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IJCHM
34,7 Applying the sociotechnical
systems theory to crowdsourcing
food delivery platforms: the
2450 perspective of
Received 24 October 2021
Revised 28 January 2022
crowdsourced workers
17 March 2022
Accepted 21 March 2022 Somi Lee
College of Hotel and Tourism Management, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
Howook (Sean) Chang
Chaplin School of Hospitality and Tourism Management,
Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA, and
Meehee Cho
College of Hotel and Tourism Management, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea

Abstract
Purpose – Crowdsourcing food delivery represents great potential for future development and expansion of
the restaurant business. Accordingly, job performance and retention of delivery workers are critical for
success. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate how to enhance crowdsourced delivery workers’ job
performance and intent to continue working by applying the sociotechnical systems theory.
Design/methodology/approach – The data analysis was conducted using responses obtained from
crowdsourced food delivery workers. A structural equation model was developed to verify the hypothesized
relationships. To test the proposed moderating roles of a three-dimensional concept of social capital within the
research model, multi-group analyses were implemented.
Findings – This study confirmed the significant relationships between crowdsourcing risks related to
workers’ low job commitment and technical systems, attributing to reduced job performance and intent to
continue working. Results documented that social systems including networks, trust and shared vision
mitigated the negative impact of the perceived difficulty and complexity of technical systems and job
performance.
Originality/value – Although technology has contributed significantly to the effectiveness of online food
delivery, the literature has mainly focused on its benefits and has ignored the critical aspects derived from a
virtual and technology-based workplace. This gap was addressed by verifying the important roles of social
factors (networks, trust and shared visions) in reducing the negative impacts of technology-driven risks
(perceived difficulty of task requirements and technology complexity) within the crowdsourcing food delivery
context.

Keywords Crowdsourcing food delivery platforms, Crowdsourced workers,

Sociotechnical systems theory, Social capital, Intent to continue working
Paper type Research paper
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
Vol. 34 No. 7, 2022
pp. 2450-2471
Introduction
© Emerald Publishing Limited
0959-6119
Online food delivery service has undergone rapid growth to meet changes in consumer
DOI 10.1108/IJCHM-10-2021-1286 demands due to technological advances in the food delivery system (Line and Hanks, 2020),
combined with the impacts and operational challenges resulting from COVID-19 (Huang Sociotechnical
and Liu, 2020; Ritchie and Jiang, 2021). The coronavirus pandemic has especially modified systems theory
how restaurant meals are traditionally consumed, from in-room dining to having meals
delivered anywhere (Kaur et al., 2021). A global research report stated that by 2028, over
90% of all retail businesses, including restaurants, intend to use crowdsourcing delivery
platforms to fulfill consumer orders (Dai and Liu, 2020; Koh et al., 2020). In addition,
restrictions involving in-dining social distancing has caused year-over-year change of seated
diners in US restaurants to fall by over 19% from 2019 to 2021 (Statista, 2021). As a strategic 2451
response, the platform-to consumer food delivery market has exploded in growth and now
represents $36.9bn annually, equaling eight percent of all food service sales and is expected
to reach over $66bn at the end of 2022. In comparison, China’s food delivery segment
represents over $106bn annually, which is the largest food delivery market globally
(Statista, 2021).
Crowdsourced delivery involves ordinary people using their own vehicles who carry out
last-mile deliveries from stores or warehouses to consumers. Thus, crowdsourced delivery is
a broad concept of the sharing economy involving short-term peer-to-peer transactions
through online platforms that connect buyers and sellers (Alnaggar et al., 2021). Applying
this business model, crowdsourcing food delivery platforms collect customer orders, share
the order information with restaurants and notifying self-employed workers to pick up
orders and make the last-mile delivery from restaurants to customers (Cho et al., 2019).
Crowdsourced delivery offers great potential for future development and expansion of the
restaurant industry. Accordingly, various types of online food ordering portals have
emerged to address the soaring daily volume of foodservice delivery orders, which force
operators to focus on offering speedy and accurate service delivery options (Storr et al.,
2021).
Crowdsourcing provides an opportunity for anyone to participate in economic activities
and offers a great deal of flexibility to work at anytime and anyplace with “unknown”
individuals in the “virtual” workplace environment. However, due to unique business
characteristics that are associated with crowdsourcing, potential risks pertaining to
crowdsourcing platforms have been identified. For instance, research conducted by Bauer
and Herder (2009) documented substantial risks related to crowdsourced workers (e.g.
undefined, unqualified, inexperienced or low commitment) because potential workers
simply register on a digital platform, which permits the real-time hiring of labor without an
interview or recruitment process.
Bronnikova et al. (2020) identified another hidden risk of crowdsourcing, which is
associated with the technology-based business nature that lessens human interaction,
thereby raising several issues, particularly regarding the difficulties that workers
experience to fully understand task requirements and deal with complex technology. Food
delivery tasks are particularly time sensitive because consumers may cancel their order due
to delays. Additionally, due to growing consumer demand for no-contact food delivery
service, workers have had to manage increased task requirements (e.g. notifying customers
of their arrival in real-time and managing proof of delivery digitally using technology)
(Kaptzan, 2021). As a result, crowdsourced food delivery workers experience frustration and
emotional stress, which are related to various task requirements and the use of complex
technology (Gregory, 2020).
To date, most crowdsourced workers are employed as restaurant food delivery personnel
(Gunden et al., 2020). Further research highlighted the importance of retaining the current
food delivery workforce to gain sustainable and competitive advantages and validated that
workers having high social consciousness place more weight on the work environment
IJCHM (Belanche et al., 2021). Liu et al. (2016) revealed that the crowdsourcing risks inherent from
34,7 workers and technical systems are closely associated with each other based on the
sociotechnical systems (STS) theory, which identifies the incorporation of social aspects
with technology. Although technology has contributed enormously to the effectiveness of
online food delivery work, it has also been associated with having negative impacts on work
performance due to a void in direct communication, which potentially leads to
2452 misinformation and inaccurate product/service representation (Bauer and Herder, 2009).
Nevertheless, much research that addresses crowdsourcing food delivery service has
been limited to focusing on how to improve job performance from the consumer’s
perspective (Furunes and Mkono, 2019; Ahn and Kwon, 2021; Kaur et al., 2021). It has yet to
address the potential risks from the perspective of delivery workers. Moreover, while the
existing literature on crowdsourcing delivery has focused on developing unique service-
oriented features based on crowdsourcing technologies (Bronnikova et al., 2020; Alnaggar
et al., 2021), few studies have recognized that when not managed effectively in terms of
social support for delivery workers, this situation can lead to a significantly negative impact
on job performance and customer satisfaction evaluations.
Therefore, by applying the STS theory, this study postulates that technology alone is not
enough to operate a crowdsourcing food delivery business and the effective use of
technology relies on how it is embedded within the social context. This study expects to
discover that workers’ low job commitment is the main risk factor regarding crowdsourcing
food delivery service. When food delivery workers have low job commitment, they are more
likely to perceive task requirements as being ambiguous or difficult and technology as being
complex. This situation may decrease workers’ job performance and further affect their
intent to remain in business.
This current study ‘intends to shed light on the body of knowledge related to those
under-explored and overlooked impacts of crowdsourcing food delivery business
characteristics on crowdsourced workers and their perceived risks involving technical
systems by focusing on social factors and their roles in the virtual workplace. To do so, this
study:

