:- Saccharomyces sp., Mucor, mushroom etc.
Plantae Kingdom
General characteristics of plantae kingdom are:
1. It includes all photosynthetic, multicellular
eukaryotic organisms.
2. They have photo-autotrophic mode of nutrition
3. They are the producers of the environment.
4. They grow throughout their life.
5. They do not show locomotion as their bodies are
generally fixed to the substratum.
6. The cell is surrounded by cellulosic cell wall.
7. Reserve food material is starch.
8. Reproduction occurs by vegetative, sexual and
asexual methods.
9. They show very slow response towards external
factors.
For eg:- Spirogyra, Marchantia, Pinus, maize, etc.
Animalia Kingdom:
General characteristics of animal kingdom are:
1. They are multicellular eukaryotic consumers.
2. They show movement or locomotion.
3. They reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods.
4. They generally have heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
5. They are the consumers of the environment.
6. Reserve food material is glycogen or fats.
7. Cell wall is absent.
8. Organs are internal.
9. They show quick response towards external stimuli.
For eg:- sponges, mammals etc.
Advantages of five kingdom system of classification

A. Prokaryotes are kept under monera and eukaryotes under other
kingdoms.
B. Unicellular eukaryotes are kept under protista and multicellular
eukaryotes under other kingdoms.
C. Autotrophic organisms are kept under plantae and heterotrophic
organisms are placed under animalia and mycota.
D. Producers are placed under plantae, consumers under animalia and
decomposers under mycota.
63
E. Phylogenetic and evolutionary characters of organisms are mentioned.
Disadvantages of five kingdom system of classification

A. No places for viruses and lichens.
B. Archaebacteria differ from bacteria in their structure and physiology, but
they are kept together under monera kingdom.
C. It is very hard to differentiate between protistan algae (diatoms) and algae
under plantae kingdom.
D. There is a heterogenous grouping of organism in kingdoms monera and
protista in reference to their mode of nutrition and ecological roles.
E. Slime moulds do not fit into kingdom protista.
Status of flora in Nepal and world representation

Though Nepal occupies only 0.03% of land area of the world, it is rich in
biodiversity mainly because of variations in topography, edaphic
conditions, climatic conditions and altitude.
Nepal is rich in floral diversity and hosts about 3.2% of the world plants.
Limited studies and researches is preventing us from learning the exact
number of flora in Nepal. The following table depicts the recent estimates
of flora in Nepal.
S.N Group No.of species in the No.of Species in Nepal

world
1 Bacteria 30000 Not Recorded
2 Lichens 17000 850
3 Algae 56579 1001
4 Fungi 98998 2467
5 Bryophytes 16236 1213
6 Pteridophytes 12000 580
7 Gymnosperms 1021 41
8 Angiosperms 369400 6973
Project Work:
64
I. Prepare two rotating wheels with names of five kingdoms on one and
names of some of their examples in the other. Practice matching the
organisms to their kingdoms in a pair (with one of your friends).
II. Write an essay on floral diversity in Nepal. Use recent data and the
mention the references.
Lecture 23
Fungi (Mycota)
Fungi are a large, divergent, achlorophyllous, non-vascular heterotrophic spores

producing thallophytic organisms with distinct cell wall of chitin and glycogen or fats
as reserved food.
Some terminology
i. Hyphae:- It is a part of the vegetative portion of a
fungus that resembles thread- like structure.
ii. Mycelium:- It is a loose network of the delicate
filament called hyphae that form the body of
fungus.
iii. Coenocytic:- Cells that contain many nuclei, not
separated by cell wall is known as coenocytic.
iv. Monokaryon:- Cells having single nucleus.
v. Dikaryon:- Cells having two nuclei in it.
General Characteristics of Fungi:-

1. The vegetative body of fungus is thallus. The thallus consists of
long, branched filament called hyphae. The mass of hyphae is mycelium.
2. Fungi are non-green organisms which lack chlorophyll. So, they
have heterotrophic mode of nutrition. They are saprophytic parasitic or
symbiotic.
3. They are non-vascular eukaryotic organisms.
4. They are mostly multicellular except yeast which are
unicellular.
5. Cell wall is made up of fungal cellulose or chitin.
6. Reserve food materials is in the form of glycogen and oil.
7. They reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods.
8. Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation, budding,
fission etc.
9. Asexual reproduction takes place by aplanospores (non-motile,
thin-walled spores produced in sporangium), mitospores {zoospores
(thin-walled, uninucleate motile spores formed in the zoosporangium),
conidia (non-motile, thin-walled exogenous spore produced in a
65
conidiophore), chlamydospore (thick-walled resistant spore formed from

terminal or intercalary cells)} or meiospores {ascospores (non-motile
spores produced inside an ascus), basidiospores (non-motile spores
produced exogenously on club-shaped basidium)}
10. Sexual reproduction occurs in three stages; plasmogamy,
karyogamy and meiosis. Sexual reproduction takes place by gametic fusion
{isogamy (fusing gametes are similar morphologically but differ
physiologically), anisogamy (fusing gametes differ both morphologically
and physiologically), oogamy (fusion between non-motile, large female
egg and smaller, active male sperm), spermatization (unicellular,
uninucleate, non-motile, male cells called spermatia are carried to
female gametangia to form a dikaryon), somatogamy (gametes are
absent so fusion between undifferentiated vegetative cells of the same
thallus or two different thalli occur), etc}
11. For e.g. Rhizopus, Mucor, yeast etc.
Classification of Mycota:-
On the basis of organization of vegetative thallus, morphology of
reproductive structures, the way of spores production and particular life
cycle involved, the kingdom mycota is classified into two divisions:-
myxomycotina and eumycotina. The members of eumycotina are known as
true fungi and are divided as follows:-
1. Phycomycetes (includes Oomycetes (Oogamous fungi) and
Zygomycetes (Conjugation Fungi))
2. Ascomycetes (Sac fungi)
3. Basidiomycetes (Club fungi)
4. Deuteromycetes (Fungi imperfecti)
1. Phycomycetes:
Phycomycetes is divided into oomycetes and zygomycetes.
A. Oomycetes (Oogamous fungi) :-

Their general characteristics are:-
i. Oomycetes ranges from a primitive unicellular thallus to a
profusely branched filamentous mycelium.
ii. Most of them are parasitic plants.
iii. Formation of biflagellate zoospores occur during asexual
reproduction.
iv. Sexual reproduction takes place by oogamous type that takes
place by gametangial contact and results in the formation of
oospore (2n).
v. Gametes are non-flagellated.
vi. For eg:- Phytophthora, Pythium etc.
B. Zygomycetes (Conjugation Fungi)
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i. They are mostly saprophytic.

ii. Vegetative body is coenocytic.
iii. Cell wall is made up of fungus cellulose or chitin.
iv. Flagellate structures are absent.
v. Asexual reproduction commonly takes place by
sporangiospores formation.
vi. Sexual reproduction takes place by conjugation of gametangia
resulting in zygospore production.
vii. For eg:- Mucor, Rhizopus etc.
2. Ascomycetes (Sac fungi)

i. They are saprophytic or parasitic
ii. They have well-developed, branched, septate mycelium except
yeast. Yeast is a unicellular fungus.
iii. Asexual reproduction takes place by non-motile conidia, oidia
or chlamydospores.
iv. Sexual reproduction takes place by gametangial copulation,
gametangial contact and other ways.
v. Ascus contains haploid ascospores.
vi. The asci are grouped to form definite multicellular structure of
fruiting body called ascocarp.
vii. For eg:- Penicillium, Saccharomyces (Yeast), Aspergillum etc.
3. Basidiomycetes (Club fungi)

i. They can secrete cellulose and lignin-digesting enzymes, so
they are best decomposer of wood.
ii. Mycelium is well-developed, branched and septate.
iii. Mycelium are of two types:- primary mycelium and secondary
mycelium.
iv. Asexual reproduction takes place by conidia, arthrospores,
chlamydospores etc.
v. Sexual reproduction takes place by conjugation of two nuclei of
different strains.
vi. Meiosis occurs in club-shaped structure called basidium.
vii. Four haploid basidiospores are formed on each basidium.
viii. The basidia are grouped to form definite multicellular structure
of fruiting body called basidiocarp.
ix. Flagellate structures are absent.
x. For eg:- Agaricus (edible), Amanita (poisonous) Puccinia,
Ganoderma etc.
4. Deuteromycetes (Fungi Imperfecti)

i. They are saprophytic and parasitic.
ii. Hyphae is well-developed, septate and branched.
iii. Reproduction takes place by fragmentation, arthrospores, conidia
etc.
iv. Sexual reproduction is either absent or unknown.
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v. For eg:- Alternaria, Trichophyton, Fusarium etc.
Project Work:
I. Prepare 3 rotating wheels with names of fungal class in one, names of fungus in other and one or
two points of unique characteristics of a fungal classes in other. Now, play the game with one of your
friends.
Lecture 24
Mucor (Dung mould or Pin mould):-
Mucor is a saprophytic fungus and occurs on bread, jam, cheese and other organic
materials.
Morphology:-
The vegetative body consists of long, cylindrical, branched, coenocytic mycelium.
The septa formation takes place in old hypae at the base of sporangiophore.
Structure of hyphae:-
Each hyphae is covered by rigid, single-layered hyphal wall made up of chitin.
Cytoplasm is surrounded by plasma membrane. Cytoplasm consists of golgi body,
mitochondria, ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum and other organelles. Large number
of nuclei are scattered in the cytoplasm. Mucor consists of three kinds of hyphae.
i. Prostrate hyphae:-
This type of hyphae spread over the substratum.
ii. Sub-terranean hyphae:-

These hyphae are much branched and penetrate the substratum.
iii. Aerial hyphae:-

These hyphae are also called sporangiophore which bear sporangia at their tips for
asexual reproduction.
Reproduction:-
Reproduction takes place by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods.
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1. Vegetative method of reproduction:-

It takes place by fragmentation. In this process, hyphae break up into small pieces
accidentally or by decay. Under suitable condition, each fragment give rise to new
mycelium.
2. Asexual reproduction:-
During favorable conditions of temperature and moisture, Mucor reproduces
asexually by sporangiospore, chlamydospore or by oidia formation.
a. By sporangiospore:-
Sporangiospores are non-motile, oval to spherical spores produced in sac-like
structure called sporangium. Sporangium are formed at the tip of each
sporangiophore after swelling is produced due to collection of protoplast. The
central vacuolated protoplasm produces a dome-shaped structure called columella.
The outer cytoplasm undergoes cleavage and form large number of spores
(sporangiospores). On maturity, sporangial wall burst and spores are released out.
Under the suitable conditions, the spores germinate to form germ tube and then
develop into hyphae. The hyphae grows in all directions and forms mycelium.
b. By chlamydospore:-
During unfavorable conditions (scarcity of food and moisture), the mycelium
becomes septate and the protoplast of hyphae forms round, thick-walled structure
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in chain. These structures are called chlamydospore. On return of suitable condition,

each chlamydospore give rise to a new mycelium.
c. By oidia (arthrospores):-
In some species of Mucor, when the hyphae are grown in high concentration of
sugar, the hyphae become septate and thin-walled short segments are separated.
Such segments are called oidia. Under the favorable condition, they give rise to
mycelium.
3. Sexual Reproduction:-
Sexual reproduction in Mucor takes place by conjugation during unfavorable
conditions (e.g. when food supply is scanty). During sexual reproduction, two hyphae
of different strains (different mating types) come close together and form
club-shaped progametangia. Each progametangium develops the septum and forms
gametangium and suspensor. Each gametangium forms a single, non-motile,
multinucleated coenogamete. The contact wall present between the opposite strains
of gametangia dissolves and the coenocytic gametes fuse together to form a diploid
zygospore.
Germination of zygospore:-
Zygospore germinates after a resting period. The diploid nuclei of zygospore divides
by meiosis into 4 haploid nuclei. Out of them, only one is functional and divides
mitotically to form many haploid nuclei of only one strain (positive or negative but
not both) . The protoplast swells up. The zygospore wall breaks. The swollen
protoplast comes out in the form of upright hyphae called promycelium. The tip of
promycelium swells up and forms germ sporangium (zygosporangium). The germ
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sporangium develops uninucleate, non-motile haploid germ spores. The germ spores
later are dispersed by air currents. On germination, the germ spores grow into a new
mycelia of Mucor.
Economic Importance of Mucor

i. Some species of Mucor are utilized in alcohol fermentation.
ii. They help in decaying of organic matter and make soil fertile.
iii. They cause rotting of fruits and vegetables.
iv. Some species of Mucor cause mycosis of internal organs.
v. They are responsible for spoiling of bread, jam, leather etc.
Project Work:
I. Grow Mucor on moist bread. Then, stain and view the fungus under the
microscope. Also, draw the diagram of Mucor as seen under the microscope.
Lecture 25
Yeast
They are saprophytic fungus found in organic matter (milk, sugarcane, fruits etc) all
over the world. Some species are parasitic to plants and animals. Yeasts are
non-mycelial, unicellular, spherical, oval or cylindrical eukaryotic fungi. In case of
rapid budding, it produces a long chain and looks like a mycelium called
pseudomycelium. Cell wall is made up of chitin. It is rigid and protective covering.
Cytoplasm is surrounded by plasma membrane inner to the cell wall. Cytoplasm
contains endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, golgi body, ribosomes food vacuoles
etc. The reserve food material is in the form of glycogen and oil globules.
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The nucleus lies at one end of vacuole. From the nucleus, dark-stained fine threads
of unknown significance are spread over the surface of vacuole.
Reproduction: -
Yeast reproduces by vegetatively, asexually and sexually.
1. Vegetative reproduction:
Yeast reproduces vegetatively by budding and fission.
I. Budding:-
During this process, the nucleus of mother cell divides amitotically to form
two daughter nuclei. Small protuberance develops on the surface of
vegetative cell in the form of bud. After maturation, bud behaves as a new
individual. During rapid growth, it forms a chain-like structure called
pseudomycelium.
II. Fission:-
A somatic cell of yeast elongates and its nucleus divides into two. The two
nuclei move apart and then partition wall is farmed at the middle of the cell.
The newly formed cells are separated and act as a new individual.
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2. Asexual reproduction:-
Asexual reproduction takes place during unfavorable conditions by
endospore formation. During this process, the protoplast of the vegetative
cell divides into 4 parts. Each part later becomes surrounded by a thick wall
and act as endospores. They remain dormant to withstand the adverse
condition. On return of favorable condition, the endospores germinate to
produce chain of yeast cell.
3. Sexual reproduction:-
Sexual reproduction is induced by food scarcity. On the basis of type of
vegetative cells involved in sexual reproduction and dominant phase in life
cycle (haploid or diploid phase), there are 3 different types of sexual life
cycle.
a. Haplobiontic life cycle:-

It occurs in Schizosaccharomyces octosporus. In this type, haploid phase in
extensive than diploid phase. Somatic cells are haploid and these cells behave
as gametangia. These cells come in contact and the contact wall is dissolved
producing conjugation tube. The nuclei pass through the conjugation tube
and fusion occur to produce diploid zygote.The diploid zygote grows and acts
as an ascus. The diploid nucleus divides meiotically to produce 4 haploid
nuclei. They again divide mitotically to form 8 haploid nuclei. Protoplast
collects around the haploid nuclei and produce ascospores. After maturation,
ascus wall ruptures and ascospores are liberated out. They grow in size
functioning as somatic cell.
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b. Diplobiontic life cycle:-

It occurs in Saccharomycodes ludwigii. In this type, somatic cells are diploid and
diploid phases are extensive and longer than the shorter haploid phase. During
unfavorable condition, the diploid somatic cell directly acts as an ascus. The nucleus
undergoes meiosis and forms four haploid nuclei which develops into four
ascospores. The ascospores (without being liberated) act as gametangia and fuse
within ascus producing diploid zygote. Zygote germinates by producing germ tube
which breaks the ascus well and forms sprout mycelium . The sprout mycelium
produces several diploid somatic cells.
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C. Haplodiplobiontic life cycle

Saccharomyces cerevisiae shows haplodiplobiontic life cycle. In this life cycle, both
haploid and diploid phases are equally extensive and important. During sexual
reproduction, the haploid cells of opposite mating types after fusion i.e. plasmogamy
and karyogamy give rise to diploid cells, and thus initiate the diploid phase. At the
end of diploid phase, the diploid nucleus undergoes meiosis to form 4 haploid nuclei
of two opposite mating types. All the 4 nuclei develop into ascospores of two mating
types (+ve and -ve). After the lysis of the accus wall, these ascospores develop into
new vegetative cells.
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Economic importance of yeast

i. It helps to convert carbohydrates into alcohol.
ii. Yeast is used in baking industries to make bread.
iii. Yeast can synthesize protein, fat and vitamins.
iv. Some yeast cells are used in the treatment of skin diseases.
v. Many species of yeast spoil food.
vi. Some yeast causes diseases to plants and animals.
Project Work:
I. Using yeast powder, sugar and other locally available resources, prepare alcohol at your home or at
the school laboratory. (Please search for youtube videos for similar projects).
II. Using rotatory wheels made up of cardboard or other suitable materials, present the three
different sexual life cycles of yeast.
Lecture 26
Mushroom
Mushroom is a saprophytic fungus with basidiocarp as a fruiting body and forms
basidiospores on basidium. It grows abundantly on decaying organic matters of
forests, moistened straw, decaying woods etc.
Structure of Mushroom
Mushroom has vegetative mycelium lying inside the soil and aerial fruiting body or
basidiocarp.
A. Vegetative mycelium
The mycelium of mushroom is septate, multicellular and branched. It is of following
two types:
1. Primary mycelium:
Hyphae of primary mycelium are monokaryotic. It originates after the germination of
uninucleate basidiospores. Basidiospores can be either +ve or -ve type producing
respective type of short-lived primary mycelium.
2. Secondary mycelium:
Positive and negative type of hyphae of primary mycelia fuse together to form
dikaryotic secondary mycelium. It is abundant and long-lived.
B. Basidiocarp (Fruiting Body)

The mature basidiocarp is differentiated into rhizomorph, stipe, pileus and annulus.
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1. Rhizomorph:
It is made up of interwoven mass of secondary mycelium that lies below the
substratum. It is attached to the base of stipe.
2. Stipe:
It is a stem-like sterile part of basidiocarp connecting lower rhizomorph with the
upper pileus. Hyphae run longitudinally parallel to each other. Compactly arranged
hypahe called cortex lie peripherally, whereas loosely arranged hyphae called
medulla lie centrally.
3. Pileus:
It is the broad, fertile, uppermost, umbrella-shaped cap-like structure. Numerous
plates of gills (lamellae) are present on the lower side of pileus. T.S. of gill shows the
structures; trama, sub-hymenium and hymenium.
I. Trama:
It is the central part of the gill which is made up of loosely arranged interwoven mass
of plectenchymatous tissue of long and slender hyphae.
II. Sub-hymenium (Hypothecium):

It is made up of rounded compact cells in the gills of mushroom present in between
trama and hymenium.
III. Hymenium (Thecium)

It is the outermost layer and lies on the surface of sub-hymenium covering. Cells of
hymenium emerge out and develop a palisade like layer consisting of basidia and
paraphyses. As the basidium grows, two nuclei of basidium fuse to form diploid
nucleus which immediately undergoes meiosis and form four haploid nuclei. Each
haploid nucleus develops its own cytoplasm and cell membrane, and forms
uninucleate basidiospore. Thus, four haploid basidiospores are formed in a basidium.
Out of these four basidiospores, two are +ve strains and two are -ve strains. There is
also development of four narrow tube-like structures from the top of the basidium
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called sterigmata. Each mature basidiospore is attached obliquely at the top of the
sterigmata.
Types of Mushrooms
Mushrooms can be broadly categorized into edible and poisonous mushrooms.
1. Edible Mushrooms:
The mushroom species that do not cause health complications after they are eaten
are called edible mushrooms. For e.g. Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus etc.
2. Poisonous Mushrooms:
The mushrooms that cause health complications when consumed are poisonous
mushrooms. They can cause death within 3 to 6 days of consumption. The
mushroom poisoning symptoms include breathing problems, diziness, diarrhoea,
dehydration and vomiting. For e.g. Amanita phalloides, Gyromitra esculenta etc.
Edible mushrooms can be distinguished from poisonous mushrooms on the

following bases:
A. Warts or scales on the cap:

Edible mushrooms generally have smooth whitish caps with no visible warts or scales,
but poisonous mushrooms have coloured cap with conspicuous scales.
B. Cap shape:
Annulus is present in edible mushrooms but not in poisonous ones.
C. Base stem:
The edible mushrooms have narrow stem base, but poisonous mushrooms usually
have large, swollen bulbous base.
D. Gills:
Gills of edible mushrooms are attached to the cap but not to the stalk. In contrast,
gills of poisonous mushrooms are attached to the stalk. The young pink gills of edible
mushroom changes its colour to brown or black upon maturation. However, white
gills of poisonous mushroom never changes its colour.
E. Smell
Edible mushrooms generally have pleasant smell. But poisonous mushrooms
generally have bad or foul smell.
Economic importance of Mushrooms