explores how food delivery workers’ low job commitment affects perceived risks of
crowdsourcing technical systems, which further affects job performance and intent
to continue working; and

investigate whether social factors mitigate the negative effect of perceived risks of
crowdsourcing technical systems on job performance.

Literature review
Sociotechnical systems theory
The early literature on technology was focused on technology-enabled increased
convenience and productivity and addressed technology as a main theme, while social
aspects were regarded as a subordinate element of advanced technologies. For example,
Winner (1978) proposed “technological determinism,” which suggests that technology is a
fundamental element in forming patterns of social existence. However, due to the strong
focus on improving productivity using information and communication technology, various
and complex problems behind the positive effects of advanced technology have emerged.
Consequently, “social determinism,” which was proposed as the counterpart of technological
determinism in the late 1980s, argues that technology does not determine human actions;
instead, human actions that are formed by society lead to the emergence of technology
(Pinch and Bijker, 1986).
 In response to the notion that technical aspects are insufficient when operating a Sociotechnical
business, the STS theory first introduced by Trist and Bamforth (1951), was based on the systems theory
idea that the interaction between social and technical systems is critical for technology-
based business success. Subsequent literature by Pasmore et al. (1982) introduced several
important technical systems features consisting of techniques, procedures and technology
used to convert inputs to output, while social systems represent those social interactions,
human values and norms among members. This same research also stated that technical 2453
systems are generally required to improve task efficiency and productivity while social
systems are necessary to encourage cooperation and interdependence among members.
Early STS analysis work mainly investigated how technology can be incorporated into
the work system based on the observation that implementing technical systems requires a
thorough comprehension of organizational structure, work characteristics and the
workforce (Fox, 1995; Spender, 1996). Subsequent research focused more on accurately
analyzing both technical and social needs associated with digital business performance (Liu
et al., 2016; Wan et al., 2017). This was based on the belief that a combined approach can
better provide the critical information regarding appropriate boundaries and joint
optimization for both elements. Crowdsourcing is a complex sociotechnical system because
it is embedded in a dynamic mechanism that includes both technology and social factors
(Kittur et al., 2013). This suggests that the interaction of technical systems with social
factors in crowdsourcing can be an important success factor.

Crowdsourcing and its risks

First introduced by Howe (2006), crowdsourcing is a compound word derived from the two
words “crowd” and “outsourcing”. It allows enterprises to include the public to participate in
business operations (e.g. product development or service processes), using digital platforms
and ultimately, share profits with them. Applying this concept to the tourism context,
Garrigos-Simon et al. (2017, p. 420) defined “crowdsourcing as the action of taking a specific
task completed by members of tourism organizations or by a designated agent (e.g. an
outworker or supplier) and outsourcing it to a community or a large amount of people using
the internet.” The “gig economy” is based on “temporary, flexible or freelance tasks fulfilled
by workers hired between clients and customers through digital platforms” (Taylor et al.,
2017, p. 23). It has since emerged as a new labor trend. Individuals who are hired for gigs no
longer need to be employed with a certain organization.
Despite the many potential benefits of crowdsourcing, relevant literature has identified
risk factors that seriously threaten successful outcomes. Liu et al. (2016, p. 2237) defined
crowdsourcing risks as “the uncertainty that threatens the successful completion of tasks in
the virtual environment.” Bahli and Rivard (2005) addressed crowdsourcing risk factors
related to planning/control, team members, task requirements and technology complexity.
Their research documented that risk factors related to planning/control and team members
were attributed to poor project management and team member incompetence. Risk factors
associated with task requirements and technology complexity resulted from technical
issues. Another study by Piezunka and Dahlander (2015) concluded that crowdsourcing can
create different potential risks due to its unique business characteristics (e.g. undefined or
less committed workers, intensive competitive labor market, task requirements that are
transferred without personal contact and technology complexity). Based on evidence
presented in prior research, this current study focuses on workers and technical systems as
two specific risk dimensions within the crowdsourcing food delivery context
IJCHM Potential risks of crowdsourced workers
34,7 Crowdsourced workers are hired to complete a certain task under autonomous and flexible
working conditions (Alnaggar et al., 2021). Daly and Nataraajan (2015) asserted that
crowdsourcing is an open business model that provides diverse web-based solutions
involving inexperienced and undefined workers and the digital workplace, which can result
in various substantial risks. Another study by Fedi et al. (2019) pointed out negative aspects
2454 of the virtual work environment where workers are isolated from and directly compete with
each other and asserted that workers tend to have high detachment or estrangement from
the job, which leads to low job involvement and a lack of commitment. Thus, crowdsourced
workers are described as floating resources due to the low entry barriers and lack of job
security, which makes them less committed and unmotivated regarding their work
performance (Ashford et al., 2018). A more recent study by Gregory (2020, p. 322)
interviewed 25 crowdsourced food delivery workers and identified several potentially
critical risks regarding those less committed workers. As an example, one said the
following:
“We’re self-employed. We’re not their workers, therefore, I don’t want to be identified by their
company name [. . .] I don’t feel any sort of commitment to them. No one knows exactly who I am,
so I just want to be invisible.”

Potential risks of crowdsourcing technical systems

An early study by Emery (1959) stated that technical systems can encourage uncontrollable
variation in task requirements and complexity. Supporting this, Wallace et al. (2004)
identified technical system risks as being comprised of uncertainties and issues that are
caused by technology involving its complexity and requirements. Crowdsourcing task
requirement risks are derived from the uncertainty and difficulty associated with task
completion while complexity risks are involved in the difficulty and complexity attributed to
technology (Wallace et al., 2004). Accordingly, difficult task requirements and technology
complexity have been identified as the two major dimensions of technical system risks in the
crowdsourcing context (Liu et al., 2016).
Although crowdsourced self-employees are considered to be the future major workforce,
potential risks about their low job commitment should be noted, as it can negatively affect
job performance (Konrad and Pekruhl, 2018). In line with this, Gregory (2020) reported that
crowdsourced workers perceived a remote food delivery job to be far more complex than
they expected. Another report on the delivery workforce revealed that 98% of all
respondents experienced technology-related problems because of complex payment systems
and technology updates/downtime (Straight, 2021). Therefore, typical crowdsourcing risks
may be derived from workers and technical systems within the virtual work environment.

Hypothesis development
Crowdsourced food delivery workers’ low job commitment and the effect on perceived risks
of technical systems
As the daily volume of online food delivery orders increases, inexperienced workers
participate in crowdsourced delivery jobs without having to undergo a recruitment process
(Gregory, 2020). Kittur et al. (2013) stated that due to the lack of employee selection/training
procedures and job security, crowdsourced workers are less motivated to improve their
performance. Specifically, delivery workers experience many different challenges than do
traditional employees because they have no direct contact with the crowdsourcing platforms
(Rogstadius et al., 2011). Similarly, Fedi et al. (2019) concluded that crowdsourced workers
competed with each other, causing high job detachment and estrangement due to their lack Sociotechnical
of having personal relationships with other co-workers and the organization. This situation systems theory
may imply that crowdsourced delivery workers tend to have low job involvement and
commitment and further explain why crowdsourced delivery service has significantly
varied with respect to job performance.
Li et al. (2020) asserted that the rapid application of advanced information and
communication technologies to crowdsourcing platforms makes it difficult for delivery
workers to fully understand technical systems and use them effectively. Ramachandran and 2455
Gopal (2010) found that as crowdsourced delivery workers experienced more difficulties
regarding clearly understanding task requirements, they tended to overlook the details of
tasks assigned through technology systems. Moreover, the increased number of
crowdsourced food delivery workers who are inexperienced and less committed may face
more stressful and difficult working environments where technology tracks their journeys
in real-time, causing work pressure regarding delivery time requirements (Moore and
Newsome, 2018).
Liu et al. (2016) revealed that crowdsourced workers were likely to evaluate themselves
as being incapable of understanding crowdsourcing technical system matters, finding it to
be highly complex. Accordingly, the same literature proposed the following two key risk
dimensions regarding the crowdsourcing technical system:
(1) task requirements; and
(2) technology complexity.

Research conducted by Tu et al. (2019) stated that because the needs and requirements of
restaurant customers who order food online have become more diverse, the tasks assigned
to delivery workers are extremely time sensitive and more unclear/complex. A more recent
study by Straight (2021) interviewed the delivery workforce and reported that many
delivery workers experienced significant difficulties regarding using technology due to
complex payment procedures, regular system updates or system downtime. Kaptzan (2021)
described more difficult working conditions, where the food delivery workers must cope
with various technology-related tasks requirements used to keep the platform and
customers informed through real-time notifications of food arrival and then provide digital
and visual proof that the order was delivered correctly. Therefore, this study assumes that
crowdsourced food delivery workers who have low job commitment are more likely to
perceive task requirements as difficult and technology as complex. Accordingly, the
following hypotheses are proposed:

H1. Crowdsourced food delivery workers’ low job commitment increases perceived
difficulty of task requirements that are assigned through technical systems.
H2. Crowdsourced food delivery workers’ low job commitment increases perceived
technology complexity.