I. Basidiocarps of edible mushrooms are rich in proteins, vitamins and minerals.
II. Mushrooms have higher content of antioxidants (ergothioneine and glutathione).
III. They are the source of vitamin D and B12.
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IV. They strenghten immune system owing to the presence of vitamins A, B complex,
C and other constituents.
V. They are cholestrol free and also contains cholesterol-lowering enzymes.
VI. They are rich in iron and prevent anemia.
VII. Selenium present in mushrooms is protective against cancer, oxidizing agents
and inflammation.
VIII. Poisonous mushrooms cause various health complications and even become
fatal.
IX. Wood-rotting basidiomycetes (e.g. Polyporus, Armilaria etc) destroy timber of
living trees.
Economic importance of Fungi

Fungi have positive and negative effects in different areas:
1. In agriculture
a. Fungi help in decomposition of organic matter and increases soil fertility.
b. Some fungi are in symbiotic relation with roots of higher plants and help
them in absorption of nutrients.
c. Several fungi cause crop diseases resulting in great economic loss.
2. In medicine
a. Large number of antibiotics are produced from fungi. For e.g. penicillin is
obtained from Penicillium chrysogenum.
b. Fungi cause diseases to human.
3. Industry
Fungi are widely used in industries for the production of several kinds of industrial
products.
a. Yeasts are used in alcoholic fermention to produce alcoholic beverages.
b. Some species of fungi are used for the production of cheese.
c. Many organic acids are produced commericially with the help of fungi.
d. Various enzymes, vitamins and hormones are produced commercially by
using fungi.
e. Yeast is used in baking industries to make porous bread.
4. Fungi as food:-
Mushroom and other fungi are used as food for their high nutrient content.
For eg: Agaricus.
5. Fungi in study:-
Some fungi are useful to carry out research in cytology, biochemistry
and genetics. For e.g. Neurospora is mostly used in experiments of
genetics.
6. Deterioration:-
Food, textile, paper, leather, rubber, optical instruments etc. are
damaged by fungi.
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7. Fungal diseases:
Many different fungi cause diseases both to animals and plants. For e.g.
Phytophthorea infestans causes late blight of potato. Trichophyton
rubrum causes ringworm (of body) in humans.
ProjProject Work:
I. Learn to grow Pleurotus sajarcaju (Kanne chyau) by watching mushroom
training videos on youtube. Please use heating technique (that does not use chemicals)
for your project. (Caution! Please do not consume the mushroom you grow without
confirming it belonging to edible species).
II. Paste photographs of both edible and poisonous mushrooms on a chart paper.
Prepare an awareness video on identification of edible mushrooms using the chart and
other resources.
III. Write an essay highlighting the economic importance of Mushroom. How can
Nepalese farmers be benefitted through Mushroom cultivation?
Lecture 27
Lichens
Lichens are the organisms produced by the permanent symbiotic association of algae and
fungi. The algae in lichen (phycobiont) belongs to either Cyanobacteria (Nostoc, Rivularia etc)
or chlorophyceae (Cladophora etc). Fungi in lichen (mycobiont) belongs to ascomycetes or
basidiomycetes. Ascolichens include Graphis, Usnea etc, and basidiolichens include
Dictyonema etc. The algal partner synthesizes organic food for itself and for the fungus. In
turn, fungal partner protects the algae, absorbs water and minerals for the lichen and
attaches the thallus to the substratum.
Characteristics of Lichens
1. Habit and Habitat
They are commonly found on the walls and roofs of houses, leaves, tree barks, dead wood
and even in soil. Generally, they are xerophytic in nature and thus can withstand a long
period of drought, extreme heat and cold.
Based on substrates of lichen growth, lichens are classified as follows:
A. Corticolous (lichens growing on tree barks)

B. Follicolous (lichens growing on surfaces of leaves)
C. Saxicolous (lichens growing on rock surfaces)
D. Terricolous (liches growing on soil)
E. Musicolous (lichens growing on mosses)
2. Morphology of thallus
The body of lichen is called thallus. The thallus is irregular in shape and grey, green, yellow,
brown or black in colour. On the basis of general habit of growth, form and manner of
attachment to the substratum, they are of the following three types:
I. Crustose lichen
The thallus is flat, thin and closely attached to the substratum. Normally, it cannot be
separated easily without damaging it. For e.g. Graphis, Lecanora etc.
II. Foliose lichen
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The thallus of foliose lichen is flat, broad with much lobed margin. It grows more or
less free on the substratum, and is attached to the substratum with the help of
rhizinae. For e.g. Peltigera, Parmelia, Physcia etc.
III. Fruticose lichen

They are branched and cylindrical or ribbon-like thallus. The thallus is
attached to the substratum only by its basal portion. For e.g. Usnea,
Ramalina, Alectoria etc.
3. Lichens secrete lichenic acid that helps in the disintegration of rocks.
4. Reproduction
Lichens reproduce by asexual and sexual methods.
A. Asexual reproduction:
It takes place by one of the following methods:
i) Fragmentation:
The mature lichen thallus breaks accidentally or by death and decay
of older portion into small fragments. Each fragment is capable to
give rise to a new thallus after getting suitable substratum.
ii) By soredia:
These are small, rounded, bud-like outgrowths developed on the
surface of thallus. They consist of a few algal cells surrounded
incompletely by a sheath of fungal hyphae. Each soredia, on falling
on a suitable substratum, germinates to a new thallus of lichen. It is
common in Usnea, Parmelia etc.
iii) By isidia:
They are small papillate outgrowth on the upper surface of thallus.
They also contain algal and fungal components like soredia. Isidia
has a core of algal cells surrounded by a sheath of fungal hyphae.
They are dispersed by wind when detached from the thallus. Under
favourable condition, each isidium grows into a new lichen thallus. It
is found in Peltigera, Parmotrema etc.
B. Sexual reproduction:
Sexual reproduction is entirely concerned with the fungal partner of the lichen
thallus. The algae do not take part in formation of fruiting bodies. Sexual
reproduction occurs by production of ascospores or basidiospores. The male
reproductive organ is called spermogonium and that of female is called
carpogonium.
The fertile hyphae in the cavity of flask-shaped spermogonium produce rounded
male cells called spermatia, which on being disseminated out through ostiole, are
received by protruding tip of trichogyne on carpogonium. Next, the male nucleus
reaches to the ascogonium and fuses with the egg nucleus. Finally, asci are formed
leading to organization of fruiting bodies called apothecium.
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The ascospores are disseminated by wind and germinates to produce fungal hypha
after falling on suitable substratum. The hypha grows into a new lichen thallus, if it
comes in contact with an appropriate algal component.
5. Examples include Graphis, Lecanora, Parmelia, Usnea, Cladonia, Peltigera etc.
Economic importance of lichen
i) Pioneer of vegetation:
Crustose lichen secrete acid and disintegrate rocks. The
minerals and organic matter from growth and decay of
lichen creates a suitable substratum for other lichens, moss,
ferns or higher plants. So, lichens are the pioneer of plant
kingdom.
ii) Food:
Some species e.g. Parmelia are used as food by wild
animals.
iii) Medicine:
Usnea and Cladonia species have antibiotic properties. Peltigera is
used in treatment of liver diseases and hydrophobia.
iv) Perfumes:
Several species of lichens e.g. Lobularia etc are used in
manufacture of scented incense and other cosmetic
perfumes.
v) Dyes:
Lichens are used to manufacture high quality dyes. For e.g.
litmus is obtained from lichens.
vi) Bio-indicator of air pollution:

Since lichens cannot survive in areas of high air pollution,
they are used as bio-indicator of air pollution.
(Negative economic effects:)
vii) Forest fire:

Lichens are wide-spread in jungles and catch fire easily.
Therefore, they contribute to forest fire.
viii) Damage in building:

Lichens grow on walls and roofs of buildings and damage
them due to acid secreted by lichens.
ix) Shading effect on leaves:

Lichens can grow on plant leaves and block sunlight causing
reduced photosynthesis.
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Project Work:
I. Collect few locally available lichens and preserve and label them with their
scientific names. Write a brief description about their habit and habitat, and
structure on an individual basis.
II. Make a research on sexual reproduction of lichen, and make a

well-decorated chart on how lichens reproduce sexually.
III. Design a field study so as to glean information on economic importance

of lichens.
Lecture 28
Algae
Algae are autotrophic, thalloid, non-flowering and non-vascular aquatic plants
having starch as reserve food material and single celled non-jacketed sex organs for
sexual reproduction.
Their characteristics include:-

i. They are world–wide in distribution . They mostly grow in
water and in moist soil.
ii. They may be unicellular (Chlamydomonas etc.) or multicellular
(eg:- Spirogyra, Ulva etc).
iii. The plant body of filamentous and sheet types algae are
differentiated into hold fast, stipe and lamina or frond.
iv. The conducting and mechanical tissues are absent in all forms
of algae.
v. Buoyancy holds the algae erect in water.
vi. The reserve food material is starch.
vii. They are photo-autotrophic.
viii. They have cell-walls made up of cellulose.
ix. They contain chlorophyll in the form of chlorophyll a,
chlorophyll b, xanthophylls, phycobilins and a small amount of
carotenoids in the grana of chloroplast.
x. Flagella, if present are 2-4 in number.
xi. Reproduction takes place by vegetative (fragmentation etc),
asexual (spore formation such as zoospore etc) and sexual
methods (isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy).
xii. Examples include Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Laminaria, Fucus,
Chlamydomonas, Ulva, Gellidium etc.
Classification of algae:
On this basis of nature of pigmentation, reserve food materials, flagellation, cell
wall, thallus structure and mode of life cycle, Fritsch divided algae into eleven
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classes. Few of them are chlorophyceae (green algae), Phaeophyceae (brown

algae) and Rhodophyceae (red algae).
Rhodophycae (Red algae)

1. They are known as red algae.
2. Most of them are marine and few grow in fresh water.
3. They are usually multicellular while some are unicellular.
4. Photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-d, carotenoids and
phycobilins (r-phycoerythrin, c-phycocyanin).
5. Phycoerythrin provides red color.
6. Reserve food is floridian starch.
7. The cell wall is made up of outer pectic layer and inner cellulosic layer.
8. Asexual reproduction takes place by the formation of non-motile spores (e.g.
neutral spores, carpospores etc)
9. Sexual reproduction takes place by oogamous method.
10. For eg:- Gelidium, Batrachospermum, Porphyra, Rhodomela etc.
Phaeophycae (Brown Algae)

1. They are known as brown algae.
2. Most of them are marine.
3. They are multicellular. Plant body is differentiated into holdfast, stipe and
frond.
4. Pigments are chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-c, and carotenoids (Beta carotenes
and xanthophylls).
5. Fucoxanthin provides brown colour.
6. Reserve food is laminarin, fat and mannitol.
7. The cell wall is made up of outer phycocolloids layer and inner cellulosic
layer.
8. Asexual reproduction takes place by the formation of zoospores.
9. Sexual reproduction takes place by isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy.
10. Eg:- Fucus, Laminaria, Alaria, Lessonia etc.
Chlorophyceae (Green Algae)

1. They are known as green algae.
2. Most of them grow in fresh water.
3. They range from unicellular to multicellular.
4. Pigments are chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, carotenes and xanthophylls.
5. Chlorophyll-a and chlorophyll-b provide green color.
6. Reserve food is starch.
7. The cell wall is made up of outer pectic layer and inner cellulosic layer.
8. Asexual reproduction takes place by the formation of motile zoospore and
aplanospore.
9. Sexual reproduction takes place by isogamous, anisogamous and
oogamous methods.
For eg:- Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, Ulothrix, Chara, Vaucheria,
Oedogonium etc.
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Project Work:
I. Collect different kinds of algae and note their respective features. Further, describe the habit and
habitat of such algae. Also, include sketches drawn of their microscopic findings.
II. Construct rotating wheels including characters of different classes of algae in one and the name
of classes in the other. Next, play matching characteristics to the name of algal class with one or
few of your friends.
Lecture 29
Spirogyra
Spirogyra is very common free-floating, filamentous, fresh water algae. It grows
frequently in ponds, pools, running streams, rivers, lakes, springs etc. The plant body
of Spirogyra is gametophytic thallus which is long, multicellular, septate and
unbranched filament. The body is convered by mucilage, which gives a slimy feel to
the plant. Each filament is made up of thousands of rectangular cells arranged end
to end. The young filaments are attached to the substratum via the basal cell called
holdfast.
 Structure of cell
All the cells of a filament are similar. The cells wall is two- layered. Inner layer is
made up of cellulose, while the outer layer is made up of pectin. Pectin dissolves in
water forming mucilaginous mass that is slippery.
The cytoplasm is peripheral due to the presence of a large central vacuole. The
cytoplasm consists of spirally arranged ribbon-shaped chloroplast(s). The name of
algae, Spirogyra, is after the spiral arrangement of chloroplast. Each chloroplast
contains many rounded bodies present at regular intervals called pyrenoids.
Pyrenoids are the centre of starch formation.
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The haploid nucleus is usually situated at the centre of the cell and is held in position
by cytoplasmic strands which join the cytoplasm.
Reproduction :-
Spirogyra reproduces by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods.
i. Vegetative Propagation:-
Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation. Sudden changes in pH,
temperature of water, mechanical injury, death of intercalary cells etc breaks the
filaments into small fragments. Each fragments grows into a new filament by
repeated cell division.
ii. Asexual reproduction:-
Asexual reproduction takes place by akinetes, aplanospores and parthenospores
formation.
a. Akinetes:-
Alkanets are thick-walled, resting spores formed under unfavorable
conditions. They contain abundant reserve food material. With the return of
favourable conditions, they germinate into the new filament of Spirogyra.
b. Aplanospores:-
Aplanospores are thin-walled, non-motile spores formed during unfavourable
condition by loss of water and food accumulation. On return of favourable
condition, aplanospores germinate into new filaments of Spirogyra.
c. Parthenospores (Azygospores):-
In some species, the gametes fail to fuse together during sudden changes in
the environmental condition. The gametes round off and secrete a thick wall
around and acts as parthenospores. On germination, the parthenospores
form new filaments of Spirogyra.
Project Work:
I. Collect pond scum in a bottle of water. Prepare its wet slides for microscopic observation. Draw
Spirogyra filament and single-cell structures that you view on the microscope.
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Lecture 30
iii.Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is isogamous type which occurs by conjugation.
Conjugation takes place by two methods:-
a. Scalariform conjugation
b. Lateral conjugation
A. Scalariform conjugation:-
It takes place between the cells of two different filaments of opposite strains. In this
process, two filaments come close to lie parallel to each other and get surrounded
by common sheath of mucilage. Two opposite cells develop short lateral outgrowth
called protuberance (papillae). Protuberances grow in their size and come in contact
with each other. Then, the protoplasmic mass of male gametangia and female
gametangia shrinks to form male gametes and female gametes respectively. The
common wall between papillae gets dissolved by the enzyme cytase. After the
formation of conjugation tube, male gametes move towards female gametes in an
ameboid manner through the tube. The gametes fuse to form thick walled
zygospore.
B. Lateral conjugation:-
Lateral conjugation takes place in homothallic species. It is generally divided into two
types:-
1. Indirect lateral conjugation:-
In this type of conjugation, two adjacent cells of the same filament function
as male and female gametangia. The longitudinal wall on either sides of
septum produces papillae. The papillae grow in size and the common wall
between them gets dissolved forming lateral conjugation tube. The upper
male gamete move towards the lower female gamete through the
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conjugation tube, and both fuses to form a zygote. The zygote soon develops
a thick wall around itself and form zygospore.
2. Direct lateral conjugation

In this type, conjugation takes place between the two adjacent cells of which
the upper cell acts as male gametangium and lower cell acts as female
gametangium. Male gametes develop a conical, elongated, boring organ and
create a pore in middle of the septum (lying between male and female
gametes). The protoplast of male gametes pass into the female gamete
through the pore without formation of conjugation tube. These two gametes
fuse to form a thick-walled zygospore.
Germination of zygospore
The zygospore is a thick-walled, diploid, resting spore. Zygospore divides
meiotically into four haploid nuclei. Out of 4 haploid nuclei, three
degenerate and only one survive and becomes functional. On return of
favourable condition, the protoplast of haploid zygospore germinates to from
a new filagement of Spirogyra.
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Economic Importance of algae

i. Algae such as Ulva, Chlorella, Laminaria, Spirulina,
Chondrus etc are used as food.
ii. They are used as a source of iodine, antiviral, and
antibiotics.
iii. Algae such as Gelidium, Gracilaria etc are used in
manufacture of agar.
iv. Some algae are used in treatment of worm infection and
diseases of kidney, bladder and lung.
v. Chlorella culturing tanks are kept during space journey
because of their rapid oxygen- liberating capacity, so
that cosmonauts could breathe in clean air.
vi. Cephaleuros is a parasitic alga that reduces the yield of tea,
coffee, citrus etc.
vii. Some algae contribute to death of fishes due to
competition for oxygen or entrapment.
viii. Some algae contaminate the drinking water supply.
Project Work:
I. Prepare well-decorated charts elaborating sexual reproduction of Spirogyra.
II. Write an essay describing how other countries are utilizing these algae. (Hint; omega fatty acid
production, iodine and bromine isolation etc). Nepal is landlocked, we cannot grow most red and
brown algae. How can our country exploit the potential of algae belonging to class chlorophyceae?
III. Spirulina is considered superfood and food for the future. Read at least the following contents
about Spirulina and write an essay how it will address hunger, malnutrition and threats of
coronavirus in this period of time we are living in.
http://www.fao.org/3/a-az386e.pdf
https://iimsam.org/iimsam-spirulina-resource-centre/
https://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/media/en/gsfao_cmo_109.pdf?ua=1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirulina_(dietary_supplement)
IV. Spirulina can be introduced in Nepal with good bio-business prospect. Write a report including
introduction to Spirulina, method of production and harvest of Spirulina, and business areas where
it could be utilized.
89
Lecture 31
Bryophytes
General Characteristics of Bryophytes are:-
1. They usually grow in moist and shady places.
2. The main plant is gametophyte which is dominant and long-lived in
life cycle.
3. Plants remain attached to the substratum with the help of rhizoids.
Roots are absent.
4. Vascular tissues i.e. xylem and phloem are absent.
5. The plants show distinct alternation of haploid gametophytic and
diploid sporophytic generations.
6. The gametophyte reproduces both by vegetative and sexual methods.
7. Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation, by gemmae, by
protonema, by adventitious branches and by tubers.
8. The sexual reproduction is of advanced oogamous type. The male sex
organs are known as antheridia and the female sex organs as
archegonia.
9. The antheridia produce numerous, biciliated, motile antherozoids,
while the flask-shaped archegonia produce an egg.
10. Water is essential for fertilization. The fusion of an egg and
antherozoid results in formation of diploid zygote or oospore.
11. The oospore develops into sporophyte. Sporophyte is parasitic over
gametophyte.
12. The sporophyte is differentiated into foot, seta and capsule.
Homospores are formed inside the capsule.
13. Usually, spores on germination give rise to the gametophytic plant
body.
14. For example; Marchantia, Funaria etc.
Classification
Bryophytes are classified into following three classes:
A. Hepaticopsida (liverworts)
B. Anthocerotopsida (hornworts)
C. Bryopsida (Mosses)
A. Hepaticopsida (Liverworts)
The characteristic features of Hepaticopsida are:
1. The plant body is gametophyte which is dorsiventrally flattened thallus.
2. Ventral surface of the thallus has rhizoids (unicellular and unbranched) and
scales.
3. The sex organs develop in stalked receptacles (superficial).
4. The sporophytes are simple or may be differentiated into foot and capsule
(e.g. Riccia) or foot, seta and capsule (e.g. Marchantia).
5. Intercalary meristem is absent at the base of seta.
6. The sporophyte is parasitic on gametophyte.
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7. Capsule contains elaters (helps in spore dispersal), but lacks columella and
peristome.
8. Spore germinates and directly forms plant body.
9. For e.g. Marchantia, Riccia etc.
B. Anthocerotopsida (hornworts)
The characteristic features of Anthocerotopsida are:
1. The plant body is gametophyte which is dorsiventrally flattened thallus.
2. Ventral surface of the thallus has rhizoids (unicellular and unbranched).
Scales are absent.
3. The sex organs are embedded in thallus (sunken).
4. The sporophytes are differentiated into foot, seta and capsule.
5. Intercalary meristem is present at the base of seta.
6. The sporophyte is semi-parasitic on gametophyte.
7. Capsule contains columella and pseudoelaters (helps in spore dispersal).
8. Spore germinates and first forms protonema and then plant body.
9. For e.g. Anthoceros, Dendroceros, Megaceros etc.
C. Bryopsida (Mosses)
The characteristic features of Bryopsida are:
1. The plant body is gametophyte and is differentiated into two stages;
protonema (prostrate, thalloid, branched filamentous) and gametophore (erect,
foliage shoot of radial symmetry)
2. Multicellular, branched rhizoids with oblique septa are present. Scales are
absent.
3. The sex organs develop at the tip of respective reproductive branches
(superficial).
4. The sporophytes are differentiated into foot, seta and capsule.
5. Intercalary meristem is absent at the base of seta.
6. The sporophyte is semi-parasitic on gametophyte.
7. Capsule contains columella, operculum and peristome teeth (helps in spore
dispersal).
8. Spore germinates and first forms protonema and then plant body.
9. For e.g. Funaria, Polytrichum, Sphagnum etc.
Project Work:
I. Collect the bryophytes from your surrounding. Use a mobile app to identify the bryophytes. Next,
on a chart paper, draw their sketches along with prominent characteristics you see.
II. Construct rotating wheels with classes of bryophytes in one and characteristic features in the
other. Next, play matching characteristics to classes of bryophytes, with one of your friends.
91
Lecture 32
Marchantia
Marchantia is world-wide in distribution. They grow in moist and shady places on
wall, soil, rock etc.
 Morphology:-
i. External Structure
Fig: Marchantia thallus; A) Female thallus B) Male thallus and C) Ventral portion
of thallus showing rhizoids and scales.
The plant body is called thallus, which is prostrate, dorsiventrally flattened and
dichotomously branched. Thallus consists of distinct mid-rib on dorsal surface. Along
the mid-rib, special cup-shaped structure is found called gemma cup.
Ventral surface of thallus bears two types of structure i.e. rhizoids and scales.
Rhizoids are pale brown, unicellular and branched. Multicellular violet cells in two or
more rows are known as scales. Scales give protection to the growing point.
In reproductive stages, thalli bear antheridiophore and archegoniophore.
ii. Internal Structure of the Thallus
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Fig: Internal structure of Marchantia thallus
A vertical section (V.S.) of thallus shows the two distinct regions, the upper
photosynthetic and lower storage regions. The upper epidermis is single layer of
thin-walled cells, interrupted by several air pores. The air pores help to exchange the
gases during respiration and photosynthesis.
The photosynthetic region consists of a large number of air chambers. From the floor
of air chambers, arise several photosynthetic filaments, the cells of which contain
discoid chloroplasts.
The storage region consists of compactly arranged thin-walled parenchymatous cells.
Few cells towards the upper region contain chloroplast while the remaining cells
contain starch grains. Some cells are filled with mucilage.
The lower most layer of the storage region is lower epidermis. Rhizoids and scales are
borne from certain cells of lower epidermis.
 Reproduction
Marchantia reproduces by vegetative and sexual methods.
I. Vegetative reproduction
It takes place by following methods:
i. Fragmentation
The older cells of thallus located in the posterior region die progressively until it
reaches a dichotomy where the branches separate and behave as independent
thalli.
ii. Adventitious branches
Under favorable conditions, adventitious branches develop from the ventral surface of
the thallus. Later, such adventitious branches get separated from the parent plants and
form new thalli.
iii. Gemmae
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It is the special mode of vegetative reproduction. In Marchantia, gemmae are