Crowdsourced food delivery workers’ perceived risks of technical systems and job
performance
Ramachandran and Gopal (2010) found that as employees experienced higher uncertainties
and more difficult task requirements, they became inefficient in completing their assigned
job tasks. Crowdsourced food delivery workers suffer from strict delivery time constraints
and experience more challenges regarding adhering to the food quality standards (Doroudi
et al., 2016). Therefore, they often perceive the task requirements as being difficult, which
IJCHM could be negatively related to their job performance. Donovan et al. (2018) demonstrated that
34,7 employees’ perceived technology complexity determined their job performance. Although
the perceived complexity of technology varies subjectively, its negative impact on employee
performance has been supported in various contexts (Siawsh et al., 2019). Therefore, this
study expects that as crowdsourced food delivery workers perceive the task requirements as
being difficult and technology as being complex, their job performance will be negatively
2456 affected. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H3. Crowdsourced food delivery workers’ perceived difficulty of task requirements that
are assigned through technical systems negatively affect job performance.
H4. Crowdsourced food delivery workers’ perceived technology complexity negatively
affects job performance.

Crowdsourced food delivery workers’ job performance and their intent to continue working
Job performance refers to the extent to which employees have successfully reached the level
of expectations that are required by the organization for certain work (Karatepe, 2013). In
this regard, job performance is mainly associated with employee job satisfaction and their
intent to remain at the organization (Bangwal and Tiwari, 2018). Workers who can improve
their job performance have been found to possess higher levels of self-motivation and intent
to continue employment (Lee and Kim, 2017). Research by Zhao and Zhu (2014)
demonstrated that when crowdsourced workers perform well, they are more likely to be
immersed in their job and willing to stay in business compared to those with low job
performance which increases high turnover intention. Accordingly, the following hypothesis
is presented:

H5. Crowdsourced food delivery workers’ job performance is positively associated with
intent to continue working.

Moderating roles of social capital on the relationships between perceived risks of

crowdsourcing technical systems and food delivery workers’ job performance
Rainie and Anderson (2017) stated that since simple job tasks became more complex
and diversified in a technologically advanced society, social factors involving
interrelationships with humans have become increasingly important for business
success. Similarly, several studies demonstrated the important roles that social factors
in crowdsourcing played when going beyond creating simple economic benefits (Wan
et al., 2017; Siawsh et al., 2019).
Social capital is defined by Nahapiet and Ghoshal (1998, p. 243) as “the sum of the actual
and potential resources embedded within, available through and derived from the
relationships possessed by an individual or social unit.” This definition has been widely
addressed within the employee–organization relationship to identify effective strategies to
improve employee attachment and enhance productivity (Huang et al., 2021). Therefore,
social capital has been employed as a main component of the social systems based on the
STS theory (Lee, 2018).
Generally, social capital is conceptualized by three dimensions including networks, trust
and shared visions (Nahapiet and Ghoshal, 1998). Networks represent a strong and frequent
interaction between organizations and employees (Burt, 2000). A well-developed network
enables frequent and simple communication and facilitates the sharing of useful knowledge
and information with group members (Kapoor et al., 2021). In addition, employee trust in the Sociotechnical
organization is essential to reduce uncertainties of tasks and encourage employees to systems theory
perform better (Butler and Murphy, 2007; Shulga et al., 2021). Lastly, shared visions within
the organization–employee relationship are effective at improving cohesive and constructive
business actions (Hughes et al., 2018).
Fan et al. (2012) asserted that as risks associated with different parties in the
crowdsourcing context are correlated, close interactions between digital platforms and
crowdsourced workers became more important for business success. In support of this 2457
position, our study applied the three dimensions of social capital as social systems and
expects social capital and its interrelationship with technical systems to play a positive
role within the context of crowdsourcing food delivery services. Therefore, this study
attempts to better understand the moderating role of social capital upon the
relationship between perceived risks of technical systems and job performance, based
on the discussion below.
An early study by Eighmey and McCord (1998) argued that organizations can
improve employee commitment, concentration and focus on their job through strong
organizational networks. Chiu et al. (2006) asserted that social networks facilitate the
sharing of knowledge and information between organizations and employees and
proposed that organizations can retain positive human capital through strong networks
with their employees, which further improve employee career development and job
performance. Han et al. (2017) stated that social capital that is developed within the
crowdsourcing context has become more important because accurate and timely
information sharing is a key component of virtual business success. Therefore, this
current study expects that crowdsourced delivery workers and their perceived
interactivity with the platform may encourage them to overcome the difficulties related
to technical systems, thereby improving their job performance.
Trust is a requisite social mechanism for crowdsourcing infrastructures (Luhmann,
2000). Additionally, employee trust is regarded as the most important factor to decrease
employees’ perceived task complexity because it empowers employees to act with
confidence, despite the existence of task risks and uncertainties (Hughes et al., 2018). A
study by Afsar et al. (2018) stated that a lack of trust results in employees’ passive
behavior and low job performance. Therefore, this study expects to discover that
crowdsourced delivery workers and their trust in crowdsourcing platforms may be able
to mitigate the negative relationship between perceived risks of technical systems and
job performance.
When individuals truly share visions with the organization, they are more likely to be
connected by a common aspiration to achieve better performance (Godbless, 2021). Hipp and
Huffman (2000, p. 6) stated that “effective visions shared with employees present a realistic
picture of the organization that inspires employees to reach for a future goal.” Typically,
successful organizations have a coherent set of values and visions that are shared with their
employees (Godbless, 2021). Shared visions are involved in highly similar attributes and
content of employee and organization satisfaction (Howell and Shamir, 2005). Given the
increasing complexity in using advanced technologies, shared visions have received more
attention because they are critical in shaping convergent and cohere business goals (Vu
et al., 2018). Therefore, this current study expects that shared visions developed with an
undeviating focus on shared goals may be consistently referenced for crowdsourced
delivery work, encouraging delivery workers to overcome technical system-related issues
leads to better job performance (Figure 1). Accordingly, the following hypotheses are
proposed:
IJCHM
34,7

2458

Figure 1.
Research model

H6. Social capital (H6a: networks, H6b: trust and H6c: shared visions) that is developed
through the crowdsourcing platform–food delivery worker relationship mitigates
the negative effect of perceived difficulty of task requirements on job performance.
H7. Social capital (H7a: networks, H7b: trust and H7c: shared visions) that is developed
through the crowdsourcing platform–food delivery worker relationship mitigates
the negative effect of perceived technology complexity on job performance.

Method
Measures
To verify our hypotheses, the survey instrument was developed based on two theoretical
foundations that represent the STS theory and social capital. The first section of the
survey measured crowdsourced delivery workers’ job commitment and their perceived
risks of technical systems. Crowdsourced delivery workers’ commitment was measured
by adapting three items that corresponded to their traits of being less committed to the
job from Meyer and Allen’s (1984) measurement scale, which have been widely employed
within the virtual workplace literature. In addition, crowdsourced delivery workers’
perceived difficulty of task requirements and technology complexity were measured
using six items adapted from prior studies (Ikediashi et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2016) that
empirically analyzed technology-related risks within the context of outsourcing and
crowdsourcing. The next section was developed to assess crowdsourced delivery
workers’ job performance and intent to continue working based on studies by Liu et al.
(2016) and Pedhazur and Schmelkin (2013).
Social systems were examined by adapting the three-dimensional concept of social
capital (networks, trust and share visions) formed within the crowdsourcing platform
involving food delivery worker relationships (Villena et al., 2011; Cho et al., 2019).
“Networks” were measured using three items that correspond to well-structured
communication channels of crowdsourcing platforms. Another three items were employed
to measure “trust” in the crowdsourcing platform. “Shared visions” were assessed based on Sociotechnical
crowdsourced worker perceptions about similarities between the goals, values and systems theory
philosophies of crowdsourcing platforms. All survey instrument items were assessed on a
seven-point Likert scale (one = “strongly disagree” to seven = “strongly agree”). The last
section included general questions including respondents’ socio-demographics and previous
delivery job experience.

Data collection and sampling

2459
Data collection for this study was conducted during a one-month period in October 2020
through an online community having the largest number of users representing
crowdsourced food delivery workers in South Korea. Community managers were first
contacted to ask for their permission. Our survey was posted on the online bulletin board,
alongside descriptions of the study’s objectives and the assurance that all responses are
treated anonymously. All participants who completed the survey received a $5 online gift
card as an incentive. Using this method, a total of 267 responses were obtained.
The study respondents were mostly males (92%). The largest age group segments were
represented by those respondents between 26 to 30 years of age (27.2%), followed by
individuals who indicated that they were between 31 to 35 years of age (24.4%). Overall,
45.2% of all respondents indicated that they had less than one year’s experience of
crowdsourced delivery work, compared with respondents indicating they had two to three
years of experience (20.4%). Only 8.8% of all total respondents indicated having three to
four years of crowdsourcing delivery experience. The largest segments of completed
deliveries per day ranged from 16–30 deliveries (37.2%) to 31–45 deliveries (27.6%). In
addition, three variables (age, years working as a crowdsourced delivery worker and
average number of daily deliveries) were included in the study analysis to control their
potential effects on the hypothesized relationships.

Results
Validity and reliability of the study’s measurements
To evaluate validity and reliability of the measurements, a confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA) was conducted. As presented in Table 1, results showed an acceptable fit of
measurement model ( x 2/df = 1.823, CFI = 0.947, IFI = 0.948, TLI = 0.935, RMSEA = 0.057).
All factor loadings (0.50), composite construct reliability (CCR) (0.70) and average
variance extracted (AVE) (0.50) were satisfactory based on the recommended cutoff
values. In addition, Cronbach’s a values ranging from 0.740 to 0.900 exceeded 0.70,
supporting internal consistency between the variables within each construct. Thus,
convergent validity and internal reliability of the measurements were evident (Hair et al.,
2009).
The square roots of AVE of each latent variable and the inter-construct correlations were
compared with each other to verify discriminant validity of the measures. As presented in
Table 2, results showed that the square roots of AVEs of each construct ranged from 0.716
to 0.875, which were all greater than the largest correlation coefficient value, supporting
discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2009).

Results of testing hypotheses 1 through 5

To test H1 through H5, a structural equation model (SEM) was developed and validated.
The fit indices of the SEM demonstrated satisfactory levels ( x 2/df = 1.828, p < 0.001, GFI =
0929, CFI = 0.964, IFI = 0.964, TLI = 0.953, RMSEA = 0.058) (Figure 2). Results confirmed a
significant association between crowdsourced delivery workers’ low job commitment and
IJCHM Standardized Cronbach’s
34,7 Constructs loadings AVE CCR a