developed inside the gemma cup. Gemma cup is a small cup-like structure that
develops on the dorsal side of thallus along midribs.
Gemma has a small stalk and a multi-cellular body. The body consists of two notches
on the lateral side. All cells possess chloroplast except oil cells and rhizoidal cells.
Rhizoidal cells are superficial and large in size. They produce rhizoids when gemma
germinates. Rhizoids then begin their absorptive function.
After maturation, mucilage cells absorb water and swell up which creates an upward
pressure. The pressure causes detachment of gemma from stalk. They are carried to a
suitable substratum and give rise to new thallus.
Project Work:
I. Identify and collect Marchantia. Observe and write its conspicuous characteristics.
II. Prepare a model of gemmae cup using locally available materials.
Lecture 33
II. Sexual reproduction
In Marchantia, male and female reproductive organs are produced in different thallus.
The gametophores bearing antheridia is called antheridiophore and that bearing
archegonia is called archegoniophore.
 Antheridiophore
Antheridiphore has an erect stalk, the top of which is a flattened, slightly convex,
8-lobbed disc. On each of the lobes, 10-12 antheridia develop in acropetal succession.
Internally, air chambers alternate with flask-shaped antheridial chambers (contains
stalked antheridia). The antheridial chambers open outside by pores called ostioles.
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Fig: A. L.S. of male receptacle and B. single antheridium
A mature antheridium is a globular or oval structure present on a multicellular stalk.

Body of antheridium has a single-layered jacket enclosing numerous androcytes
which eventually metamorphose into motile, biflagellate antherozoids.
 Archegoniophore
The archegoniophore consists of a slender stalk and 8-lobed disc at its tip. Archegonia
lie on ventral surface of the disc and are arranged in acropetal succession in each lobe.
Perichaetium and perigynium give protection to the archegonium.
Fig: Structure of (A) an Archegoniophore and (B) Archegonium
95
The mature archegonium is stalked, flask-shaped structure with a basal, swollen

venter and a long neck. Venter is surrounded by single-celled, thick, sterile jacket and
has an egg and one venter canal cell. The neck consists of 6 vertical rows of jacket
cells which enclose 4 – 6 neck canal cells.
 Fertilization
It takes place in the presence of water. The mucilage with malic acid starts oozing
through the mouth (of archegonium) and this attracts the antherozoids. During
fertilization, antherozoids move along the passage in female receptacle. Out of many
antherozoids entering archegonium, only one fuses with an egg to form diploid zygote.
The zygote develops a wall around itself and is called oospore. Oospore represents the
first stage of sporophytic generation.
 The Sporophyte
The sporophyte develops by the division of the oospore inside the venter of
archegonium. After fertilization, the archegonial cells wrinkle and contract. The wall
of venter gives rise to one to four layered investments called calyptra. The matured
sporophyte is covered by three protective coverings; the calyptras, the perigynium and
perichaetium.
Fig: L.S. of sporophyte
The mature sporophyte of Marchantia is completely parasitic on gametophyte

because of the lack of chloroplasts, ventral position and the covering layers that avoid
light penetration. A mature sporophyte is differentiated into foot, seta and capsule.
1. Foot:-
The foot is a bulbous, multicellular, expanded structure of the sporophyte. It helps in
fixation of sporophyte and absorption of food materials from the gametophyte.
2. Seta:-
The seta is short stalk that functions as connecting link between the foot and capsule.
Seta helps in dispersal of spores and conduction of water and minerals.
96
3. Capsule:
The capsule is oval structure at the distal end of the sporophyte. The jacket layer of
capsule encloses fertile sporocytes and sterile elater cells. The elaters help in dispersal
of spores.
The sporocytes divide meiotically to form haploid spores. At maturation, wall of
capsule and protective covering layers are broken resulting in dispersal of spores.
 Germination of spores:-
When the spores fall on a suitable substratum, they germinate. The spores swell by
absorbing water. The exine ruptures and the intine protrudes a small filament. The
filament divides and re-divides to from multicellular structure and finally gets
changed into dichotomously branched thallus of Marchantia.
Economic Importance of Bryophytes

I. Bryophytes help in prevention of soil erosion.
II. Mosses help to from soil over bare rocky surfaces.
III. Sphagnum is widely used to keep cut parts moist during
propagation because of its very high water retention capacity. It is also
used in surgical dressing.
IV. Peat, formed by dead bryophytes, is used as fuel and manure.
V. A decoction of Polytrichum is used to dissolve kidney and
gallbladder stones.
Project Work:
I. Prepare a well-decorated chart showing life cycle of Marchantia.
II. Construct models of sex organs and sporophyte of Marchantia.
Lecture 34
Pteridophytes:-
The pteridophytes are the plants with feather-like fronds. They are truly land plants
that grow well in moist, shady and cool places. Pteridophytes are defined as the
seedless plants that have sporophytic plant body, simple gametophytes containing
small sessile antheridia and partly embedded archegonia.
97
General Characteristics
1. The main plant body is sporophyte which is differentiated into roots, stem
and leaves.
2. They are flowerless plants and do not produce seed.
3. The gametophytic plant is less differentiated.
4. They possess vascular tissues. However, xylem lacks vessels and phloem
lacks companion cells.
5. Reproduction takes places by spores produced inside sporangia.
6. The plants may be homosporous or heterosporous.
7. The gametophyte is monoecious.
8. Sex organs are multicellular and jacketed.
9. The antheridia produce spirally coiled, multiflagellated antherozoids.
10. Embryo stage is present.
11. The plants show clear alternation of generations.
Dryopteris
Occurrence:-
Dryopteris is perennial, terrestrial plant and is found all over the world. It grows in
moist and shady places.
Morphology:-
The plant is sporophytic and is differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
Fig: Morphology of Dryopteris
Root:-
Roots of fern are adventitious. The adventitious roots are small, thin, branched and
bear root hairs and root cap. Root functions to absorb nutrients from soil and to
anchor plants.
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Stem:-
The stem is modified into rhizome, and is covered with brown hairs or scales called
ramenta. It bears adventitious roots on lower surface and alternately arranged foliage
leaves on its upper surface.
Leaves:-
The leaves of fern are petiolate and pinnately compound. They are also called fronds.
The venation is furcated type. The rachis bears leaflets (pinnae). The young leaves are
rolled from apex to base like a spring called circinate and are covered with ramenta.
Mostly, matured leaves have kidney-shaped structures called sori found on the lower
surface of pinnules.
Project Work:
I. Identify and collect Dryopteris from your surrounding, and study its morphology. Which
characteristics from the provided list do you notice?
Lecture 35
Reproduction:-
In fern, reproduction takes place by vegetative method, spores formation and sexual
methods.
I. Vegetative reproduction:-
It occurs by:-
a. Fragmentation of rhizome:-
Due to progressive death and decay of older part of rhizome (up to branching), the
branches separate and act as independent plants. They grow into new plants.
b. Adventitious buds arise in the axils of leaves.

They detach from the plant and form new plants.
II. Reproduction by Spores

The plant is sporophyte and produces spores for reproduction. The sori are marginal,
superficial and appear as kidney-shaped patches. The sori are covered by kidney-shaped
membranous covering called indusium. The asexual reproductive bodies called sporangia are
found inside the sorus. The spores are produced inside the sporangia.
99
Internally, placenta consists of tracheids of vascular strand, which bears stalked, biconvex
sporangia. The capsule is an oval, biconvex structure, which encloses diploid spore mother
cells. The spore mother cells undergo meiosis to from haploid, asexual, homosporous spores.
Fig: A single sporangium

In capsule, group of small cells with their inner walls greatly thickened is called
annulus. The annulus is incomplete at the base on one side where the cells are larger,
thin-walled and form stomium. With maturity of spores, the indusium dries up and
shrivels. The exposed sporangia dehisce in the region of stomium due to differential
contraction of annulus. The spores are thrown to distant places.
Germination of spore and development of gametophyte:-

After falling on a suitable soil, the spores germinate. The outer wall, exine, breaks
and intine emerges out in the form of germ tube. The germ tube elongates and
divides transversely to form lower, smaller rhizoidal cells and upper larger cells.
The larger cells divide repeatedly to form a filament. The terminal cells of the
filament give rise to an apical cell. The apical cells of the filamentous portion
repeatedly divide to form a flattened, green, thalloid gametophyte called
prothallus.
Structures of gametophyte – Prothallus

The prothallus constitutes the gametophyte of the ferns which is a haploid stage. The
mature prothallus has several cells thick middle region, but the marginal part is one
cell thick. It is green, heart-shaped, thin, flat and multicellular structure. All the cells
of prothallus contain chloroplast and prepare their food themselves (autotrophic
nutrition).
100
The prothallus is monoecious. The sex organs and rhizoids are located on ventral side
of prothallus. The antheridia develop below the archegonia and appear earlier than
archegonia (protandrous).
Project Work:
I. Prepare models of a sorus, a sporangium and a prothallus using locally available materials.
Lecture 36
III. Sexual Reproduction:
 The antheridium:-
Each antheridium is a hemispherical, sessile and multicellular structure. The mature
antheridium consists of jacket layer composed of ring-shaped cells and cap cells.
Androcytes present inside the jacket layer metamorphose into motile, multiciliated,
uninucleate, spirally-coiled antherozoids.
Fig: Dryopteris, B) Antheridium and C) Antherozoid

The mature antheridium dehisces in the presence of water formed by dew or rain.
101
 The archegonium:-
Fig: An archegonium in Dryopteris

The mature archegonium is sessile, flask-shaped, multi-cellular structure with a
swollen venter and a short curved neck. The venter contains an egg and ventral canal
cell. There is no jacket in the venter of archegonium, but the neck consists of a jacket
of cells. It encloses only one binucleate neck canal cell.
 Fertilization:-
Fertilization takes place in the presence of water. As the archegonium matures, the
ventral canal cell and neck canal cells disorganize and form mucilage and malic acid.
The chemicals in archegonium attract the antherozoids. Fertilization takes place in
archegonium by the fusion of antherozoids and egg, resulting in zygote or oospore
formation.
 The embryo (Sporophyte):-

The oospore is diploid and known as the beginning of sporophytic generation. The
oospore as a whole takes part in embryo formation (holoblastic development). The
oospore divides and differentiates to form young fern plant. The young sporophyte is
dependent on prothallus (till the primary root grows downward to soil). The
adventitious roots, pinnately compound leaves etc are developed, and an independent
fern plant is formed.
Economic importance of pteridophytes
Many ferns are grown as ornamental plants.

The fronds, roots and rhizomes of pteridophytes are used for treatment of chest
problems, asthma, typhoid, cough, constipation, diarrhoea, intestinal worms etc.
Some members are useful as food.
Azolla is used as biofertilizer and feed for poultry and livestock.
The roots and underground stem of pteridophytes bind the soil and protect from soil
erosion.
102
Project Work:
Prepare well-decorated chart to elaborate the alternation of generations in the life
cycle of Dryopteris.
Lecture 37
Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are terrestrial, non-flowering plants in which ovules that mature into
seeds are freely exposed.
General Characteristics
1. Gymnosperms are flowerless, woody plants.
2. They show xerophytic habitat.
3. The plant body is sporophytic, and is
differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
4. Gymnosperms bear tap root. They have coralloid
or mycorrhizal roots.
5. The stem is usually tall, straight and covered with
scaly bark.
6. Leaves may be modified, e.g. reduced,
needle-like or large and pinnately compound.
7. Tissues are well- differentiated.
8. Xylem lacks vessels and wood fibers.
9. Phloem lacks companion cells.
10. Male cone bears microsporophylls on which
microsporangia are borne.
11. Female cone bears megasporophylls on which
megasporangia are borne.
12. Pollination is anemophilous.
13. Sexual reproduction is of oogamous type.
14. Oospore forms embryo. Polyembryony is
common.
15. Ovules are transformed into seeds. Seeds are
naked.
16. For e.g. Pinus, Cycas, Thuja, Abies, Juniperus
etc.
Pinus
Distribution:
Pinus is the most important genus of the order Coniferales and is represented by 105
species. They form dense evergreen forests in the north temperate and sub-alpine
regions of the world. They usually grow throughout the Northern Hemisphere. In
Nepal, the naturally growing species are P. roxburghii and P. wallichiana. They
mainly grow in inner ranges of the Himalayas at 1200 m. to 3300 m.
Morphology:-
The Pinus trees are tall and evergreen. They grow upto 30 meters in height. The plant
body is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves.
103
Fig: Pinus (A) Twig with Male cone (B) Twig with female cone
Roots:-
The tap root forms a massive root system due to strongly developed lateral roots. The
root does not grow very deep.
Fig: Mycorrhizal roots in Pinus

Tips of the roots possess a protective root cap. As the root system becomes fully
developed, the new young branches remain short and undergo frequent forking so that
clusters of small rootlets are formed. These are called mycorrhizal roots which are
covered with ectotrophic, symbiotic fungus. The presence of fungus increases the
water and nutrients absorption by roots.
Stem:-
The main stem is woody, erect and covered with scaly bark. It bears two types of
branches.
i. Long shoots:-
These are the normal branches which continue to grow indefinitely by means of
an apical bud.
ii. Dwarf Shoots:-

They arise directly from trunk and consist of a short axis terminating in a cluster
of green needles. It is covered with scale leaves.
Leaves:-
The leaves of Pinus are dimorphic i.e. foliage and scale leaves are present.
The foliage leaves are borne only on dwarf shoot. They are green, long and
needle-like. They help in photosynthesis. The number of needles in dwarf shoot is
fixed in different species of Pinus i.e. 1 needle in P. monophylla, 2 in P. nigra and so
on.
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Scale leaves are brown, membranous and are protective in function. They are present
on both types of branches. They do not take part in photosynthesis. They serve to
conserve water around the branches.
Project Work:
I. Visit an area having Pinus sp. Collect the leaves, reproductive structures, shoots etc and study their
characteristics. Prepare a report with your findings on it.
Lecture 38
REPRODUCTION

 Takes place by means of spores – microspores (male) and megaspores (female). The
plants are therefore heterosporous.
 The male and female cones occur on the same plant, but different branches i.e.
monoecious
Male cones (Staminate cones)
105
 Borne on the lower branches in the axils of scale leaves.

 (Appear in the month of January (in plains) and March (in hills) reaching maturity within 2-3
months.)
 Can be seen in clusters just behind the shoot – apex.
 Each cone has 60-100 spirally arranged microsporophylls


 Two microsporangia (pollen sac) are present on the underside of each microsporophyll

 Development of microsporangium is eusporangiate type (it develops from a group of
hypodermal cells of the microsporophyll.)
 Within the microsporangium, the microspore mother cells undergo meiotic divisions to
form haploid microspores (pollen grains)
Microspore (Pollen grain)
 It is surrounded by a 3-layered wall.

 Outer layer (exine) is very thick.
 Middle layer projects outwards into two large balloon-like air sacs or wings giving
boat-shaped appearance.
 Inner layer (intine) is very thin.
 On maturation the spores germinate in situ. Hence, early gametophytic development is
precocious
 At the time of dehiscence, huge quantities of microspores form yellow clouds around
the pine forests. It’s called the “Shower of sulphur dust”
Female cone (Ovulate cone)
106
 Borne on the upper branches of the tree, in axils of scale leaves either singly or in
groups of 2 - 4.
 (Female cones are seen in February and get pollinated within 3-4 months)
 Complete maturation and seed dispersal takes place in the 3rd year of development
 Each cone consists of central axis bearing spirally arranged ovuliferous scales (60-70)
 On young cones, a small thin and leathery bract scale can be seen below the ovuliferous
scale
 Each ovuliferous scale has two ovules on its upper surface
 Cone on maturity is usually cylindrical and 15-20 cms in length
Megasporophyll
  The ovuliferous scale is thick, large, woody & brownish structure
 Basal portion is narrow and bears two naked, sessile anatropous (completely inverted)
ovules on its upper surface
Ovule Structure
107
 Micropyle of the ovule faces the central axis of the cone

 The single integument is fused to the nucellus except for a short distance near the
micropyle
 Embedded in the nucellus ,the archesporial cell divides meiotically to form four
megaspores
Female Gametophyte
 The inner most functional megaspore further gives rise to the haploid female
gametophyte tissue wherein the archegonia develop.
 The venter of the archegonia contains the upper ventral canal cell and the larger egg
cell.
Male Gametophyte
108

 Early development takes place inside the microsporangium
 Pollen grains are released at the 4-celled stage (2 prothalial, a generative cell and tube
cell)
 Pollination is anemophilous and pollen reach the pollen chamber of the ovule through
micropyle
 Further development here, results in the formation of pollen tube which carries the two
unequal male gametes to the neck of the archegonium
 The released male gametes will fertilize the egg cell resulting in zygote formation
(Fertilization)
 Time gap of 12-14 months is seen between pollination and fertilization
Young Sporophyte

 Embryo development is meroblastic
 In early stages the embryonal tier of the proembryo splits apart forming 4 apical
segments each with its suspensor
109
 Each of these terminal embryonal cell give rise to a mature embryo, thus cleavage
polyembryony is observed
Seed Structure
 Seeds are naked (not enclosed in fruit)
 Seeds are winged – the wing being derived from portion of upper surface of the
ovuliferous scale
 Outer fleshy layer of ovule disintegrates
 Testa formed from the middle stony layer
 Tegmen is the inner fleshy layer of the ovule
 Nucellus is almost consumed during embryo development.
 Remnants of nucellus , at micropylar end can be seen as reddish papery structure – the
perisperm
 The haploid female gametophyte surrounding the embryo forms the oily white kernel
(edible part).

 Mature embryo has the radicle towards the micropyle and plumule away from it.
 Plumule is surrounded by 8-14 cotyledons, which are green in colour.
 Germination is epigeal.
http://www.nzplants.auckland.ac.nz/en/about/seed-plants-non-flowering/reproduction/pin
e-life-cycle.html#:~:text=Two%20egg%2Dbearing%20structures%20(archegonia,egg%20nucl
eus%20will%20fertilize%20it.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WqGhmkYXcdM&ab_channel=Mitochondria
https://edurev.in/studytube/Pinus-Plant-Kingdom--Class-11--Biology/92eb7f2c-cd1a-4cc7-bc
ec-4ba06604401f_t#
110
Economics importance of gymnosperms
I. They are cultivated in the gradens as ornamental value.

II.They have light-coloured, light-weighing wood which is used
for making furniture, packing cases etc.
III. Cycas has food value. Sago is obtained from it.
IV. Some seeds of gymnosperms are edible.
V. They are source of ephedrine which is used in making
medicines for cough, asthma and bronchitis.
VI. They are sources of resins and turpentine.
VII. They are source of essential oils used in flavouring agent
and in perfumery.
Project Work:
I. Prepare a well-decorated chart showing life cycle of Pinus on it.
II. View the animation on the link provided to you few times. Next, write a story on
how a new Pinus tree grows. Please mention the period of time required, factors
assisting or impeding certain events, the complicacy of fertilization and so on.
Lecture 39
Family 1 : Cruciferae (Brassicaceae)
1. Distribution: Cosmopolitan in distribution. Most of the members of this

family are used as vegetable and oil-yielding seeds.
2. Habit habitat: Annual or biannual or sometimes perennial, herbs, rarely

shrubs, wild or cultivated, terrestrial, mesophytic.
3. Vegetative Characteristics
i. Root: Tap root and branched or modified (fusiform e.g. Raphnus sativus,
Napiform e.g. B. rapa)
ii. Stem: Erect, herbaceous, branched, cylindrical, solid, hairy, green
iii. Leaf: Exstipulate, petiolate, sub-sessile or sessile, alternate, simple, radical,

cauline and ramal, lyrate, unicostate and reticulate venation.
4. Floral Characters
i. Inflorescence: racemose, generally receme or corymb.
ii. Flower: Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hypogynous,

tetramerous, cruciform
iii. Calyx: sepals-4, polysepalous, sepals in two whorls, 2 in each whorl,

imbricate aestivation, inferior.
111
iv. Corolla: petals-4, polypetalous, cruciform, alternate with sepals, valvate

aestivation, clawed, inferior.
v. Androecium: stamens-2+4, tetradynamous, polyandrous. Anther – bilobed,

dithecous, basi or dorsifixed, introrse
vi. Gynoecium: Carpels-2 (bicarpellary), syncarpous. Ovary - superior,

unilocular or bilocular due to replum, parietal placentation. Style – short.
Stigma – bilobed or simple, capitate
Fruit: Siliqua or silicula
Seed: Dicotyledonous and non-endospermic
Floral formula:
Floral diagram:
Example: i. Brassica campestris ii. Raphanus sativus iii. Brassica

rapa iv. Brassica nigra
Economic importance:
i. They are used as vegetables. For e.g. Raphanus sativus, Brassica rapa etc.
ii. Oil is extracted from the seeds of mustard, rayo (Brassica napus) etc, which
is used for cooking, burning etc.
iii. The leaves and other parts of the species are used as fodder.
iv. The seeds of Brassica nigra, Brassica juncea etc are used in spices and
condiments.
v. The seeds of Iberis amara, roots of Lepidium sativum etc are used as
medicines against different diseases.
vi. Some species are used as ornamental plants in the garden. For e.g. Iberis
amara, Cherianthus (wall flower) etc.
112
Project Work:
I. Collect few plants belonging to this family. Compare them to find vegetative and
floral characters that matches or do not match with one another.

Prepare a well-decorate chart using locally available materials to elucidate the
vegetative and floral characters of this family.
Lecture 40
Family 2 : Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Sub family: Papilionaceae
1. Distribution: World-wide in distribution, Abundantly distributed in tropical

and sub-tropical regions
2. Habit and Habitat: Annual or perennial, herbs or shrubs or trees, some are
climbers, cultivated or wild, usually mesophytic.
3. Vegetative Characteristics
i. Root: Branched tap root, root nodules are present which is important for
nitrogen fixation.
ii. Stem: Erect or weak climber, herbaceous or woody, branched, cylindrical,

solid or fistular, glabrous or hairy.
iii. Leaf: Stipulate, stipule leaf-like or foliaceous, cauline and ramal, pinnately
compound leaflets (modified into tendrils in some plants), alternate,
unicostate reticulate venation, rarely opposite or whorled, rarely simple.
4. Floral characters
i. Inflorescece: Racemose typically receme, panicle or solitary
ii. Flower: bracteate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic, bisexual, pentamerous,

papilionaceous, hypogynous or slightly perigynous.
iii. Calyx: sepals – 5, gamosepalous, campanulate, valvate or imbricate aestivation,

odd sepal anterior.
iv. Corolla: Petals – 5, polypetalous, papilionaceous, one petal large, two

medium and two small petals, vexillary or descending imbricate
aestivation.
v. Androecium: Stamens – 10, usually diadelphous (9)+1, Anther: dithecous,

basifixed, introrse.
vi. Gynoecium: Carpel – 1 (monocarpellary). Ovary: superior, unilocular,

marginal placentation. Style – curved. Stigma – simple or capitate.
113
vii. Fruit: Legume or pod
viii. Seed: Non endospermic.
Floral formula
Floral diagram
Example: Pisum sativum, Phaseolus vulgaris (BODI), Vicia faba (BAKULLA),

Gycine max (BHATMAS) Arachis hypogeal (BADAM)
i. The family yield pulses and beans, which are rich in proteins. For e.g.
Cajanus cajan (arhar), Cicer arietinum (chana), Glycine max (Bhattamas)
etc.
ii. Plants like Trifolium alexandrim (barseem) etc are source of fodder.
iii. Plants like Dalbergia sissoo etc are used as timber.
iv. Arachis hypogea (badam), Glycine max etc are source of edible oil.
v. Fibre obtained from fibre-yielding plants like Crotalaria juncea (hemp) etc is
used to make ropes, bags etc.
vi. Dyes such as indigo, blood red dye etc are obtained from plants like
Indigofera tinctoria, Pterocarpus santalinus etc respectively.
vii. Plants like Crotolaria juncea, Sesbania aculenta (Dhaincha) etc are used as
green manure.
viii. Some important ornamental plants of this family are Clitora ternatea
(Butterfly pea), Clianthus dampieri (Glory pea) etc.
ix. Roots of Glycorrhiza glabra, Clitoria ternatea etc are used as medicines.
x. The seeds of Trigonella foenumgraecum (methi) are used as condiments.
114
Project Work:
I.Collect few plants belonging to this family. Compare them to find vegetative and floral
characters that matches or do not match with one another.

Lecture 41
Family 3 - Solanaceae
1. Distribution Most of the members of this family are distributed in tropical

region and sub-tropical region, but some are found in temperate region.
2. Habit/Habitat: Annual or perennial, herbs or shrubs, rarely soft trees,

mesophytic, wild or cultivated.
3. Vegetative Characteristics:
i. Root: Tap root with lateral branches
ii. Stem: Erect, herbaceous, solid or fistular, cylindrical, branched, climbing or

prostrate, green
iii. Leaf: Exstipulate, petiolate, or rarely sessile, alternate or opposite, cauline and
ramal, simple or rarely compound, entire, unicostate reticulate venation.
4. Floral Characters:
i. Inflorescence: Cymose (axillary or extra-axillary cyme) or solitary or terminal

cyme
ii. Flower: ebracteate, pedicellate, actinomorphic, complete, bisexual,

pentamerous, hypogynous
iii. Calyx: Sepals-5, gamosepalous, campanulate or rarely tubular, valvate or

imbricate aestivation.
iv. Corolla: Petals – 5, gamopetalous, campanulate or funnel shaped, twisted or

rarely valvate aestivation, inferior.
v. Androecium: Stamens – 5, polyandrous, epipetalous, alternate to petals,

inferior. Anther - bilobed, introrse, basifixed.
vi. Gynoecium: Carpels – 2 (bicarpellary), syncarpous. Ovary – superior,

obliquely placed, bilocular, axile placentation, many ovules in each locule.
Stigma – bilobed or capitate. Style – long and simple
115
vii. Fruit: Berry or capsule
viii. Seed: Endospermic, embryo curved or straight, dicotyledonous
Floral formula:
Floral Diagram
Example
Solanum tuberosum (potato), S. melongena (Brinjal), S. nigrum (Black night
shade), Lycopersicum esculentum (tomato)
i. Fruits of Solanum melanogena etc, and stems of Solanum tuberosum are
used as vegetables.
ii. Dried leaves and roots of Atropa belladonna, Datura metel etc are used as
medicines.
iii. Sun berry, Cape gooseberry etc are cultivated for their sweet, edible berries.
iv. The fruits of Capsicum are used as condiment.
v. Some members of the family are cultivated in garden as ornamental plants.
For e.g. Cestrum diurnum etc.
vi. The seeds and leaves of Dautra stramonium are narcotic and sometimes
used for criminal poisoning.
vii. Dried leaves of tobacco (Nicotiana tobacum) are used in cigarette, bidi, cigar,
hukkah as well as for chewing and snuffing.
116
Project Work:
II. Collect few plants belonging to this family. Compare them to find vegetative and

Lecture 42
Family 4 - Liliaceae
1. Distribution It is distributed world-wide, but more common in tropical and
temperate region of the world.
2. Habit/Habitat Mostly perennial herbs, wild or cultivated, mesophytes or rarely
xerophytes
3. Vegetative characters:
i. Root: Adventitious root system, generally fibrous or rarely fasciculated (Asparagus)
ii. Stem: Aerial (erect or climber) or underground (rhizome, bulb or corm), branched,
herbaceous or woody, solid
iii. Leaf: Radical, cauline and ramal, simple, sessile with usually sheathing leaf bases,
mostly basal, alternate, linear, exstipulate with parallel venation
4. Floral characters
i. Inflorescence: Generally racemose, sometimes solitary or cymose (often umbellate
clusters)
ii. Flower: bisexual; actinomorphic, pedicillate, regular, trimerous
iii. Perianth: tepals six (3+3), often united into tube, gamophyllous, valvate or
imbricate aestivation, membranous, inferior
iv. Androecium: stamens six (3 + 3), epitepalous, inferior
v. Gynoecium: Carpels - tricarpellary, syncarpous. Ovary - superior, trilocular with
many ovules; axile placentation. Stigma - trilobed. Style - long, simple and
cylindrical.
vi. Fruit: capsule or berry
vii. Seed: endospermous, monocotyledonous
Floral Formula:
Floral Diagram:
117
Examples: Allium cepa (onion), Allium sativum (garlic), Aloe vera, Asparagus officinalis
(kurilo), Agave americana (ketuki) etc.
Economic Importance
Many plants belonging to this family are good ornamentals (tulip,
Gloriosa), source of medicine (Aloe), vegetables (Asparagus), and
colchicine (Colchicum autumnale), fibres (Yucca), resin (Dracaena).
Project Work:
1. Collect few plants belonging to this family. Compare them to find vegetative and

Lecture 43
Monera
Kingdom monera includes the most primitive, prokaryotic and microscopic forms of
life found in all types of habitat.
Characteristics of Monera:
A. It includes all the primitive organisms lacking true nucleus and membrane-bound
cell organelles.
B. They have circular, double-stranded DNA as an incipient nucleus.
C. Membrane bound cell organelles like mitochondria, golgi body, plastid,
endoplasmic reticulum etc. are absent. 70S ribosomes are present.
D. They have autotrophic or heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
E. They are known as decomposers and mineralizers in the biosphere.
F. They are cosmopolitan in distribution and found in all types of habitats.
G. Respiratory enzymes are associated with plasma membrane.
H. Reproduction takes place by vegetative and asexual methods. Sexual
reproduction is absent.
I. For e.g. bacteria, cyanobacteria, archaebacteria, mycoplasma etc.
Classification of Kingdom Monera

The kingdom monera contains three major groups:
1. Bacteria
2. Cyanobacteria
3. Archaebacteria
Bacteria:
Bacteria are tiny, unicellular, primitive, microscopic, prokaryotic organisms that
reproduce mainly by binary fission.
General Characteristics of bacteria:-
118
7. They are cosmopolitan in distribution. So, they are found in soil,

water, foods, air etc.
8. They are primitive, prokaryotic unicellular organism.
9. They have incipient nucleus.
10. Cell organelles such as mitochondria, golgi body, endoplasmic
reticulum etc are absent.
11. They posses circular double stranded DNA as the primitive
nucleus.
12. Cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan.
13. Ribosomes are of 70S type.
14. They have autotrophic and heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
15. Reserve food materials are glycogen and lipid.
16. Common mode of reproduction is binary fission.
17. Sexual reproduction is absent.
18. They are known as decomposers and mineralizers in the
biosphere.
19. For e.g. Vibrio, Bacillus, Streptococcus etc.
Size:
The average size of bacterial cell ranges from 1 - 10 micron in length and 0.7 - 1.5
micron in width.
Shape
According to the shape and arrangement, bacteria are divided into three major
forms:
a. Cocci (Coccus):- These are spherical or globular bacteria. They

lack flagella. They are of following types:-
i. Monococcus:- It consists of a single cell.
ii. Diplococcus:- They are found in pairs.
iii. Tetracoccus:- They are found in a group of four.
iv. Streptococcus:- They are found in chains.
v. Staphylococcus: They are found in grape-like clusters.
119
b. Bacillus:-
They are cylindrical or rod-shaped bacteria. Bacilli are divided into following types:
i. Monobacilli:- It consists of bacilli present singly.
ii. Diplobacilli:- It consists of bacilli in pairs.
iii. Streptobacilli:- They are found in chains.
c. Helical bacteria:-
They possess helical forms of bacteria. Their types are:
i. Spirilla:- They are long and spirally coiled many times. They
bear two or more flagella at one end or both the ends.
ii. Vibrios:- They are comma or C-shaped bacteria. They are motile
and have a flagellum at one end.
Project Work:
View some permanent slides of bacteria and classify them according to their shapes. In addition,
which of the characteristics of the bacteria can be noticed during microscopy.
Lecture 44
Structure of a bacterial Cell:-
A bacterial cell consists of following components:
1. Slime layer or capsule:-

In some bacteria, the cell is externally covered by a thin, gelatinous viscous layer
made up of polysaccharides. The layer is called slime layer.
Capsule is thick, gelatinous mass made up of polysachharides and amino acids which
covers cell wall in some virulent bacteria externally.
120
The slime layer or capsule protects the bacterial cell against desiccation, antibiotics,
antibodies etc.
2. Cell wall:-
It is the outer, rigid, protective covering of the cell which is made up of
peptidoglycan. The cell wall provides shape to the cell (resists osmotic changes) and
protection against mechanical injury, pathogens and chemicals.
On the basis of cell wall structure, Gram staining is used to divide bacteria into two
groups:
A. Gram positive bacteria.
B. Gram negative bacteria.
Gram positive bacteria Gram negative bacteria
1. Cell wall is 15 - 80 nm 1. Cell wall is 7 - 12 nm

thick. thick.
2. Peptidoglycan 2. Peptidoglycan
constitutes the 70% of cell wall. constitutes 30% of cell wall.
3. Generally they do not 3. Generally, they bear
bear fimbriae or sex pili. fimbriae or sex pili.
4. They are sensitive to 4. They are generally
antibiotics and lysozymes. resistant to antibiotics and
5. Lipopolysaccharide lysozymes.
layer is absent. 5. Lipopalysaccharide
6. They retain crystal layer is present.
violet and appear purple after gram 6. They do not retain
staining. crystal violet and appear red due to
For eg:- Staphylococcus, Streptococcus red color of counter stain (safranin).
etc. For eg:- Salmonella, E. coli etc.
3. Cell membrane:-
It is thin, elastic, semi-permeable membrane that lies inner to the cell wall. It is
composed of phospholipids, proteins and polysaccharides. It is protective layer and
also involves in osmotic regulation of cell.
4. Mesosomes:-
They are inner, folded finger-like structures formed by the plasma membrane. They
are the site of respiration as they contain respiratory enzymes.
5. Cytoplasm:-
Cytoplasm is colourless fluidy substance present between incipient nucleus and cell
membrane. It contains 70S ribosomes, reserve food materials, photosynthetic
pigments in thyllakoid membrane, gas vacuoles etc.
6. Incipient nucleus or nuclear body:
121
The bacterial cell contains a naked, double-stranded, circular DNA molecule floating
on cytoplasm, known as incipient nucleus. It can self-replicate and transfer the
genetic information between generations.
7. Plasmid:-
Bacteria have extra circular chromosomal DNA called plasmids. They are
self-replicating and carry some essential genes like nitrogen-fixing genes, antibiotic
resistance genes etc.
8. Pili or fimbriae:-
Some gram–negative bacteria possess fine, straight, hair-like protoplasmic
outgrowths developed from the cell wall which is called pili. It is made up of pilin
protein and helps in bacterial attachment during conjugation.
9. Flagella:-
Flagella are long, thin, thread-like structures that arise in cytoplasm and extend out
through the cell wall. They are made up of protein called flagellin. It helps in
locomotion of bacteria.
On the basis of flagella, bacteria can be divided into following types:-
1. Atrichous:- Bacterial cells are without flagella.

2. Monotrichous:- Bacterial cells having a single flagellum.
3. Peritrichous:- Bacterial cells having many flagella throughout
the surface.
4. Cephalotrichous:- Bacterial cells having a group of flagella
arising at one end of cell.
5. Lophotrichous:- Bacterial cells having a group of flagella arising
at both poles of the bacteria.
6. Amphitrichous:- Bacterial cells having one flagellum at each
end.
Project Work:
I. Construct a model of a bacterial cell structure using locally available materials.
II. Perform gram staining to differentiate bacteria based on their cell wall composition.
III. Prepare models of bacterial types according to their flagellation.
Lecture 45
122
Mode of nutrition of bacteria:-

Bacteria show both autotrophic and heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
i. Autotrophic bacteria:-
They synthesize their own food from inorganic substances. They are of two types:-
A. Photoautotrophic bacteria:-
They use solar energy for synthesizing their organic food. They split hydrogen
sulphide, thiosulphate, hydrogen or even some organic compounds (but not oxygen)
with the help of solar energy and bacteriochlorophyll or chlorobium chlorophyll.
They are of 3 types:
I. Green sulphur bacteria:

They synthesize their own food by using carbondioxide and hydrogen sulphide in the
presence of solar energy and chlorobium chlorophyll.
II. Purple sulphur bacteria:

They synthesize their food by using carbondioxide and thiosulphate compound (or
hydrogen sulphide) in the presence of solar energy and bacteriochlorophyll.
III. Non-sulphur bacteria:

The bacteria uses carbondioxide and organic compounds in the presence of solar
energy and bacteriochlorophyll to prepare their food. Sulphur is not produced by
them.
B. Chemoautotrophic bacteria:-
These bacteria reduce carbondioxide (to synthesize food) by utilizing energy from
oxidation of simple inorganic compounds such as ammonia, nitrites, nitrates etc.
Some examples of chemoautotrophs include nitrifying bacteria, hydrogen bacteria,
iron bacteria, sulphur bacteria, methane bacteria etc.
ii. Heterotrophic Bacteria:-

These bacteria cannot prepare their own food. They obtain their food from other
organisms or external sources. These are of following types:-
A. Saprophytic bacteria:-
They are free-living bacteria and they obtain food from dead and decayed organic
substances. For eg:- Pseudomonas.
B. Symbiotic Bacteria:-
These bacteria live in mutual beneficial association with other organisms and share
the benefits. For e.g. Rhizobium lives in root nodules of legumes and helps fix the
atmospheric nitrogen.
C. Parasitic Bacteria:-
They live on or within other organisms for obtaining their food. For e.g. Clostridium
tetani, Vibrio cholerae etc.
123
Bacterial growth
The number of bacteria grows by the process of fission, where a bacterium divides
into two identical daughter cells amitotically.
When bacteria are grown in nutrient medium, they grow in a predictable manner
over a period of time. When plotted on a graph, a distinct curve is obtained referred
to as the bacterial growth curve. The growth curve consist of following four phases:
1. Lag phase:
 The time between inoculation and beginning of multiplication is known as lag
phase.
 During this phase, there is an increase in size of bacteria but not their division.
 Bacteria adjusts with the environment and prepares for division by synthesizing
DNA, enzymes and other macromolecules.
 This phase lasts for one hour or more.
2. Exponential (log) phase:
 This phase is characterized by rapid exponential cell growth where the bacterial
population doubles during every generation.
 The bacterial cells are small and uniformly stained.
3. Stationary phase:
 Due to lack of nutrients and accumulation of inhibitory products, the number of

dividing cells becomes equal with the number of dying cells.
 The number of living bacteria remains constant over a certain period of time
forming a plateau or stationary phase.
 It is during this phase that the culture is at its greatest population density.
124
4. Death phase:
 During this phase, the bacterial population sharply declines because cell death
far exceeds the cell division.
 The decline phase starts due to
(a) accumulation of toxic products and autolytic enzymes and
(b) exhaustion of nutrients.
Project Work:
I. Design experiments to study the nutritional requirements of bacteria.
II. Prepare a well-decorated chart illustrating the nutritional requiremnts of bacteria.
III. Design experiments to study the growth phases of bacterial growth.
IV. Perform bacterial culture and observe them after appropriate staining.
Lecture 46
Factors afecting bacterial growth:
Growth of bacteria is affected by many factors. Some of the important factors

affecting bacterial growth are:
1. Nutrition concentration
2. Temperature
3. pH
4. Ions and salt concentration
5. Gaseous concentration
6. Available water
1. Nutrient concentration:
With increase in concentration of nutrients, growth rate of bacteria increases

up to certain level and then growth rate remains constant irrespective of
nutrients addition.
2. Temperature:
At temperatures below the minium temperature of growth, bacterial cell membrane

becomes non-functional and growth ceases; while at temperatures above maximum
temperature of growth, cellular proteins and enzmes denature ceasing bacterial
growth. At certain temperature, the growth rate becomes maximum, and this
temperature is known as optimum temperature. The optimum temperature for
125
psychrophilic, mesophiic and thermophilic bacteria are 5 - 15 degree C, 25 - 40

degree C and 70 - 110 degree C respectively.
3. pH:
 pH affects the ionic properties of bacterial cell, so it affects the growth of
bacteria.
 Most of the bacteria grow at neutral pH (6.5 - 7.5). However, there are
certain bacteria that grow best at acidic (acidophilic bacteria) or basic pH
(alkaliphilic bacteria).
4. Ions and salt:
 All bacteria require metal ions such as K+, Ca ++, Mg++, Fe++, Zn++,
Cu++,Mn++ etc. to synthesize enzymes and proteins.
 Most bacteria can tolerate a very low concentration of NaCl.
 Halophilic bacteria require high concentration of salt in media.
5. Gaseous requirement:
 Obligate aerobic bacteria must require O2 for growth. For

e.g. Mycobacterium, Bacillus etc.
 For obligate anaerobes, oxygen is toxic. However facultative anaerobes
can tolerate low concentration of O2.
 Increased carbon-dioxide (5 - 10%) is needed for capnophilic bacteria
like Campylobacter, Helicobacter pylori etc.
6. Available water:
 Water is the most essential factor for bacterial growth which determines
the rate of metabolic and physiological activities of bacteria.
 Sugar, salts and other substances are dissolved in water and are made
available for bacteria.
Cyanobacteria (Blue green algae)

Cyanobacteria are prokaryotic autotrophic microorganisms having phycobillins as
photosynthetic pigments and cyanophycean starch as reserved food.
The important characteristics of cyanobacteria include:-

1. Cyanobacteria are mostly terrestrial. Some of them are aquatic
(fresh water or marine).
2. They are prokaryotic. True nucleus and double membrane
bound cell organelles (e.g. mitochondria, golgi bodies, endoplasmic
reticulum etc) are absent.
3. Nucleus lacks nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm and nucleolus;
and is known as nucleoid or incipient nucleus.
4. DNA is circular, double-stranded and lacks histone protein.
5. Ribosomes are 70S type.
126
6. They may be unicellular (e.g. Chlorococcus etc.), colonial (e.g.