Crowdsourced food delivery worker low job commitment 0.651 0.848 0.837
Highly committed to the crowdsourced delivery work (R) 0.756
Emotionally attached to the crowdsourced delivery work (R) 0.779
Cares about problems related the crowdsourced delivery work
2460 (R) 0.880
Perceived difficulty of task requirements assigned by technical
systems 0.561 0.790 0.771
Conflicting crowdsourced task requirements 0.613
Difficulty in performing the tasks assigned by the
crowdsourcing system 0.764
Task requirements not adequately identified by the
crowdsourcing system 0.851
Perceived technology complexity 0.647 0.842 0.834
High crowdsourcing technical complexity 0.879
Crowdsourcing technology involved the use of considerable
complexity 0.904
High involvement of crowdsourcing technology required 0.593
Job performance 0.766 0.907 0.900
High quality of the crowdsourced delivery task outcome 0.863
Restaurants using crowdsourced delivery platforms satisfied
with the crowdsourced delivery task outcome 0.895
Crowdsourcing platform satisfied with the crowdsourced
delivery task completion 0.867
Intent to continue working 0.513 0.758 0.740
Like to continue working 0.787
Intent to keep working as long as possible 0.740
Intent to quit working soon (R) 0.610
Networks with crowdsourcing platforms 0.617 0.827 0.825
Well-structured network channels to exchange relevant
information 0.871
Frequent communication with us to share relevant knowledge 0.696
Frequent communication with us for effective collaboration 0.780
Trust in crowdsourcing platforms 0.681 0.863 0.859
Crowdsourcing platforms working open and honest 0.883
Crowdsourcing platforms being trustworthy 0.902
Crowdsourcing platforms taking advantage of us (R) 0.670
Shared visions between crowdsourced workers 0.736 0.893 0.885
Support my goals and values 0.880
Share similar philosophies to business dealings 0.932
Table 1. Pursue compatible business goals and objectives with meet my
Results of goals 0.752
confirmatory factor Notes: x /df= 1.823(p < 0.001), CFI = 0.947, IFI = 0.948, TLI = 0.935, RMSEA = 0.057; CCR = composite
2

analysis construct reliability; AVE = average variance extracted

their perceptions of technical systems. More specifically, “low job commitment” was found
to have a slightly stronger influence on “perceived difficulty of task requirements”
( b = 0.506, p < 0.001) than “perceived technology complexity” ( b = 0.421, p < 0.001).
In addition, both “perceived difficulty of task requirements” ( b = 0.192, p < 0.05)
and “perceived technology complexity” ( b = 0.175, p < 0.05) negatively influenced
“job performance.” Further, the significant relationship between “job performance” and
Constructs Mean SD (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Sociotechnical
systems theory
(1) Delivery worker low 2.74 1.31 0.807 a
job commitment
(2) Perceived difficulty of 4.13 1.48 0.453 0.804
task requirements
(3) Perceived technology 4.50 1.31 0.393 0.630 0.749
complexity 2461
(4) Job performance 5.17 1.26 0.527 0.473 0.453 0.875
(5) Intent to continue 4.78 1.22 0.294 0.160 0.233 0.559 0.716
working
(6) Networks 4.25 1.47 0.092 0.149 0.207 0.504 0.542 0.785
(7) Trust 4.39 1.42 0.053 0.184 0.184 0.492 0.489 0.740 0.825
(8) Shared visions 4.48 1.44 0.214 0.011 0.014 0.567 0.549 0.575 0.629 0.858 Table 2.
Correlations and
Note: aDiagonals (in italics), square root of AVE from the observed variables by the latent variables discriminant validity

Figure 2.
Results of testing
hypotheses 1
through 5

“intent to continue working” was verified ( b = 0.555, p < 0.001). Hence, H1 through H5
were all supported. Our results supported the prior literature’s position that employee
commitment directly influences their job performance (Smith et al., 1996). Our findings also
implied that crowdsourced workers with low job commitment are more likely to overlook
some significant and important task requirements and be unmotivated to increase their
efforts to fully understand and use complex technologies. In addition, this study supported a
risk-based view proposing that crowdsourcing risk factors involving workers and
technology are interrelated, which ultimately leads to poor business performance (Fan et al.,
2012). Thus, crowdsourced delivery workers’ perceived difficulty of task requirements and
technology complexity that are derived from low job commitment can threaten the success
of online food delivery businesses.

Results of testing hypotheses 6 and 7

H6 and H7 were developed to verify the moderating roles of social capital on the negative
relationship between perceived risks of technical systems and job performance. In doing so,
a multi-group analysis was conducted by dividing the sample into two groups based on the
mean scores of the three social capital dimensions (Table 3).
IJCHM Social capital
34,7 Low High
Paths Coefficient t-value Coefficient t-value x 2 difference Results

Networks
Perceived difficulty of 0.175 1.752 0.347 1.792 D x 2(1) = 1.543, H6a:
task requirements ! p > 0.05 Not Supported
2462 Job performance
Perceived technology 0.392 3.888*** 0.341 1.669 D x 2(1) = 10.959, H7a:
complexity ! p < 0.01 Supported
Job performance
Trust
Perceived difficulty of 0.296 2.802** 0.043 0.408 D x 2(1) = 4.185, H6b:
task requirements ! p < 0.05 Supported
Job performance
Perceived technology 0.303 2.979** 0.045 0.355 D x 2(1) = 5.837, H7b:
complexity ! p < 0.05 Supported
Job performance
Shared visions
Perceived difficulty of 0.344 2.701** 0.075 0.795 D x 2(1) = 2.329, H6c:
task requirements ! p > 0.05 Not supported
Job performance
Perceived technology 0.414 3.502*** 0.044 0.358 D x 2(1) = 8.013, H7c:
complexity ! p < 0.01 Supported
Job performance
[Networks] Baseline model fit: x 2 (162) = 291.345 (p < 0.001); CFI = 0.930; IFI = 0.932, TLI = 0.909,
RMSEA = 0.057
[Trust] Baseline model fit: x 2 (162) = 267.319 (p < 0.001); CFI = 0.940; IFI = 0.941, TLI = 0.922, RMSEA =
0.051
[Shared visions] Baseline model fit: x 2 (162) = 254.446 (p < 0.001); CFI = 0.945; IFI = 0.947, TLI = 0.929,
Table 3. RMSEA = 0.048
Results of testing
hypotheses 6 and 7 Notes: **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001