Nostoc etc.) or filamentous (e.g. Oscillatoria etc.).
7. The filament is called trichome, which is surrounded by a
gelatinous sheath.
8. They have photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a, carotene,
xanthophyll and phycobilins (c-phycocyanin, c-phycoerythrin and
allophycocyanin)).
9. They are autotrophic and prepare their own food by oxygenic
photosynthesis.
10. Photosynthetic apparatus is called chromatophore instead of
chloroplast.
11. They lack flagella.
12. Cell division takes place by amitosis and mitosis, but not by
meiosis.
13. Sexual reproduction is absent. So, reproduction occurs by
vegetative and asexual methods.
14. Many filamentous cyanobacteria produce unique thick walled
structure called heterocyst, which takes part in vegetative
reproduction and also functions as the site of nitrogen fixation in
legumes.
15. Reserve food materials are in the form of cyanophycean starch.
16. They show Gaidukov’s phenomenon (chromatic adaptation)
that helps them to change their colour in different wavelengths of
light. For e.g. they turn red in green light, green in red light and so
on.
17. For e.g. Notoc, Oscillatoria, Anabaena, Rivularia etc.
Project Work:
I. Design experiments to study the roles of various factors on bacterial growth.
II. Study the following articles (and others as well) and write an essay on roles of Cyanobacteria in
increasing the rice yield.
http://www.fao.org/3/ar124e/ar124e.pdf
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/327166124.pdf
Lecture 47
Viruses
Viruses are ultramicroscopic, nucleoprotein entities that reproduce only inside living
beings. Viruses are known as obligatory parasites as they are fully dependent on the
living organisms for multiplication. They are inert outside the host cell. A mature
virus particle outside the host is called virion. The branch of biology that deals with
the study of viruses is called virology.
Characteristics of viruses:
i) All the viruses are minute and simplest organisms.
ii) The diameter of viruses ranges from 20 - 500 nm.
iii) They are obligatory intracellular pathogens, and can multiply inside the host
cells.
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iv) They are composed of nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA, but not both) and
protein. The protein that surrounds the nucleic acid is called capsid.
v) Viruses do not have cellular structures.
vi) Viruses respond to chemicals, heat and temperature.
vii) Outside the host cell, they can be crystallized and behave like chemicals.
viii) They are highly specific to their hosts.
ix) They undergo mutation like living organisms.
x) They are infective and can spread diseases.
xi) Viruses do not respire.
xii) They cannot multiply outside the host.
Classification of viruses:
On the basis of type of host, viruses are classified as:
i) Animal viruses:
The viruses which infect and live inside animal cells including man are
called animal viruses. For e.g. rabies virus, mump virus, measles virus,
polio virus etc.
ii) Plant viruses:

The viruses that infect plants are called plant viruses. For e.g. tobacco
mosaic virus (TMV), potato mosaic virus (PMV) etc.
iii) Bacteriophages:
Viruses which infect bacterial cells are known as bacteriophages. They
contain DNA as genetic material.
On the basis of nucleic acids, viruses are classified as:
i) DNA virus:
The virus that possesses DNA as their genetic material is called
DNA virus. For e.g. bacteriophage.
ii) RNA virus:
The virus that possesses RNA as the genetic material is called RNA
virus. For e.g. HIV virus, Corona virus etc
Viral genome:
Viral genome is very small and contains just a few genes that enable viruses to infect
their respective host cells and code for the synthesis of few proteins for the capsid.
Viruses use host biosynthetic machinery (ribosomes, RNA and enzymes) and raw
materials (nucleotides and amino acids) and synthesize copies of their own nucleic
acid and protein.
Structure of virus (Bacteriophage):

The shape and size of viruses vary from species to species. The viruses have nucleic
acid (either DNA or RNA, but not both) in their core, which is enclosed by a capsid.
The capsid is made up of capsomers.
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In T-even (T2, T4 and T6) bacteriophages, the bipyramidal hexagonal head encloses
double-stranded DNA. The covering of head is made up of capsid protein which has
about 2000 capsomers. The tail is a hollow structure that is enclosed by a spring-like
contractile sheath. The tail rests on a hexagonal end plate that bears six tail fibres.
They are made up of proteins and help the viruses attach to the bacteria.
Mode of transmission:
i) Transmission through soil:

Some viruses like TMV, PMV etc lie in soil and are
transmitted to new crops grown in same field.
ii) Transmission by mechanical means:

This occurs by:
a. Contact of healthy and infected leaves by wind.
b. Grafting infected buds onto healthy plant etc.
iii) Transmission by seeds:

Viruses like TMV etc are transmitted through infected
seeds.
iv) Transmission through nematodes and fungi:

Soil-borne viruses like wheat mosaic virus etc are
transmitted by nematodes (Longidorid and trichodorid
nematodes transmit nepo- and tobraviruses, respectively).
and fungi present in the soil.
v) Transmission by contact:
Viruses can be transmitted by slight rubbing contact of the
infected and healthy plant organs by the action of air or
other means. (TMV is very easily transmitted when
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an infected leaf rubs against a leaf of a healthy

plant)
vi) Transmission through vectors:

Transmission of some viruses is carried by their specific
vectors; e.g. insects, aphids etc.
vii) By smokers:
TMV is spread by the fingers of the smokers, smoke and
cigarette remnants after smoking.
Economic importance of viruses:
A) Positive effect:
i) The temperate phage virus helps in transduction
of genetic material from one bacterium to
other.
ii) Some of the virus-infected plants are beautifully
variegated.
iii) Viruses may destroy the bacterial cells and make
water free from bacteria.
B) Negative effect:
i) Viruses cause numerous diseases in human. For e.g. polio, rabies, chicken
pox, mumps, small pox, AIDS, cancer, COVID 19 etc.
ii) Some of the common viral plant diseases are tobacco mosaic, potato mosaic,
cucumber mosaic etc.
Project Work:
I. Prepare a well-decorated chart and model of virus using locally available materials.
II. Visit a local water supply and sanitation office, and write a report on water-borne viral diseases
after discussion with the officials and health personnels in nearby clinics or hospitals.
III. Vist a tomato farm or other agricultural farm nearby your area. Prepare a report including
identification of a viral disease on plants, prevention or treatment strategies of the disease and other
useful resources.
Lecture 48
Impacts of Biotechnology in the field of microbiology:
Microbial biotechnology uses microorganisms towards the production of

economically valuable products to humankind. Some of the impacts of microbial
biotechnology are discussed below:
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1. In the field of agriculture:
In agriculture, microbial biotechnology covers a wide array of subjects ranging from

biofertilizers to biological control of pests and diseases; from biological N2-fixation to
lignocellulose degradation; from production of biomass and biofuels to genetically
engineered plants.
Cyanobacteria are used as biofertilizers. For e.g. Anabaena sp. significantly increases
the rice yield.
The transfer of genes from bacterium to the non-leguminous crops allows the crops
to fix the nitrogen thereby enhancing productivity as well as protein content in the
crops.
2. In the field of industry:

Different industrial products are made applying microbial biotechnology.
Yeast is used to make porous breads and alcoholic products using fermentation
technology.
Dairy industries use bacteria to make cheese (S. lactis), curd (S. lactis, L. lactis etc.)
and yoghurt (L. bulgaricus etc).
In vinegar-making industries, bacteria such as A. aceti are used to convert alcohol

into vinegar.
Butyl alcohol and acetone are manufactured in industries allowing Clostridium to act
on sugar molasses.
Tobacco and tea leaves are cured in industries by using bacteria B. meatherium and
Micrococcus candisans respectively to remove bitterness of leaves, give flavour,
colour and taste.
Industrially useful enzymes such as proteases (from B. subtilis), pectinase (from Cl.
perfringes), streptokinase (S. pyogens) etc are produced using microbes.
Biofuels, bioplastics, heat and other useful materials are obtained by the microbial
activity on appropriate biomass.
3. In the field of medicine:

Microbes have been used to produce medically important products. Some are
described below:
Target gene-inserted viral vectors can be used to target defective cells and tissues of
human body in an attempt to cure type I diabetes, sickle cell anemia and other
diseases. The approach is known as viral therapy.
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First generation vaccines (obtained from fermentation technology) and second

generation vaccines (obtained from recombinant DNA technology) have been
obtained using microbes. Cholera vaccine, BCG, TT, TAB etc are first generation
vaccines, while second generation vaccines include Hepatitis B, influenza, herpes etc.
Therapeutic proteins such as insulin, interferon, growth hormone etc are produced
using microbes.
Antibiotics such as tetramycin (S. ramous), polymyxin B (B. polymyxa), streptomycin

(S. griseus), penicillin (P. notatum) etc are obtained from microorganisms.
Vitamins such as B2, B12, C and K are obtained respectively from Cl. Butylicum, B.
megathermis, A. aceti and E. coli.
Statins (blocks cholesterol synthesis) are produced by using bacteria and fungi
through fermentation technology.
Microbial diseases such as COVID-19, AIDS, tuberculosis, cholera, measles,

meningitis, hepatitis etc are easily, early, specifically and quickly diagnosed using
various biotechnological techniques (e.g. antibody tests, PCR etc.).
4. In the field of waste disposal industry:

Microbes are used to clean up oil, toxic waste, sewage treatment and so on. For e.g.
genetically engineered Pseudomonas sp. are used successfully in bioremediation of
oil spills.
5. In the field of environmental protection:

Proteins obtained in large scale in bacteria, yeast and others by fermentation
technology are called single cell protein (SCP). SCP can be used as food for humans
as well as feed for animals.
Some bacteria are used in mining and extraction of metals. For e.g. Thiobacillus
ferrooxidans can be used to degrade pyrite (FeS2).
Project Work:
I. Nepal is yet not prepared to exploit the optimum potential of biotechnology in the
fields of agriculture, medicine, industry and other areas. Write an essay including the
status (biotechnology institutes, biotechnology associations, activities related to
biotechnology), constraints and prospects of biotechnology sector in Nepal.
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Lecture 49
ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY
Ecology:
Ecology is the study of the reciprocal relationship between living organisms and their
environments. Ecology may be divided into:
i. Autecology:
Autecology (ecology of individual) is concerned with relationship between
the individuals of same species and their environments.
ii. Synecology:
Synecology (ecology of a community) is concerned with relationship
between the individuals of different species (community) and their
environment. An example of synecology is side effects of acid rain to a
pond ecosystem.
Synecology can be divided into:
A. Population:
It is a group of individuals of same species living in a particular place in particular
time.
B. Community:
It is a group of individuals of different species living in a specified area in specified
time.
C. Ecotypes:
The species having a wide range of distribution evolve genetically adapted local
populations called ecotypes. The ecotypes differ from each other on the basis of
morphological and physiological characters. Though ecotypes of a species differ
genetically, they are inter-fertile.
D. Ecads:
An ecad of a plant species is a population of individuals which although belong to the
same genetic stock (genetically similar) but differ in vegetative characters such as
shape, size, stem, number of leaves etc.
E. Biomes:
Each of the major terrestrial ecosystems of distinctive terrestrial areas with their
climax plants and associated animals are known as biomes. These are the largest
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ecological units. In a biome, the climax vegetation is of uniform type, but the species
of plants may vary in different parts.
The different types of biomes are:
i. Longitudinal biomes:
The major terrestrial longitudinal biomes are: Tundra, Coniferous forest,
Deciduous forest, Tropical rain forest, Chaparral, Tropical Savannah,
Grassland and Desert.
ii. Altitudinal biomes:
The climate also varies with altitude. All different types of biomes can be
noted along the slopes of mountains. For e.g. in the tropical mountains, the
sequence of Tropical or Terai forest, Deciduous forest, Coniferous forest
and Tundra is found from the base of the mountain to snow line.
F. Ecotone:
The zone where two or more different communities meet and integrate is called
transition zone or ecotone. Ecotone contains few species from both communities.
Ecological Factors (Environmental Factors or Ecological Components)

The ecological factors are divided into physical (abiotic) and biotic components as
follows:
(A) Abiotic Factors

Abiotic factors are non-living factors which influence living organisms. They include:
1. Physical factors (Climatic factors)
2. Edaphic factors (Soil factors)
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3. Topographical factors (Physiographical factors).

1. Physical factors (Climatic factors):
It includes the following factors:
a) Light:
Light is the visible range of electromagnetic spectrum having range of about 390 nm –
740 nm. Only 48% of the solar radiations reach the earth. The quality of light, its
quantity and duration influence a number of life processes of organisms. The effects
of light on plant are as follows:
i) Photosynthesis:
ii) Growth:
iii) Transpiration:
iv) Germination:
v) Phtoperiodism:
vi) Distribution and development of vegetation:
Heliophytes grow in strong light whereas sciophytes grow in lower intensities of light.
vii) In animals, light affects cellular metabolism, growth, pigmentation, locomotion,

reproduction etc. Migration of birds and reproductive cycle is regulated by day length.
Light provides warmth and energy to most animals. Nocturnal animals like
earthworms, cockroaches, bats etc prefer to live in dark.
b) Temperature:
The degree of hotness and coldness of a place influences the climatic conditions, soil
conditions, activities of organisms and growth responses of plants. Temperature of
atmosphere depends upon its latitude, altitude, topography, slope, season, vegetation,
humidity etc. Temperature influences:
i) Growth:
ii) Metabolism:
iii) Reproduction:
iv) Distribution:
Organisms are adapted to live at particular temperatures thus their
distribution is affected by the latter.
v) Colouration:
vi) Morphology:
c) Wind:
Air in motion is called wind. Wind affects transpiration, dispersal of pollen grains,
seeds and fruits. Strong wind causes soil erosion reducing soil fertility. Unidirectional
wind stimulates the development of flag tree.
d) Rainfall:
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Rainfall is the source of ground water and relative humidity. The amount of annual
rainfall greatly affects the vegetation as well as animal population of a particular
region.
e) Moisture:
Atmospheric moisture in the form of water vapour is known as humidity. It plays
important roles in growth of epiphytes, regulation of transpiration and perspiration,
germination of fungal spores etc.
f) Fire:
Fire in the grasslands and forests are of common occurrence killing the lives to a great
extent. However, some plants like Cyanodon etc are stimulated to grow by fire.
2. Edaphic Factors:
Soil is one of the most important ecological factors, which provide nutrition, water
supply and anchorage to the plants. The factors which are related with soil are called
edaphic factors, and include the following:
a. Soil air:
Soil air is essential for root and microorganisms living in soil. Absorption of
water and minerals by root is affected by soil air.
b. Soil water:
Rainfall is the principal source of soil water. Soil water is related to texture
and structure of soil. Soil water is necessary to dissolve minerals.
c. Soil temperature:
Both very low and very high temperatures are injurious for plant roots.
d. Soil organic matter:
It makes soil porous and increases aeration of soil. It also increases the water
holding capacity of soil.
e. Soil pH (Hydrogen ion concentration):
Soil pH directly affects the microbial distribution in soil and plant growth.
f. Soil organisms:
These are bacteria, fungi, blue-green algae, earthworms etc. Nitrogen fixing
bacteria fix the free atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate and increase the fertility
of soil.
3.Topographic Factors (Physiographic factors):

Topography is the surface behaviour of the earth’s surface like altitude, slope
and so on. It influences other environmental factors like atmospheric pressure,
wind, rainfall, water current, temperature, light intensity and light duration.
Broadly, topographic factors include the following:
a. Altitude of the place:
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An increase in height results decrease in temperature, high wind velocity, low

atmospheric pressure, high humidity and rainfall. These favour clouds and
rainfall. Therefore, mountains and hills favour plant growth. However, very
high altitude shows poor vegetation due to condensation of water into snow.
b. Slope of land (Steepness of slope):

The steepness of the slope allows the rapid water current, water deficit, quick
erosion of top soil and thus poor vegetation occurs. Plains and valleys are rich
in vegetation due to accumulation of water and slow water movement.
c. Direction of slope:
North and south faces of hill possess different types of flora and fauna because they
differ in their humidity, rainfall, light intensity, light duration and temperature
regimes. The sunward direction of slope is warmer and gets good rainfall compared
to that of north facing slopes. Therefore, rich vegetation is found in sunward direction.
Project Work:
I. Bring small amount of soil from the field outside your school and study the edaphic factors. You can
grow soil organisms through microbial culture, measure water content, pH and other possible
parameters.
II. Visit a new location (e.g. tea gardens in Lwang or Ilam, nearby paddy or wheat fields, nearby hills
etc) and prepare a report on its climatic and topographic factors. You may need to visit multiple times
there to record rainfall, temperature, humidity and other parameters.
Lecture 50
(B) Biotic Factors:
Biotic factors are the living organisms of the ecosystem including all plants, animals
and microorganisms. Biotic factors are divided into 3 types.
1. Autotrophs (Producers):
Those organisms which can prepare their own food through the process of
photosynthesis are called autotrophs. This includes all green plants,
phytoplanktons, photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria. These also maintain
oxygen and carbondioxide cycle.
2. Heterotrophs (Consumers or Phagotrophs):

Those organisms which do not have chlorophyll and have to depend on others for
their daily food are called heterotrophs. On the basis of nature of the food, they
are classified into 3 types.
a) Primary consumers (Consumer of first order):
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These include herbivorous which directly feed upon the plants e.g. rabbit, deer,
goat etc. Herbivores of aquatic ecosystem include crustaceans, protozoans and
molluscs.
b) Secondary Consumers (Consumer of second order):

These include the primary carnivores which feed upon the herbivores e.g. fox,
frogs, snakes, predatory birds, fishes etc.
C) Tertiary Consumers (Consumers of third order):

These include the secondary carnivores which eat upon secondary consumers e.g.
tiger, lion etc.
3. Decomposers (Saprotrophs or Reducers):

Those organisms which decompose the complex organic compounds present in dead
bodies of plants and animals are known as decomposer. They include microorganisms
like bacteria, fungi etc.
They produce digestive enzymes to breakdown the organic material externally and
absorb some of the decomposed products while release most of inorganic compounds
into the environment. So, decomposers are responsible for the recycling of the
material in the ecosystem.
Interaction between biotic factors (community):

Various species of biotic community live together in the same environment and
interact with each other for food, shelter and habits. They show positive as well as
negative interactions:
1. Positive interactions
i) Inter-specific co-operation:
a) Mutualism (Symbiosis; +,+):

It is an interaction between two or more individuals in which both or all
individuals are benefitted because of association. Mutualism may be obligatory or
facultative. For e.g. Rhizobium inside the legume roots, association between algae
and fungi in lichen etc.
b) Commensalism (+, 0):

It is an association between two or more individuals where one individual at least
gets benefit from an interaction while other is neither benefitted nor harmed. For
e.g. epiphytic plants that grow on tree branches.
c) Proto co-operation:
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If both species gain from an association, but are able to survive without it, the
association is termed proto-co-operation. For e.g. predatory birds living in association
with cattle.
d) Neutralism (0,0):
Neutralism occurs when the individual of two different species or two populations
function in very close association but do not affect one another adversely or
beneficially. For e.g. the leaf eating and sap-sucking insects living on a tree
ii) Intraspecific co-operation:
a) Colonization:
Some species of plants and animals live in colony for protection from predator or
from natural condition or for food or for efficient reproduction. This grouping of
individuals is known as colonization. For e.g. Nostoc, Obelia, Volvox etc.
b) Social Organization:
Social organization refers to those organisms which live in colony and work
together in groups (division of labour) for various purposes such as food gathering
and so on. For e.g. honey bees, ants, etc.
c) Aggregation:
It is the concentration of large number of independent individuals. Scarcity of
food, light, and space, collective breeding etc induces animals to aggregate. For
e.g. swarming of flies, mosquitoes etc.
2. Negative Interaction:
a) Predation:
The predation is commonly associated with the idea of strong attacking the weak.
For e.g. tiger pouncing upon deer, the frog upon the insects, etc
b) Parasitism:
Parasitism is an inter-specific inter-relation in which the individual of one species
lives at the cost of the individual of another species, its host. Parasites harm and
eventually kill the host. The types of parasites are:
i) Ectoparasites; e.g. fleas, ticks etc.
ii) Endoparasites; e.g. Ascaris sp., Taenia sp., etc.
c) Competition:
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It is an interaction in which two or more individuals compete for a limited amount

of food, shelter, mating or other resources.
d) Antibiosis:
It is the interaction in which one population tries to inhibit the growth of other but
itself remains unaffected. For e.g. the relationship between antibiotic and
bacteria etc
Project Work:
I. Visit a nearby woodland or fertile fields and prepare a report on the biotic factors along with
specific examples you noted there. In addition, write a paragraph about biotic interactions you find in
the area.
Lecture 51
Concept of an Ecosystem:
Living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living environment because the
latter provides materials and energy for the survival of the former. The interaction
between a biotic community and its environment within a fixed unit or boundary to
produce a stable system; a natural self-sufficient unit which is known as an
ecosystem.
An ecosystem is a unit that includes all the organisms in a given area (community)
interacting with the physical environment (air, water, mineral soil etc.) so that a flow
of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity and material
cycles within the system. A pond, lake, desert, grassland, meadow, forest etc. are
common examples of ecosystems.
An ecosystem has following characteristics:
 Ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology.
 The structure of an ecosystem is mainly related to its species diversity.
 There is also functional relationship among the biotic components in the form of
food chain, food web, ecological pyramids and productivity.
 The structure of an ecosytem depends on relative amount of energy needed and

dimensions of space and time.
 Succession causes series of replacement of one simple community by more

complex forms.
 Energy limit of an ecosystem cannot be exceeded without causing any

undesirable effects.
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 Biotic communities of an ecosystem show adaptation to local environmental

conditions.
 The function of every ecosystem involves a series of biogeochemical cycles like

water cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, oxygen cycle etc. which are driven by
energy.
 The continuation of ecosystem demands the exchange of materials/nutrients to

and from the different components.
Pond Ecosystem (Aquatic ecosystem)

Pond ecosystem is a type of lentic (standing water), freshwater ecosystem with
complex interactions between its biotic and abiotic components. It may be perennial
or seasonal.
Physical and chemical factors of a pond:

Bottom of pond is within the range of light penetration to support diverse kinds of
plants and animals. Sunlight serves as the initial source of energy. The chemical
factors of a pond are dissolved oxygen, CO2, nitrogen, pH, phosphate, as well as
soluble salts of Na, K, Ca etc.
Division of a pond (Stratification of pond):

On the basis of water depth, light penetration and types of vegetation and animals,
there may be three zones in a pond: Littoral, Limnetic and Profundal.
The littoral zone is the shallow water region which is warmer and rich in oxygen. The
region is usually occupied by rooted plants.
The limnetic zone is a central part of a pond upto which there is penetration of
effective light. The associated organisms are small crustaceans, insects, algae etc.
The profundal zone is the deep water region where there is no effective light
penetration. The zone is rich in decomposers (bacteria and fungi).
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):

It is the amount of oxygen required by bacteria in pond in a unit volume of water at a
specified time. It measures the degree of water pollution. Thus, if water is polluted
due to degradable organic matters, oxygen level in water is depleted which reflects on
BOD value.
Abiotic Components and Biotic Communities (Structural Components) of a

Pond
Abiotic Components:
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The abiotic components of a pond ecosystem are heat, light, pH value of water,
dissolved oxygen, minerals (e.g. calcium, phosphorus etc), carbon-dioxide, turbidity
of water and so on. In pond ecosystem, living organisms are greatly affected by water
condition rather than atmospheric condition.
Biotic Communities (Components):
The living components include producers, consumers and decomposers.
1. Producers:
The producers include submerged, floating and amphibious plants. They are
divided into two categories:
a. The rooted or large floating plants like Spirogyra, Chara, Hydrilla, Azolla,
Ulothrixx, Typha, Vallisneria etc.
b. Phytoplanktons including Volvox, Chlorella, Navicula, Oedogonium,
Oscillatoria etc.
2. Consumers:
In a pond ecosystem, the primary consumers are tadpole, herbivorous insects and
their larva, small fish etc. The secondary consumers are frog, big fish, crab, water
snakes etc. The tertiary consumers include water birds, turtle etc.
3. Decomposers and Transformers:
After the death of aquatic plants and animals, their dead bodies are acted upon by
a large number of bacteria and fungi which convert the complex organic
substances into simpler inorganic compounds and elements which can again be
utilized by green plants in their nutrition.
Functional aspect of pond ecosystem

Interactions in a pond ecosystem are the food chains and food web formed by biotic
communities.
The food chain is of two types:
i) Predatory food chain:
Autotrophs receive energy from the sun and themselves become the source
of energy for herbivores. Herbivores are the source of energy for primary
carnivores and that in turn is the source of energy of secondary carnivores.
The energy transfer is shown in flow chart below.
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Fig: Predatory food chain in pond ecosystem.
ii) Detritus (Saprophytic) Food Chain:

In this type of food chain, the dead organic matters are first decomposed
by microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) forming detritus food which is
then consumed by the consumers (detritivores). Energy flow will be as
follows:
raw materials
Organic matters microbes Detrivores Producers
(dead plant and animal) (consumers)
Food Web
In a pond, there are 3 – 5 food chains, interconnected with one another in different
ways forming a network called food web. There are many kinds of animals which
consume more than one species of plants and animals for their food. Thus, there are
numerous intermediate links. An example of food web in pond ecosystem is as
follows:
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Diatoms,
Desmids, Algae
Tiny water Paramecium

Water-flea
insects
Water beetle Bacteria and

Shrimp
fungi
Dead plants and

Large fish Small fish animals
Prawn
Fig: Food web in a pond ecosystem.
Ecological Pyramids:
In pond ecosystem, 3 types of ecological pyramids are found. They are pyramid of
number, pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy.
1) Pyramid of number:
Pyramid of number in pond ecosystem is upright because the number of
organisms goes decreasing from the producers to the various consumers.
However, in parasitic food chain, the pyramid of number is inverted.
2) Pyramid of biomass:
In pond ecosystem, the biomass of producers is the least and the value
gradually shows an increase towards the apex of the pyramid; i.e.
Producers < Primary consumers < Secondary consumers < Tertiary
Therefore, the pyramid of biomass in pond ecosystem is inverted.
3) Pyramid of energy:
The pyramid of energy is always upright because there is always gradual
decrease in energy content at successive trophic levels from the producers to
various consumers. This decrease in energy is mainly due to loss of energy as
heat in metabolic activities.
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Fig: Ecological pyramids of pond ecosystem. A Pyramid of energy, B

Pyramid of biomass, and C pyramid of number
Productivity:
Pond ecosystem can be divided into oligotrophic and eutrophic pond ecosystems on
the basis of productivity. Oligotrophic ponds have little circulation of nutrients due to
less biodiversity and less food production. Eutrophic ponds have more production of
food and more biodiversity thereby having more circulation of nutrients.
Project Work:
I. Visit a local pond or a lake, and write about the strucutral and functional aspects
of the pond or the lake. Alternately, make a small pond or water pool in your school
or home premises, follow it over a period of month and write a report on what you
find happened.
Lecture 52
Forest Ecosystem
A forest is an area with a high density of trees. World’s total land area is 4.06 billion
hectares of which total forests account for about 31% of the world’s land area. More
than 40% of total land area in Nepal is covered with forests.
A forest ecosystem is a large terrestrial natural woodland community with dominant
vegetation of large sized trees along with shrubs, herbs, mosses, climbers as well as
animals and microbes that interact among themselves and also with the chemical and
physical features of their environment.
The five major forest ecosystems found in the world are tropical forest ecosystem,
subtropical forest ecosystem, temperate forest ecosystem, subalpine forest ecosystem
and alpine forest ecosystem. The variations in climate, soil conditions, topography,
flora and fauna can be seen in these forest ecosystems.
The forest ecosystems are of great concern from the environmental point of view. It
provides numerous environmental services like nutrient cycling, maintaining
biodiversity, providing wildlife habitat, affecting rainfall patterns, regulating stream
flow, storing water, reducing flooding, preventing soil erosion, reclaiming degraded
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land and so on. Apart from environmental values, forest ecosystems have some
traditional values such as fire wood, timber, fruits, gums, herbs, etc.
Structural aspect of forest ecosystem:

It includes two major components i.e. abiotic and biotic components.
a. Abiotic components:
Abiotic components in forest ecosystem include physical (light, temperature, wind,
humidity, atmospheric pressure), chemical (nitrates, phosphates, sulphates, chlorides
of metallic and non-metallic elements, water, organic substances like proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids etc), physiographic factors (latitude, altitude,
steepness of area, longitude etc.) and the edaphic (soil) factors. The edaphic factors
inlcude soil textue, soil pH, soil organisms, soil water, soil air etc.
b. Biotic communities:
These include producers, consumers and decomposers.
i) Producers:
In a forest, the producers are mainly trees. Trees are of different kinds depending
upon the type of forest developed in that climate. Dominant species of trees in major
types of forest ecosystems are Tectona grandis, Acer, Betula, Picea, Pine, Cedrus etc.
Apart from trees, climbers, epiphytes, shrubs and ground vegetation are found.
ii) Consumers:
In a forest, consumers are of three main types:
a) Primary Consumers
These are herbivores which feed directly on producers. For e.g. ants, beetles, bugs,
spiders etc. feeding on tree leaves. Larger animals such as elephants, deer, giraffe etc.
grazing on shoots, fruits of trees etc.
b) Secondary Consumers
These are carnivores and feed on primary consumers. For e.g. birds, lizards, frogs,
snakes, foxes, spiders etc.
c) Tertiary Consumers
These are secondary carnivores and feed on secondary consumers.These include top
carnivores like lion, tiger, snakes, hawk, jackals etc.
iii) Decomposers:
Decomposers consist of soil borne microorganisms like bacteria and fungi which
decompose the dead plants and animals into various simple inorganic compounds or
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elements which again enrich the system. For example; terrestrial bacteria (e.g.
Bacillus, Clostridium etc.) and fungi (Aspergillus, Ganoderma, Mucor etc.).
Functional aspect of forest ecosystem:

Interactions in the biotic communities are food chains and food-web. There are three
types of food chain found in the forest ecosystem.
i) Grazing food chain:
This type of food chain starts with the green plants (autotrophs or producers) whose
source of energy is the sun. The energy is then passed from producers to primary
consumers, which in turn are the source of energy for secondary consumers. The
secondary consumers serve as the energy source for tertiary consumers.
Energy transfer in different trophic levels is as shown in flow chart.
Fig: Grazing food chain in grassland ecosystem

ii) Detritus food chain:
Detritus food chain is the type of food chain that starts with dead
organic materials. The organisms that feed on dead organic matter or
detritus, are known as detritivores or decomposers. These detritivores
are later eaten by predators.
For example; dead organic waste or detritus (e.g. fallen leaves, dead
bodies etc.) is consumed by microscopic organisms like bacteria or
fungi. These microscopic organisms are consumed by other
detritivores like snails, insect larvae, earthworms and so on.
Food web:
There are various kinds of animals which consume more than one species of plants
and animals, thus there are numerous intermediate links sometimes also with side
chains in the forest ecosystem. An example of food web in forest ecosystem is shown
below:
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Ecological pyramids:
There are 3 types of ecological pyramids in forest ecosystem. They are pyramid of
number, pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy.
A. Pyramid of number:
The pyramid of numbers depicts the relationship in terms of the number of producers,
herbivores and the carnivores at their successive trophic levels.
In forest ecosystem, the pyramid of number is spindle shaped (partly upright). This is
because the number of primary consumers is more than the number of producers
(trees) and then there is successive decrease in number of consumers at higher trophic
levels.
B. Pyramid of biomass:
Biomass may be defined as the total weight of dry matter present in the
ecosystem at any one time. Pyramid of biomass is a graphic representation
of biomass present per unit area in different trophic levels in a food
chain.
In pyramid of biomass in forest ecosystem, there is a gradual decrease in the biomass
from the lower (producers) to the higher trophic levels. So, the pyramid is upright in
forest ecosystem.
C. Pyramid of energy:
It represents the amount of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next in an
ecosystem. The energy pyramid in forest ecosystem is upright and vertical. This is
because at each trophic level, there is successive loss of energy in the form of heat,
respiration etc.
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Fig: Pyramid of energy and Pyramid of biomass in forest ecosystem.
Fig: Pyramid of number in forest ecosystem

Project Work:
I. Visit a local forest and study the structural and functional aspects of the forest ecosystem.
II. Watch a documentary on forest ecosystem (You can find on Youtube or other websites). Then,
write an essay on structural and functional aspects of forest ecosystem.
Lecture 53
Energy flow in an ecosystem (Trophic levels)
The producers and consumers in ecosystem can be arranged into several feeding
groups, each known as trophic level (feeding level).
The green plants (e.g. phytoplanktons, herbs, shrubs or trees) which derive their
energy from sun are called producers, and they belong to first trophic level. Due to
reflection, the maximum overall photosynthetic efficiency of plants is 3 to 6% of total
solar radiation.
All the herbivorous animals or primary consumers deriving their energy from the
producers belong to second trophic level, whereas all the primary carnivores or
secondary consumers belong to the third trophic level. Similarly, the secondary
carnivores or tertiary consumers belong to fourth trophic level. Decomposers form the
last or detritus trophic level.
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An ecosystem has only a few trophic levels mainly because about 80% of
potential energy is lost during each transfer of energy, as stated in second law of
thermodynamics. Furthermore, food is not completely utilized and respiration
consumes large amount of energy.
Food chains:
The transfer of materials and energy in the form of food from one trophic level to
another trophic level by the repeated process of eating and being eaten is called food
chain. Based on the components from which the food chain starts, food chain is
classified into three types:
1. Grazing food Chain:

This type of food chain starts from green plants and ends in carnivores by
passing through herbivores. This chain is directly dependent on solar radiation
i.e. on autotrophic energy capture and its movement to herbivores and their
predators. It is the most common type of food chain found in grassland, forest
and pond ecosystems.
2. Parasitic food chain:

It goes from large organisms to smaller ones without outright killing as in case of
predation. For e.g.
TRee
Tree Herbivore bird Parasites Hyperparasites
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A single tree may support the growth of few herbivore birds, which in turn support the
growth of many parasites, and each parasite in turn may provide nutrition to still more
hyperparasites. Therefore, pyramid of number of this food chain are inverted.
3. Detritus Food Chain:

The dead organic remains and metabolic wastes derived from grazing food chain
are termed as detritus. Detritus food chain starts from dead and waste organic
matter which is consumed by microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria and
protozoans known as detritivores. In turn, detritus consumers such as insect larvae,
crustaceans, molluscs etc predate on detritivores.
Detritus Detritus
Detritivores
consumers
(Fallen leaves and (Fungi, bacteria and (Insect larvae,

dead bodies) protozoans) crustaceans,
molluscs etc)
Food webs:
Depending upon the availability of food and food options, different organisms may
eat the food at different trophic levels and form complex type of feeding patterns in a
community. In this way, a network of food chains is formed in the community which
is known as food web.
Characteristics:
a. No food chain is independent in an ecosystem.
b. The food web provides the alternative pathways of food availability.
c. They help in checking the overpopulation of highly fecundive species.
The types of food web are:

1. Terrestrial food web:
Given figure explains the interlocking of various food chains in a terrestrial
food web.
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2. Aquatic food web:

Given figure explains the interlocking of various food chains in a food web in
a pond.
Diatoms,
Desmids, Algae
Tiny water Paramecium

Water-flea
insects
Water beetle Bacteria and

Shrimp
fungi
Dead plants and

Large fish Small fish animals
Prawn
Fig: Food web in a pond.

Project Work:
I. Construct models of food chain and food web using locally available resources.
II. Learn from internet the cases in history when either addition of exotic species or
killing of local indigenous species that led to serious ecological problems. Write the
story in your copy. At the last paragraph, include a paragraph on why each species is
important for ecological balance.
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Lecture 54
Ecological Pyramids:
An ecological pyramid is a sort of graphical representation showing the number,
energy and biomass of organisms across different trophic levels of an ecosystem.
In each ecological pyramid, producer level forms the base and successive levels make
up the apex. The pyramids become erect when the parameters gradually decrease
from the base to apex. It is inverted when parameters gradually increase from base
towards apex.
The three types of ecological pyramids found in the ecosystem are:
1. Pyramid of number
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy
1. Pyramid of number:
It shows the relationship between producers, herbivores and carnivores at
successive trophic levels in terms of their numbers. Pyramid of number in
grassland, forest and pond ecosystem is upright because number of producers
is always more than that of primary consumers. The number of secondary
consumers is higher than that of tertiary consumers, but lower than that of
primary consumers.
Producers > primary consumers > secondary consumers > tertiary consumers
Fig: Pyramid of number in grassland/pond ecosystem.

However, in a parasitic food chain, the pyramid of number is always inverted. For
example, a single tree may support the growth of a few herbivorous birds, which in
turn support the growth of many parasites and each parasite in turn may provide
nutrition to still more hyperparasites.
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Fig: Pyramid of number in parasitic food chain.
2. Pyramids of biomass:
Biomass refers to the total weight of dry matter or fixed energy present in the
ecosystem at any one time.
In grassland and forest, there is generally a gradual decrease in biomass of organism
at successive levels from the producers to the carnivores. Thus, pyramids are upright.
In pond ecosystem, the biomass of producers is the least and the value gradually
shows an increase towards the apex of the pyramid; i.e.
Producers < Primary consumers < Secondary consumers < Tertiary
Therefore, the pyramid of biomass in pond ecosystem is inverted.
Fig: (A) Pyramid of biomass in grassland ecosystem (B) Pyramid of biomass in

pond ecosystem
3. Pyramid of energy:
The pyramid of energy represents the total amount of energy utilized by different
trophic level organisms of an ecosystem in unit area over a set period of time. The
pyramid of energy is always upright because there is always gradual decrease in
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energy content at successive trophic levels from the producers to various consumers.
This decrease in energy is mainly due to loss of energy as heat in metabolic activities.
Fig: Pyramid of energy
Productivity:
The producers prepare their own food by the process of photosynthesis. The
potential energy stored in plant tissues as organic matter (sugars) are transferred to
primary consumers after they eat plants. Further, secondary consumers eat primary
consumers and tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers. This leads to energy
transfer from plants to tertiary consumers through different trophic levels.
The production or storage of organic matter by living being in a unit time is called
productivity. Productivity is measured in units of kilo-joules per square metre per
year.
Types of productivity:
They are of following types:
1. Primary productivity:
It is the total amount of energy or food produced and stored in producers. It is of two
types:
A. Gross primary productivity:

It is the total amount of food produced by the producers without its consumption in
metabolic activities and loss in the form of heat.
B. Net primary productivity:

It is the total amount of storage of organic matter in plant tissue after its
consumption in metabolic activities and loss in the form of heat.
2. Secondary productivity:
The rate of storage of energy in consumers i.e. herbivores, carnivores and
decomposers is secondary productivity. Consumers get the food energy from
producers in the form of organic matter and store it as potential energy. In each step
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of energy transformation, a lot of energy is lost as heat. Consumers utilize the food
materials in their vital activities (i.e. respiration) and tissue formation.
Project Work:
I. Construct models of ecological pyramids in pond and forest ecosystem.
Lecture 55
Biogeochemical Cycle
The elements required for the proper growth and development of living organisms
circulate more or less in cyclic manner from abiotic environment to living organisms
and again back to the non living environment is called biogeochemical cycle
The flow involves not only living organisms but also a series of chemical reactions in
the abiotic environment these cycles are called biogeochemical cycle.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is essential constituent of many biologically significant molecules such as
amino acids, proteins, enzymes, chlorophylls, nucleic acids etc.
Green plants obtain nitrogen from soil solution in the form of ammonium, nitrate, and
nitrite ions and the main source of all these nitrogen compounds is the atmospheric
nitrogen. Nitrogen cycle consists of following steps:
i. Nitrogen fixation
Conservation of free atmospheric nitrogen into the biologically acceptable form or
nitrogenous compounds is known as nitrogen fixation. It is of two types:
a. Non-biological nitrogen fixation

It is the process in which lightning or electrical discharges in the clouds
produce different nitrogen oxides. These nitrogen oxides dissolve in rainwater
and mix with earth surface.
b. Biological nitrogen fixation:

Certain free living bacteria in the soil (eg. Azotobacter), symbiotic bacteria
present in the root nodules of leguminous plants (eg. Rhizobium) and blue
green algae (eg. Nostoc) carry out biological nitrogen fixation.
ii. Nitrogen assimilation