The moderating effect of crowdsourcing “networks” on the relationship between perceived

risks of technical systems and job performance was first tested. The negative effect of
“perceived difficulty of task requirements” on “job performance” was found to be insignificant
in both “high-network” (b = 0.347, p > 0.05) and “low-network” group (b = 0.175, p > 0.05)
(D x 2 (1) =1.543, p > 0.05). In addition, the negative effect of “perceived technology complexity”
on “job performance” was found to be insignificant in the “high-network” group (b = 0.341, p >
0.05); however, its negative effect was significant for the “low-network” group (b = 0.392, p <
0.001). (D x 2 (1) =10.959, p < 0.01). Hence, H6a was not supported, but H7a was supported.
Next, the moderating effects of “trust” in crowdsourcing platforms were tested. Results
revealed that the negative effect of “perceived difficulty of task requirements” on “job
performance” was significantly negative in the low-trust group ( b = 0.296, p < 0.01) while
the negative effect was reported to be insignificant for the high-trust group ( b = 0.043,
p > 0.05) (D x 2 (1) = 4.185, p< 0.05). Similarly, the negative effect of “perceived technology
complexity” on “job performance” was significantly negative in the “low-trust” group ( b =
0.303, p < 0.01) while such effect became insignificant in the high-trust group ( b = 0.045,
p > 0.05) (D x 2 (1) =5.837, p < 0.05). Thus, H6 b and H7 b were both supported.
 Lastly, results of testing the moderating effects of crowdsourcing “shared visions” found Sociotechnical
that the negative effect of “perceived difficulty of task requirements” on “job performance” systems theory
was significant in the “low-shared visions” group ( b = 0.344, p < 0.01), while the negative
effect was insignificant in the “high-shared visions” group ( b = 0.075, p > 0.05). However,
this difference was not large enough to be reported as significant (D x 2 (1) = 2.329, p > 0.05).
Additionally, the negative effect of “perceived technology complexity” on “job performance”
was significant in the “low-shared vision” group ( b = 0.414, p < 0.001), while the negative 2463
effect was documented as being insignificant in the high-shared vision group ( b = 0.044,
p > 0.05). This difference was significant (D x 2 (1) =8.013, p < 0.01). Therefore, H6c was not
supported but H7c was supported.
Our findings implied that well-structured networks and shared visions between
crowdsourcing and workers would be more effective in reducing the negative impact of
“perceived technology complexity” and “job performance,” when compared with their
moderating roles on the relationship between “perceived difficulty of task requirements”
and “job performance.” This study also revealed that delivery workers’ trust in
crowdsourcing platforms may be the most important social aspect to reduce the negative
impacts of their perceived difficulty of task requirements and technology complexity on job
performance. Overall, our findings are in line with Akkirman and Harris’s (2005) proposition
that the successful transition of service provision to the virtual environment requires more
than adopting new technologies. The same study also identified the lack of social interaction
within the organization–employee context as the main risk driver of reduced productivity,
increased absenteeism and higher turnover. This position has been well supported in the
study context of crowdsourcing food delivery platforms. These findings provided a more
comprehensive understanding of identifying more effective social factors that need to be
addressed within the crowdsourced food delivery context.