The fixed nitrogen in the form of nitrates, nitrites and ammonia is utilized by green
plants and stored in the plants in the form of protein. Nitrates are first converted into
ammonia, which combines with organic acids to form amino acids. Amino acids are
used in the synthesis of proteins, enzymes, nucleic acid etc. When plants are eaten by
animals the protein is transfer to animal. This is called nitrogen assimilation.
iii. Amonification
The dead bodies of plants and animals and excreta of animals are acted upon by a
number of microorganisms like bacteria (eg. Bacillus ramosus) and fungi. They
utilize organic compounds and release ammonia in the soil. This process is called
ammonification.
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iv. Nitrification
Some bacteria like Nitrosomonas converts ammonia into nitrites and the nitrites are
converted into nitrates by Nitrobacter. These bacteria are called nitrifying bacteria
and the conversion of ammonia into nitrate is called nitrification.
v. Denitrification
The process of conversion of ammonia and nitrates into free nitrogen by certain
bacteria like Bacillus denitrificans is known as denitrification.
Fig: Nitrogen Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Carbon is an essential constituent of all organic compounds found in living beings. In
the non-living world, the major sources of carbon are carbon dioxide in air and water,
carbonates in the rocks in the earth’s crust, and the fossil fuels like coal and
petroleum.
Carbon fixation
The atmospheric carbondioxide is fixed by green plants during photosynthesis. The
plants, in presence of water, sunlight and carbondioxide, manufacture food. The
carbon is then stored in different forms of carbohydrates in plant body.
Carbon Assimilation:
Later on, carbohydrates, complex fats and polysachharides are formed in plants which
are utilized by animals (herbivores). Carnivores feed on herbivores and the carbon
compounds are again digested and converted into the other forms for storage.
Release of carbon back to environment:

a. During respiration, plants, animals and microorganisms release carbondioxide
into the atmosphere.
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b. The CO2 is also produced in atmosphere during burning of coal, firewood and
fuel.
c. After death of animals and plants, the CO2 is produced and mixed into
atmosphere during decomposition.
d. Some amount of carbondioxide is also released during volcanic eruption and
dissolution of carbonate rocks.
Fig: carbon cycle

Project Work:
I. Prepare well-decorated charts illustrating the concepts of nitrogen

cycle and carbon cycle.
Lecture 56
Succession:
The progressive or orderly sequence of replacement of one community of organisms
with another gradually over a period of time is called ecological or biotic succession.
Causes of succession:
The main causes of succession are:
i) Initial or Initiating causes:

It includes both climatic causes and biotic causes. The climatic causes
include drought, heavy snowfall, hails, erosion and deposition, wind, fire,
lightning, volcanic eruption etc. All these often results in the total
destruction of existing population in an area which then follows the
development of new environment.
158
Biotic causes include grazing, cutting, clearing, cultivation, harvesting and

deforestation, all caused by living agencies. These are directly responsible
for vegetational change. The parasitic plants and animals also destroy the
population.
ii) Ecesis or continuing cause:

These include the processes like migration, aggregation, competition,
reaction etc which causes succession waves of population as a result of
edaphic features of the area.
Types of succession:
Depending upon the nature of bare area on which it develops, the succession may be
of two kinds:
1. Primary Succession:
When the succession starts from a bare or sterile area, it is known as primary
succession. For e.g. succession on bare rock (lithosere)
2. Secondary Succession:
When the succession starts on the area which has been previously colonized but has
been cleared off by some reasons (e.g. fire, erosion, wind, diseases, flood etc) is
known as secondary succession.
General process of succession

The whole process of a primary autotrophic succession is carried out through
following sequential steps.
1. Nudation:
It is the development of a nude or bare area without any form of life on it. The cause
of nudation can be classified as -
i. Topographic: It is due to soil erosion by silting, volcanic activity, gravity,
wind or flood. Due to all these events, the existing community may
disappear.
ii. Climatic: Storms, drought, hails, forest fire etc may also destroy the
community.
iii. Biotic: Human, insect pests, fungi, bacteria, virus, parasites, are also very
important causes of forests and grasslands destruction.
2. Invasion:
The successful establishment of a species in a bare area is called invasion. This
includes following three steps.
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A) Dispersal or Migration:
Seeds, spores etc disperse whereas insects, birds or animals migrate in the nude or
bare area from any other area through water, wind, insects etc.
B) Establishment (Ecesis):
The process of successful establishment of a species after reaching in the new area as
the result of adjustment with conditions prevailing there is known as ecesis.
C) Aggregation:
After ecesis of the species, they reproduce extensively so as to increase the number
and come closer to each other. This is called aggregation.
3. Coaction and competition:

Coactions and competitions develop for food and space among the individual species
due to aggregation of different populations. The individual or species which cannot
compete may be replaced from the community, but due to high productivity and their
ecological amplitude, they may be maintained in an area.
4. Reaction:
It is the process of modification of environments due to the influence of living
organisms on it. The soil, water and temperature of the environment change as a result
of reaction making the environment unsuitable for the existing communities and
sooner or later will be replaced by another communities.
5. Stabilization (climax):
It is the final stage of succession where community becomes relatively stable with the
environmental condition for a longer period of time. The community are called climax
community.
Climax concept of succession

There are different theories about the climax concept. These are:
1. Monoclimax theory:
According to this theory, climate is the sole cause of stabilization. So, only
one climax is developed in a particular area. The climax is determined by
regional climate.
2. Polyclimax theory:
According to this theory, many climates that exist in an area are controlled by
many factors such as soil, moisture, soil nutrients, topography etc.
Project Work:
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I. Burn all the plant vegetation in a small area completely. Follow up the area in a gap
of few days for some months. Write your impressions chronologically to prepare a
written document.
Lecture 57
Ecological adaptation
Adaptation is any attribute of the organism (morphological, physiological,

reproductive) that enables the organism to survive and reproduce in its habitat. Many
adaptations have evolved over a long evolutionary time and are genetically fixed.
Adaptations enhance the fitness and survivability of individuals.
Depending upon the quantity of water available in the habitat, plants undergo
modification of their body structures so that they can suitably adapt themselves. This
is called plant adaptation. Accordingly plants are classified broadly into three groups;
xerophytes, mesophytes and hydrophytes.
Xerophytes
These are plants that grow in places with scanty water such as deserts, slopes of
mountains and sandy hills. In addition, such plants are also found in physiologically
dry habitats which are too salty or too acidic or too hot or too cold despite having
excess water in them. The plant is modified so that it can withstand prolonged periods
of drought conditions without getting harmed.
Classification of xerophytes:
Xerophytes can be classified on different bases:
1. On the basis of drought resisting power, xerophytes are classified as follows:
A. Drought escaping plants (Ephemerals):

These xerophytes are short-lived and commonly found in semi-arid zones where rainy
season is of short duration. During very dry periods, they survive in the forms of
seeds and fruits. On return of favourable conitions, the seeds germinate into new
plants which complete their life cycles in a few weeks.
B. Drought resistant plants:

These plants grow on a various habitats like deserts, sands, gravels and so on. They
can resist extreme droughts by developing certain adaptive features in them.
2. On the basis of morphology, physiology and life cycle patterns, xerophytes are
classified as follows:
A. Ephemeral annuals:
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They are small-sized, short-lived annual plants found in arid zones. They complete
their life cycle within 6 - 8 weeks. Some examples include Cassia tora, Argemone
mexicana, Solanum xanthocarpum etc.
B. Succulents:
They have fleshy stems and leaves which store large amount of water during brief
rainy seasons. For e.g. Opuntia, Aloe, Begonia, Agave, Yucca, Tradescantia etc.
C. True xerophytes (non-succulent xerophytes):

True xerophytes can survive and grow in both high temperature and critically dry
conditions. They are woody trees, shrubs or herbs. For e.g. Calotropis procera,
Nerium, Salvaclora, Prosopis etc.
Xerophytic adaptations:
Xerophytic adaptation is any alterations in the morphological, physiological and
reproductive functions and structures of xerophytes that enables them to survive and
reproduce in their habitat.
The following parts of the plants undergo modification.
 Root -
Produces a long, profusely branched taproot that grows deep into the soil in search
of water.
Root hairs are densely developed near the growing tips of the rootlets.
 Leaf-
Undergoes various types of modifications in order to reduce transpiration (loss of

water through the leaves), or even store water.
Leaves of some xerophytes are greatly caducous (they fall early in the season).
Leaves are reduced to scales in Ruscus, Asparagus etc.
Some evergreen xerophytes (e.g. Pinus etc.) have needle-shaped leaves to reduce
transpiration.
In Acacia and Prosopis, the leaves are reduced in size.
In certain xerophytes (e.g. Calotropis procera), leaves are very thick and leathery to
reduce transpiration.
In Nerium, Cycas, Equisetum etc., sunken stomata are found.
In Opuntia (prickly pear), Euphorbia etc., the leaves are reduced to spines.
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 Stem:
In Opuntia, the stem performs the function of storage of reserve water and so
becomes thick and fleshy. It also turns green because of the presence of
chlorophyll as it performs photosynthesis. The epidermis of the stem is covered
with a waxy layer to prevent loss of water.
Either aerial or subterranean stems of some xerophytes become very hard and
woody.
Some xerophytes have their stems modified into thorns. For e.g. Duranta, Ulex
etc.
In cactus, stems are modified into leaf-like flattened, green and fleshy structures
(phylloclades) that store large amount of water and mucilage.
 Flowers, fruits and seeds:
Flowers usually develop in the favourable conditions. Fruits and seeds are
protected by very hard shells or coatings.
Project Work:
I. Collect few xerophytic plants in your area and note their characteristic features. Next,
prepare a report including their habitat, morphological, physiologic and reproductive
attributes helping them thrive under xerophytic conditions.
Lecture 58
Hydrophytes
These are plants that grow in water (either partly or wholly submerged) or in a very
wet places. For e.g. Vallisneria, Hydrilla, Chara, Nitella, Lotus, Trapa, Pistia,
Eichornia, Wolffia, Lemna etc. They may be classified as follows:
1. Submerged hydrophytes:
These plants grow below the water surface and therefore are not in direct contact with
air. They may be either rooted, submerged (e.g. Vallisneria, Hydrilla etc.) or
free-floating submerged (e.g. Utricularia etc.).
2. Floating hydrophytes:
These plants freely float on water surface. So, they are in contact with both air and
water. They may be either free floating (e.g. Trapa, Wolffia, Eichornia, Salvinia,
Azolla etc.) or floating rooted (e.g. Lotus, water lily etc.).
3. Amphibian hydrophytes:
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They are adapted to both aquatic and terrestrial mode of life. These plants grow either
in shallow water or on a muddy substratum. Examples include Oryza sativa,
Saggitaria etc. Many marshy plants (roots completely burried in water-logged soil,
but shoots completely exposed on air) belong to amphibian hydrophytes. For e.g.
Cyperus, Typha etc.
The following are the adaptations found in this group:
 Root -
The root system is either poorly developed (e.g. Hydrilla, Eichhornia etc.) or
absent (e.g. Ceratophyllum, Azolla, etc.).
Root hairs are absent (e.g. Lemna) or poorly developed.
True root caps are not present in floating hydrophytes.
Root pockets are present that helps in maintaining balance (e.g Eichornia, Pistia
etc.).
Fibrous roots are present which may be either unbranched or sparsely branched.
 Stem -
The stem may be reduced as in Lemna (Duckweed) or may be long, slender, flexible
and spongy as in Nelumbo (Lotus). The spongy nature is due to the large air spaces
which makes them buoyant.
 Leaves -
The leaves may be thin and finely dissected as in Hydrilla or ribbon-like as in

Vallisneria.
In floating hydrophytes (e.g. Nelumbo), the leaves are large and flat with their upper
surface coated with wax. Stomata are found in amphibious plants and in floating
plants (only on the upper surface). They are absent in submerged plants, so gaseous
exchange takes place through cell walls directly in them.
Heterophilous leaves maye be present. The submerged leaves are linear, or ribbon like
or highly dissescted; and the floating leaves are usual or circular.
In Eichornia, the leaves are with swollen and spongy petiole for providing buoyancy.
 Flowers and Seeds
They are less abundant and light in weight (float in water).
Water helps in pollination and seed dispersal.
164
 Other adaptations:
Vegetative reproduction (e.g. fragmentation etc.) is common method of propagation.
Mechanical tissues are absent or poorly developed. Thick-walled sclerenchymatous

tissues are generally absent.
Vascular tissues are poorly developed because absorption of water and minerals takes
place through cell surface. Xylem is highly reduced and usually represented by few
tracheids only.
Project Work:
II. Collect few aquatic plants in your area (e.g. Eichornia, Nelumbo
etc.) and note their characteristic features. Next, prepare a report
including their habitat, morphological, physiologic and reproductive
attributes helping them thrive under hydrophytic conditions.
LECTURE 59
ECOLOGICAL IMBALANCES
1. Green House Effect and Climate Change

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the
Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and
the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
ozone and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
The absorbed energy warms the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. This process
maintains the Earth’s temperature at around 33 degrees Celsius warmer than it would
otherwise be, allowing life on Earth to exist.
https://www.environment.gov.au/climate-change/climate-science-data/climate-science
/greenhouse-effect
Causes of increase in CO2

Due to human civilization, excessive amount of CO2 is being deposited in the
atmosphere through furnaces of power plants, automobiles, factories, burning of coal
or fossils fuels etc. To some extent, an increase in CO2 level in atmosphere increases
the rate of photosynthesis but further increase pollutes the air and water.
There are other gases also which cause green house effect. They are SO2, NO2, CH4,
CFCs and so on.
Consequences of Green House Effect

Green house effect results global warming (increase in temperature of earth as a
whole). Global warming may spread tropical diseases to other regions.
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Global warming results increase in sea level due to the melting of polar ice-caps. A
rise in sea level of 50 - 100 cm would flood low lands of Bangladesh, West Bengal
and other areas.
More tsunami, typhoons, hurricanes and cyclones occur nearby the ocean due to
global warming.
Higher atmospheric temperature would increase evaporation of water from the farms,
thus reduce the crop yield.
Green house effect affects the hydrological cycle of nature. So, there is a chance of
making rainfall pattern irregular in different parts of the world.
Control Measures:
I. Fossil fuel usage should be discouraged by appropriate policy interventions and by
providing alternative cheap energy resources such as hydroelectricity, solar energy
etc.
II. Defforestation should be controlled and afforestation programmes should be

encouraged.
2. Depletion of Ozone Layer

The ozone (O3) is a gas that occurs naturally in earth’s atmosphere between 10 - 50
km. The ozone is considered as both destroyer as well as protector for us.
What is Ozone?
The accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere due to photosynthesis by green plants
resulted in the formation of an ozone layer high in the earth atmosphere. The ozone
layer forms a very protective covering around the earth's atmosphere. It prevents the
UV rays present in the solar radiations from reaching our atmosphere, thus saving us
from the extremely damaging effect of UV rays.
The ozone layer depletion is the process of destruction or using up of ozone in the
stratosphere by different pollutants making the ozone layer thinner. When ozone is
depleted, there would be certain zones or holes without ozone through which UV
radiation enter the earth causing various problems such as skin cancer.
Cause of Ozone depletion

Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and nitrogen oxides produced by the aircrafts, satellites,
industries, and nitrogen fertilizer plants, when released in atmosphere, (especially
CFCs) stay for five to six years in the atmosphere. During this period, it gradually
releases chlorine, which reacts with ozone and causes damage to it.
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Effect of ozone layer depletion
Change of environment
Due to more UV radiations entering in the Earth, temperature rises to a certain degree,
which can lead to the failure of rainfall.
Skin cancers
When the ozone layer is depleted, harmful UV radiations causes mutations leading to
diseasses like skin cancers and others.
Destruction of aquatic life:

UV radiation results in killing of larval and young ones of aquatic animals like fishes.
Similarly, there will be a decrease in the number of phytoplanktons and zooplanktons.
Reduction in productivity of crops

Higher UV radiation reduces the photosynthesis. It also causes altered growth and
chlorophyll content reduction. It also increases harmful mutations. These combined
effects lead to reduction in productivity of crops.
Weakened immune system:

Due to UV rays, lymphocytes will be killed thereby weakening our immune system.
This further makes us susceptible to herpes and other diseases.
Control Measures:
Alternative sources of CFCs should be utilized. CFCs should be banned through
formulation of policies.
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Project Work:
I. Green house effect can be used to grow off-season vegetables and other crops as well. Study
a green house near your area and write about its uses.
II. Green house effect is good for the Earth. Without it, we would have already been extinct.
However, increased concentration of green house gases is worrysome. Write an essay on green
house effect and climate change, so that junior school students can understand it.
III. Prepare a mode of green house effect.
IV. Prepare a model of ozone layer depletion.
Lecture 60
3. Acid Rain
It is the process of deposition of acidic gases (SO2, nitrogen oxides etc) from the
atmosphere on land in the form of precipitation or rain. It thus increases H+
concentration of precipitation.
Causes of Acid Rain

Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen (SO2, NO, NO2) are the major air pollutants produced
by the combustion of fossil fuels for power generation in industries, factories and
automobiles. These oxides in long run react with moisture to form respective acids
(H2SO4, HNO3), which then dissolve with water vapor in the atmosphere and fall on
the earth as acid rain.
Effects of Acid Rain
i. Effects on biogeochemical cycle:

Acid rain adversely affects nitrogen and sulfur cycle. pH level of soil and water
affects the survival of nitrogen-fixing bacteria which in turn affects plant
productivity.
ii. Effects on aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna:

The acid rain raises acidity of water of lake or pond killing many bacteria, algae,
zooplanktons etc which further disrupts the ecological balance.
iii. Health hazards:

Acid rain causes cough, irritation of throat, bronchitis, asthma, respiratory and
cardiac problems.
iv. Corrodes the metals:

Buildings, monuments, bridges, fences, railways etc are corroded by the acid rain.
Control
 Air pollution should be controlled. Waste gases should be treated to remove its
sulphur (desulphurization).
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 Fossil fuel usage should be replaced by alternative clean energy sources such as
solar energy, electricity etc.
 Gases coming out of automobiles should be treated first before discharging out.
 The sulphur from coal should be removed before burning it.
Biological invasion
An alien or introduced species is one coming from a different habitat or region. A
proportion of these introduced species can survive without harm for an unknown
period of time until it is able to override certain environmental restrictions,
reproduce and form a population. These populations in the new range are called
established species.
Finally, some of the established species are able to advance over natural or
semi-natural environments, becoming invasive. The time frame depends on the
species and on local conditions, not being predictable. The technical term for this
period of time is “lag phase”, referring to the time a species, under certain
circumstances, needs to adapt, reproduce and spread.
An invasive species therfore is an introduced species that advances without direct

human assistance and threatens natural or semi-natural habitats outside its natural
distribution range, causing economic, social or environmental impacts.
With the advancement in international trades (e.g. agricultural, fishing, ornamental,

forestry trades etc.) through aerial, maritime and road transport across the globe,
species get access to foreign areas through vectors such as ballast water, packaging
materials, trash, soil, woods, animals and many others. Some of these alien species
become invasive and produce varying impacts, if left uncontrolled.
Some invasive plant species of Nepal are shown in table below:
Name of invasive species Local name Native country and first

report
Ageratina adenophora Kalo Banmara Mexico (1952)
Eichornia crassipes Water hyacinth S. America (1966)
(Jalkumbhi)
Ageratum conyzoides Gandhe C and S. America (1910)
Mimosa pudica Lajjawati Mexico to S. America
(1910)
Pistia stratiotes Watter lettuce (Kumbhika) South America (1952)
Impacts:
Following are the consequences of biological invasions:
A. Impacts on health:
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Microorganisms causing invasive diseases (e.g. bacteria, parasites etc.) and invasive
disease vectors may lead to introduction of infectious diseases on humans, plants
and animals such as COVID-19, HIV/AIDS etc. Managing such diseases may become
difficult because of lack of treatment guidelines, lack of medications and other
reasons.
B. Impacts on society:
Invasive plants, insects and diseases may encroach fertile lands, damage food crops,
disrupt social interactions (due to disease transmission fears or security threats) and
so on. Therefore, society as a whole suffers from reduced food security, disease risks,
narrowed livelihood options etc.
C. Impacts on environment:
Biological invasion is rated as the second cause of biodiversity loss on the planet.
Attempt to control invasive species by using chemicals lead to increased
environmental pollution. Furthermore, invasive species modify or degrade the
environment causing negative effects on native species and people’s livelihood.
D. Impacts on evolution:
They include:
 Prevention of allopatric speciation.
 Changes in genetic diversity leading to outbreeding depression.
 Negative influence on native species’ size, growth, distribution, genetic make-up
and behaviour.
E. Impacts on economy:
They include:
 Health hazards to living organisms demanding further expenditure in health.
 Reduction in soil quality.
 Decline in productivity of both crops and animals.
 Growth in financial need to control invasive species and to reverse their effects.
Management:
I. Prevention:
The first and the best strategy to stop biological invasion is to detect and remove the
invasive organisms early.
II. Eradication:
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Invasive species can be removed from its habitat or region especially when the
species are limited in their distribution.
III. Control:
It involves:
A. Manual control:
By digging, hand-pulling, flooding and other manual ways, invasive species can be
controlled in an environment-friendly ways.
B. Mechanical control:
By hoeing, cutting, mowing, chopping and using other tools or machines, invasive
species can be controlled in medium range of area, although it can be expensive and
damaging to environment to some extent.
C. Chemical control:
Chemicals like herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, pesticides etc can be used to

control invasive species. However, it leaves detrimental effects on the environment.
D. Biological control:
Natural enemies against the invasive species can be used intentionally to control the
invasive species that has spread on a large area. This method helps reduce
competitive ability, vigor and reproducing capacity of invasive species.
Project Work:
I. Design an experiment to show how acid rain occurs.
II. Study one of the invasive species near your surrounding and write a report on its introduction and
impacts.
III. COVID-19 causing virus has been spreading here in Nepal. Write a report on its introduction to
Nepal and impacts in our country. How have you and your family been affected by this disease?
Lecture 61
Vegetation:
Vegetation is an assemblage of different forms of plant life (trees, shrubs, herbs,

mosses etc) of different species in a specified area (without any influence of human
beings) and the ground cover they provide.
The vegetation type is defined by characteristic dominant species, or a common

aspect of the assemblage, such as an elevation range or environmental commonality.
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Vegetation zone in Nepal

The forest of Nepal changes quickly owing to a great variation of topography, climate
and soil conditions.
Different researchers have classified the vegetation of Nepal differently. Dobremez
et al (1972) have identified 118 ecosystems and classify Nepal into 4 domains and 11
sub-levels and provide following six vegetation categories based on an altitudinal
classification (bio-climatic zones).
(a) Tropical (below 1,000 m altitude)

(b) Sub-tropical (1,000 to 2,000 m altitude)
(c) Temperate (2,000 to 3,000 m altitude)
(d) Sub-alpine (3,000 to 4,000 m altitude)
(e) Alpine (4,000 to 5,000 m altitude)
(f) Nival (above 5,000 m altitude)
A.Tropical Zone (below 1 000 m)

The forests in this zone are located in the Terai and the Shiwalik (Churia) hills.
Broadleaved forests dominate this zone except for some coniferous forests (Pinus
roxburgii) on southern aspects in the upper regions. This zone accounts for a total of
1,829 species of flowering plants and about 81 species of Pteridophytes (BPP, 1995).
The Terai covers about 14% of Nepal's area and there are significant differences in
the flora of the western and eastern parts due to difference in climate, rainfall and
soil type. Eastern Nepal is characterized by the presence of Cycas pectinata, Gnetum
montanum, Calamus spp., Cythea spinulosa, Pandanus nepalenses and permanent
grasslands locally known as Phanta, while the western Nepal vegetation is
characterized by the presence of Pinus roxburghii.
The Shiwalik range (Churia hills) occupies about 13% of the total land area of the
country. Typical vegetation in this region includes Cycas pectinata, Gnetum
montanum, Duabanga grandiflora, Calamus spp., Cythea pinulosa, Pandanus
nepalensis, and Podocarpus neriifolius.
Shorea robusta (sal) dominates the whole of the Terai region. It is accompanied by
Adina cordifolia, Aegle marmelos, Albizia spp., Anthocephalus chinensis, Anogeissus
latifolia, Butea frondosa, Dillenia pentagyna, Dillenia indica, etc.
Wherever sal is absent or less prevalent Lagerstroemia parviflora, Garuga pinnata,

Mitragyna parvifolia, Schleichera oleosa, Terminalia bellerica, Terminalia chebula,
Terminalia alata, etc. form forests along with Holarrhena pubescens and Mallotus
philippensis. In the riverine areas these species are replaced by Acacia catechu,
Dalbergia sissoo, Dalbergia latifolia, Syzygium jambos, Eugenia operculata, etc.
Some of the other common trees of this tropical zone are Albizzia procera, Alstonia
scholaris, Bombax ceiba, Bridelia retusa, Callicarpa arborea, Cassia fistula, Casearia
graveolens, Dillenia indica, Ficus spp., Kydia calicyna Lannea coromandalica,
Macaranga denticulata, Oroxylum indicum, and Semicarpus anacardium.
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B.Subtropical Zone (1,000 to 2,000 m)
This zone covers the central belt that lies north of the Shiwaliks and is composed of a
network of ridges. The subtropical forest consists of species such as Schima wallichii,
Castanopsis indica,and Castenopsis tribuloides on relatively humid areas while Pinus
roxburghii forms forests in drier regions. Conifer forests are dominated by species
like Tsuga dumosa (thingre salla), Pinus roxburghii (ranisalla) and Pinus wallichiana
(gobre salla) with patches of Quercus spp, and Rhododendron spp. This zone consists
of more than 1,945 flowering plant species.
Some common forest types in this region include Castanopsis tribuloirdes mixed with
Schima wallichi, Rhododendron spp., Lyonia ovalifolia, Eurya acuminata, and Quercus
glauca; Castanopsis-Laurales forest with Symplocas spp.; Alnus nepalensis forests;
Schima wallichii-Castanopsis indica hygrophile forest; Schima-Pinus forest; Pinus
roxburghii forests with Phyllanthus emblica. Semicarpus anacardium, Rhododendron
arboreum and Lyoma ovalifolia; Schima-Lagestromea parviflora forest, Quercus
lamellosa forest with Quercus lenata and Quercus glauca; Castononpsis forests with
C. hystrix and Lauraceae; mesohygophile forests with Quercus galuca and Quercus
lanata.
Associations of Lauraceous species are common in broadleaved forests; for example,

Litsea spp., Enlistee cupola, Persia odoratissima, Persea duthiei, etc., along with such
others as Engelhardtia spicata, Rhododendron arboreum, Lyonia ovalifolia, Pyrus
pashia, Rhus spp., Acer oblongum, myrica esculenta, Michelia kisopa, and Betula
alnoides.
Some other common trees and large shrub species of subtropical forests are
Semicarpus anacardium, Cretaeava unilocularis, Trewia nudiflora, Premna interrupta,
Ulmus lancifolia, Ulmus chumlia, Glochidium velutinum, Callicarpa arborea, Toona
ciliata, Ficus spp., Mahosama similicifolia, Trevesia palmate, Xylosma longifolium,
Boehmeria rugulosa, Scheffera venulosa, Michelia spp., Casearia graveilens, Rhus
wallichii, Actinodaphne reticulata, Sapimum insegne, Alns nepalensis, Ardisia
thyrsiflora, Ilex spp, Macaranga pustulata, Trichilia cannoroides, Celtis tetranda,
Wenlendia puberula, Saurauia nepalensis, Ligustrum confusum, Quercus glauca,
Zizyphus incurva, Camellia kissi, Hymenodictyon flaccidum, Maytenus thomsonii,
Zanthoxylum armatum, Rhus succednea, Eurya acuminata, Myrsine semiserrata,
Slonea tomentosa, Hydrangea asper, Symplocus spp., Cleyrea spp. and Quercus
lamellose.
C.Temperate zone (2,000 to 3,000 m)
This zone supports broadleaved evergreen forest dominated by plants such as

Quercus lamillosa and Q. semicarpifolia in pure or mixed stands. Species such as
Lindera and Litsea. Tseuga dumosa and Rhododendron spp. are also present in the
upper levels of this zone. Other important species are Magnolia campbellii, Michelia
doltsopa, Pieris ovalifolia, Daphnephyllum himalayanse, Acer campbellii, A.
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pectinatum, and Sorbus cuspidata but these species do not extend toward the west
beyond central Nepal. Alnus nepalensis, a pioneer tree species, grows gregariously
and forms pure patches of forests on newly exposed slopes, gullies, moist places and
on riversides.
The common forest types of this zone include Rododendraon arboreum,

Rohododendron barbatum, Lyonia spp., Pieris Formosa; Tsuga dumosa forest with
such deciduous species as Acer and Magnolia; deciduous mixed broadleaved forest
of Acer campbellii, Acer pectinatum, Sorbus cuspidata, and Magnolia campbellii;
mixed broadleaved forest of Rhododendron arboreum, Acer campbellii, Symplocos
ramosissima and Lauraceae.
This zone is habitat for many other important tree and large shrub species such as
Abies pindrow, Betula utilis, Buxus rugulosa, Benthamidia capitata, Corylus ferox,
Deutzia staminea, Euonymus tingens, Abies spectalbilis, Acanthopanax cissifolius,
Acer campbellii, Acer pectinatum, Betula alnoides, Coriaria terminalis, Fraxinus
macrantha, Dodecadenia grandiflora, Eurya cerasifolia, Hydrangea heteromala, Ilex
dipyrena, Ligrestum spp., Litsea elongata, Juglans regia, Lichelia doltsopa, Myrsine
capitallata Neolitsea umbrosa, Philadelphus tomentosus, Osmanthus fragrans,
Prunus cornuta, Rhododendron companulatum, Sorbus cuspidate, and Vibernum
continifolium.
D.Sub alpine zone (3,000 to 4,000 m)
The sub alpine zone covers about 43% of the land but accommodates only 6% of
Nepal's population. This zone supports forest vegetation up to the tree line with
more than 1,400 unique flowering plants. The number of unique plants are unique is
increasing with identification of more species. Further, 177 out of a total of 246
endemic plants in Nepal belong to this zone. Many medicinal species such as
Aconites, Allium, Bergenia, Ephedra, Daphne, Betula, Paris, Picrorhiza, Swertia and
Taxus that are important to the rural society and economy of Nepal are found in this
zone and used by local people.
The Betula-Rhododendron campanulatum and Abies spectabilis forest represents

the vegetation of this zone. Rhododendron spp. forms a mixed forest within Abies or
Betula forest or occurs as open shrub. Some important trees and shrub species of
this zone include Sorbus cuspidata, Euonymus tingens, Ribis glaciale, Acer
pectinatum. Salix spp., Lyonia spp., Prunus rufa, Acer candatum, Acanthopanax
cessifloia, Sorbus microphylla, and Berberis spp. The Juniperus spp. occurs in the drier
forest areas of this zone.
E. Alpine zone (4,000-5,000 m)
The alpine forest is characterized by the presence of various stunted bushy shrubs.
The main species are Rhododendron setosum, R. anthopogon, R. lepidotum,
Potentilla fruiticosa, Ephedra gerardiana, Berberis spp. and Cotoneaster accuminata.
In river valleys Hippophae spp. and Salix spp. along with Saxifraga, Arenaria and
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Androsace species and alpine grasses are found. Some common and important herbs
of this zone include Primula spp., Gentiana spp., Corydalis spp. and Saussurea spp.
F.Nival (above 5,000 m)
This zone consists of permanent snowfields, rocks, glaciers and ice on the high
Himalayan ranges in the north. The area lies under permanent snow and is mostly
without vegetation except for some Lichens on exposed rocky places and few
flowering plants such as Stellaria decumbens. This zone also supports species like
Androsace, Sassurea, Primula, and Arenaria that complete their life cycle within
three to four months during the rainy season.
http://www.fao.org/3/ae154e/AE154E04.htm
Project Work:
A. Prepare a report on the vegetation in your surrounding areas.
B. Prepare a large map of Nepal, and by using colours (or other suitable ways), show
the different vegetation zones.
Lecture 62
Conservations of Biodiversity (In-Situ Conservation and Ex-Situ
Conservation)
Humans have been directly or indirectly dependent on biodiversity for sustenance to
a considerable extent. However, increasing population pressure and developmental
activities have led to large scale depletion of the natural resources.
Conservation is the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of wildlife
and natural resources such as forests and water. Through the conservation of
biodiversity, the survival of many species and habitats which are threatened due to
human activities can be ensured.
Types of Conservation:
Conservation can broadly be divided into two types:
1. In-situ conservation
2. Ex-situ conservation
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In-situ Conservation:
In-situ conservation is on site conservation or the conservation of genetic resources

in natural populations of plant or animal species.
It is the process of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural

habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the
species from predators.
In-situ conservation is being done by declaring area as protected area. Protected

areas include national parks, animal sanctuaries, wild life reserves, buffer zones,
hunting reserves, biosphere reserves, conservation areas etc.
Now, the protected areas in Nepal include 10 national parks, 3 wildlife reserves, one
hunting reserve, 6 conservation areas and 11 buffer zones covering an area of
34,186.62 sq. km, that is, 23.23 percent of the total area of the country.
S.N. Buffer zones Area (square km)

1. Royal Chitwan National Park 750
2. Royal Bardiya National Park 328
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3. Makalu Barun National Park 830

4. Langtang National Park 420
5. Shey Phoksundo National Park 449
6. Sagarmatha National Park 275
National Park
National park is an area set up for the conservation and management of flora and
fauna, landscapes, and historic objects of an area. The activities like hunting and
damaging any animal, grazing, cultivation, felling any tree are prohibited within the
national park’s area.
Wildlife Reserve
It is an area set aside for the conservation and management of animals and plants
in their habitat.
Conservation Area
It is an area managed with an integrated plan for the conservation of natural
environment and the sustainable use of natural resources.
Hunting Reserve:
It is an area set aside for the conservation and management of wildlife. It provides
legal hunting opportunity.
Buffer Zone:
It is a surrounding area of national park and wildlife reserve. The local people can
use this zone for collection of forest products.
http://www.iscnagpur.ac.in/study_material/1.8_SAK_Conservations_of_Biodiversity
_EX-SITU_IN_SITU%5B1%5D.pdf
Advantages of in-situ conservation:
1. The flora and fauna live in natural habitats without human interference.
2. The life cycles of the organisms and their evolution progresses in a natural way.
3. In-situ conservation provides the required green cover and its associated benefits
to our environment.
4. It is less expensive and easy to manage.
5. The interests of the indigenous people are also protected.
Ex-Situ Conservation:
Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological diversity (whole
plants, seed, pollen, vegetative propagates, cell or tissue cultures etc) outside their
natural habitats. Endangered plants and animals are taken out from their natural
habitat and protected and cared under special settings, during ex-situ conservation.
Some of the ex-situ conservation ways are described below:
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i. Seed gene bank:

These are cold storages where seeds are kept under controlled temperature and
humidity for storage and this is the easiest way to store the germ plasma of plants at
low temperature. Seeds preserved under controlled conditions (minus temperature)
remain viable for long durations of time.
ii. Gene bank:

Genetic variability also is preserved by gene bank under normal growing conditions.
These are cold storages where germplasm are kept under controlled temperature
and humidity for storage; this is an important way of preserving the genetic
resources.
iii. Cryopreservation:
This is the newest application of technology for preservation of biotic parts. This type
of conservation is done at very low temperature (- 196°C) in liquid nitrogen. The
metabolic activities of the organisms are suspended under low temperature, which
are later used for research purposes.
iv. Tissue culture bank:

Cryopreservation of disease free meristems is very helpful. Long term culture of
excised roots and shoots are maintained. Meristem culture is very popular in plant
propagation as it’s a virus and disease free method of multiplication.
v. Botanical gardens:
A botanical garden is a place where flowers, fruits and vegetables are grown. The
botanical gardens provide beauty and calm environment. Most of them have started
keeping exotic plants for educational and research purposes.
Advantages of ex-situ preservation:
1. It is useful for declining population of species.
2. Endangered animals on the verge of extinction are successfully breeded.
3. Threatened species are breeded in captivity and then released in the natural
habitats.
4. Ex-situ centres offer the possibilities of observing wild animals, which is otherwise
not possible.
5. It is extremely useful for conducting research and scientific work on different

species.
Some of the major Differences between In-situ and ex-situ Conservation are as
follows:
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In situ Conservation:
1. It is conservation of endangered species in their natural habitats.
2. The endangered species are protected from predators.
3. The depleting resources are augmented.
4. The population recovers in natural environment.
Ex situ Conservation:
1. It is conservation of endangered species outside their natural habitats.

2. The endangered species are protected from all adverse factors.
3. They are kept under human supervision and are provided all the essentials.
4. Offspring produced in captive breeding are released in natural habitat for

acclimatization.
Project Work:
I. Visit one of the in-situ or ex-situ conservation sites, and prepare a report on its introduction,
importance and your impression.
II. Write an essay on importance of botanical gardens in Nepal.
Lecture 63
Natural Environment - Vegetation and Human Activities
The conditions and surroundings of living as well as non-living things exsiting on the
Earth’s surface without any influence of human beings is called the natural
environment. Natural environment comprises ecological units operating as natural
systems (e.g. soil, vegetation etc) and universal natural resources (e.g. air and
water).
Man-made or artificial environment have been created by transformation or

influence of various human activities.
Vegetations of an area have an important roles in keeping balance of the natural

environment. However, rapid urbanization, agricultural activities, industrialization
and such other activities have led to destruction of vegetations bringing a series of
unfavourable changes on the Earth (e.g. soil erosion, ecological imbalance etc.).
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Man-made causes of destruction of vegetation:
Different human activities that have destructed vegetation include the following:
A. Farming:
Increasing population demands for increased food production. People cut down
jungles for extending agricultural activities.
B. Developmental projects:
Construction of roads, buildings, dams, newer cities etc have led to destruction of
forests and woodlands.
C. Overgrazing of cattle:
People especially in rural areas allow their cattle to graze in forests. Cattles eat
plantlets often pulling out them with their roots. This has led to clearance of
vegetation.
D. Fire:
Human activities may cause forest fire especially during dry, hot seasons. The fire
irreversibly damages many vegetations at a time.
E. Industrialization and mining:
Establishment of industries and mining activities leads to both clearance of
vegetation and degradation of quality of soil, water and air; negatively influencing
vegetations in the surrounding areas too.
Hazards (Effects) of Destruction of Vegetation:
They include:
1. Ecological imbalance:
Vegetation destruction causes ozone layer depletion, greenhouse effect, acid rain
etc.
2. Loss of biodiversity:
Vegetation destruction may lead to extinction of plant species and their dependants
(e.g. microbes, animals etc.).
3. Loss of fertility:
Vegetation destruction causes unstable top soil which is prone to be carried away by
landslides and agents such as water, wind etc. This leads to reduction in soil fertility.
4. Imbalance of biogeochemical cycle:
Vegetation destruction also negatively influences biogeochemical cycles such as
carbon cycle, oxygen cycle, water cycle, nitrogen cycle etc.
5. Environmental pollution:
Vegetation destruction pollutes the environmetal components such as air, water, soil
etc.
6. Drought and desertification:
Loss of vegetation contributes to enhanced green house effect causing rise in
temperature, which in turn leads to increased evaporation of water converting moist
soil into dry form. This leads to drought and desertification.
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http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/BPL_Images/Content_store/WWW_C
ontent/9781405127042/9781405127042_goudie_CH2.pdf
Project Work:
I. Find the causes of vegetation destruction in the nearest area from your home. Next, prepare a
report including the type of vegetation earlier found there, causes of destruction, consequences of
the destruction (at societal level, ecological level etc.) and your impression.
II. Research on internet and write a nice article for a newspaper including the innovative ways of
reviving the degraded forests in the different parts of the world including Pakistan, India and other
developed countries. (Hints: usage of drones, seeds inside certain shells thrown from helicopters etc.)
Write about one of the mega projects that is being implemented in near future and has potential to
cause massive vegetation destruction. If possible, select projects that have their EIA report published.
Next, write about the extent of vegetation destruction, effects of the destruction and potential
remedies for that particular project.
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References:
And C.K.J. Paniker (2001). Textbook of Microbiology, Orient Longman Private Limited, Hyderabad,
India.
Dutta, A.C. (2001). Botany for Degree Students. Oxford University Press, Kolkata, India
Keshari, A.K., Mishra, B.S., Ghimire, K.R. and Adhikari K.K. (2073). A Textbook of Higher Secondary
Biology, Class XI, Vidyarthi Pustak Bhandar, Kathmandu
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A Concise Book On Biology For Upper Secondary School Students By Prodeep Paudel

A Concise Book On Biology

A Concise Book On Biology

First Edition: 2020

Copyright: Solely on Author

In Revered Memory of my Grandmother

Late Tulasi Paudel (1980 B.S. - 2068 B.S.)

I am very thankful to my family for their invaluable support and inspirations. I am

Further suggestions from everyone will be gratefully acknowledged and will be

Prodeep Paudel, M.Sc.

Unit 1 (Biomolecules and Cell Biomolecules (Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids,

Three domains of life, binomial nomenclature,

Concept of ecology, Ecological factors, Pond

Unit 5 on Vegetation Types of vegetation in Nepal, In-situ and ex-situ

They are chemically simplest forms of carbohydrate. They can’t be hydrolyzed

Oligosaccharides are those sugars which contain 2 to 10 molecules of

 Carbohydrates are a source of energy.

a. Classification of proteins on the basis of chemical nature.

b. Classification of Protein on the basis of shape

ii. Globular Proteins:-

Proteins have four different structures:-

II. Secondary structure:-

III. Tertiary structure:-

IV. Quaternary structure:-

1. Structural proteins like ossein of bone, keratin of hair or skin etc

Types of fatty acid:

They are of 2 types:-

Differences between saturated and unsaturated fatty acid:

Saturated fatty acid Unsaturated fatty acid

 They are the esters of fatty acid(s) and glycerols (glycerides).

b. Complex lipids (Conjugated lipids)

5. Act as shock-absorbing cushions

7. Formation of sex hormones and vitamin D requires lipids.

8. Lipoprotein can prevent bacterial diseases.

ii. Nitrogenous base:-

iii. Phosphoric Acid:-

 Types of nucleic acid:

1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid):-

a. DNA consists of two polydeoxyribonucleotide chains spirally twisted around

2. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid):-

 General characteristics of RNA:-

a. It is single- stranded. It consists of polyribonucleotides.

d. The ribonucleotides are connected by phosphodiester bonds.

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA):-

It forms not more than 5% of total RNA present in cell. mRNA

2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):-

3. Transfer RNA (tRNA):-

Functions of nucleic acids:

1. DNA carries genetic characters from one generation to another.

 Draw a model of RNA using commonly available materials.

I. Micronutrients (microelements or trace elements)

II. Macronutrients (Macroelements)

2. Phosphorous is the structural component of ATP, DNA, RNA, protein,

3. Potassium ions involve in opening and closing of stomata in plants,

4. Calcium provides rigidity and strength to bones and teeth. It is also

Biological roles of water:-

iii. Source of electron

vi. Germination of seeds and spores

Vii. Temperature stabilizer

 Chemically, enzymes are generally globular proteins. (Some RNA molecules

Factors influencing Enzyme Activity

Increment in enzyme concentration leads to increment in rate of reaction provided

IV. Purified enzymes are used to diagnose and treat diseases.