Conclusions and implications

This study was undertaken to identify how best to improve crowdsourced workers’ job
performance and retain them in business by applying the STS theory to the crowdsourcing
food delivery service. This study focused on the unique business characteristics of
crowdsourcing platforms, which may create potential risks that are related to crowdsourced
workers’ low job commitment and technical systems assigning tasks without direct person-
to-person contact. The results provided empirical evidence that crowdsourced food delivery
workers were less committed to the job and found task requirements more difficult and
technology more complex, which further negatively influenced job performance and intent
to continue working. More importantly, this study verified the significant moderating effect
of social factors on the negative relationships between perceived risks of technical systems
and job performance.
Our findings provided novel insights that contradict the existing body of knowledge on
the benefits of crowdsourcing platforms for advanced technology adoption and flexible
working conditions. However, it should be noted that crowdsourcing can be a means to
maximize economic value, which can be used as the most effective way for restaurants and
the public to coexist. Therefore, this study focused on social aspects and their roles within
the crowdsourcing food delivery service. In particular, this study revealed the important
roles of social aspects in reducing the negative impacts of the technology-based business
nature on crowdsourced food delivery job performance. Based on our findings, several
important theoretical and practical implications were presented below.
IJCHM Theoretical implications
34,7 This study was the first attempt to provide empirical evidence that the STS theory can be
applied as a valid and reliable theoretical foundation within the context of crowdsourced
food delivery service. Relying on the importance of human resource management and
advancing the application of the STS theory, this study offered detailed explanations
regarding how crowdsourced workers’ job performance and their intent to continue working
2464 can be improved. In doing so, this study advanced the existing knowledge regarding
crowdsourced food delivery service by demonstrating that risk management can be a more
effective approach to improve digital business performance. This study addressed critical
issues involving workers and technology from a risk perspective. This approach allowed us
to expand the STS theory by exploring the sophisticated mechanisms involving delivery
workers in association with technical systems and social factors. As such, our study
extended the online food delivery research stream by identifying an exogeneous factor (food
delivery workers) which triggers crowdsourcing technology-related risks, ultimately
negatively affecting business performance. Such an extension of this research spectrum
calls for future studies that can explore other critical factors, which may increase or decrease
potential technical system risks of crowdsourcing food delivery platforms. Based on our
theoretical contributions, subsequent studies can employ different approaches to enrich
knowledge of what additional delivery worker risks exist and how those risks lead to
different types of crowdsourcing risks.
More specifically, the investigation of crowdsourced worker-driven risks revealed the
significant association between low job commitment and perceived risks of technical
systems involving task requirements and technology complexity. These findings
contributed to the existing knowledge of employee job commitment associated with their
perceptions pertaining to the organizational membership within the crowdsourcing
workplace environment. As crowdsourcing is represented by its virtual and short-term
nature and multiple clients are available, food delivery workers tend to have low job
commitment, ultimately experience more difficulties in handling technology-related issues.
This condition has been clearly proven in the study context of crowdsourcing food delivery
platforms. Our study provided empirical evidence that although technology results in new
working environments (e.g. the virtual workplace), employee job commitment is critical and
strongly required for successful crowdsourcing food delivery businesses.
Although the existing literature has previously addressed social factors such as
information sharing, relationships/networks and trust within the STS view, there has been a
dearth of scholarly literature addressing, which of these social factors would be more
effective. Thus, by adopting a comprehensive approach, this current study integrated all
three dimensions of social capital and assessed their roles in the linkage of technical system
risks. Our findings provided theoretical support for the important role of social mechanisms
in the virtual workplace (Karatepe, 2013). This study identified the significant roles of three
unique social factors and documented, which were more effective in reducing the negative
impacts of technical system risks on delivery job performance. This approach offered a more
heuristic understanding of social factors (i.e. networks, trust, shared visions) that became an
important topic in the traditional workplace and now is in need of being addressed within
the digital business form of crowdsourcing food delivery platforms.
More specifically, our results revealed that crowdsourced workers’ trust might be the
most important social system factor because it significantly mitigated the negative impacts
of both task requirements and technology complexity on job performance. Teare and O’Hern
(2000) found that workers in a virtual workplace perceived high job difficulties and
complexity and low job satisfaction, which correlated with the lack of trust. Additionally,
Palvia (2009) asserted that although trust within the virtual work environment can be Sociotechnical
temporary and fragile, it encourages workers to reduce any potential risk of systems theory
misunderstanding task requirements to instill more confidence in fulfilling job roles.
Therefore, this study confirmed that although the crowdsourcing concept is based upon
technology, its success with respect to food delivery service depends on social interactions
with workers. Accordingly, future studies are necessary to explore other important social
factors that can be more effectively incorporated with technical systems in consideration of
the unique characteristics of crowdsourced food delivery service. 2465

Practical implications
Crowdsourcing platforms have created huge demand for food deliveries, which remained
strong during the post COVID-19 era. In addition, ghost kitchens, which are facilities that
only cook food for delivery and takeout with no dine-in areas, are going to be the next off-
premises dining trend, according to the National Restaurant Association (NRA) (NRA, 2021).
Likewise, due to the changing dining behavior, restaurant meal delivery is very likely to
remain popular.
Downey (2002) stated that historically, U.S. food delivery workers tended to be younger,
inexperienced and unskilled. Today’s food delivery system and platforms (e.g. Uber eats,
Doordash, GrubHub, Postmates and Deliveroo), offer employment opportunities to all
individuals, which can lead to increased risks involving accurate and satisfying job task
completion. This trend identified the issue of delivery workers being uncertain, less
committed and unpredictable and highlighted the importance of recruiting new
crowdsourced workers and retaining current ones to continue the success of food delivery
platforms.
Jabagi et al. (2019) mentioned that crowdsourcing began to adopt human resource
management strategies to reinforce business efficiency using external rewards and
psychological manipulation. Organizational reward systems have been recognized as the
most effective means of improving employee job commitment. Strategically aligned rewards
can motive delivery worker behaviors to accomplish their task requirements. As an
example, Uber Eats operates a tiered rewards system (e.g. cashback on gasoline purchases
and discounted automobile maintenance coupons) available to delivery workers meeting the
assigned criteria of maintaining an 85% or more customer satisfaction rating throughout
the month. Therefore, this study suggests that managerial efforts should be made based on
reward-based approaches. For instance, crowdsourcing platforms can offer the option for
restaurants to provide incentives to delivery workers who perform satisfactory delivery
outcomes. Additionally, crowdsourcing platforms can show their appreciation to delivery
workers by providing unexpected rewards, such as virtual gift cards. When crowdsourced
delivery workers feel appreciated by recognizing their above and beyond on their basic
performance, they are more likely to be committed to the job.
In addition, crowdsourcing platforms can utilize ambidextrous strategies for value
creation by adapting both technology and social factors to successfully implement food
delivery service businesses. Social capital represents an especially important and
fundamental driving force that overcomes the potential risks regarding crowdsourcing
technical system issues, thereby improving delivery workers’ job performance. In the virtual
workplace, issues regarding trust have been addressed as a major research topic and have
promoted the importance of workplace transparency. Workplace transparency depends on
the way that organizations share information about how their employees are evaluated and
rewarded. For instance, if food delivery workers continue to fight for improved employment
status, salary increases, or safety protections, they will require clear and accessible insights
IJCHM into the algorithmic organization of their work. This implies that crowdsourcing platforms
34,7 should ensure that food delivery workers are regularly updated about all business
regulations or policies.
A well-structured network of crowdsourcing platforms would be critical to make
delivery workers feel accepted, valued and integrated within the virtual workplace. This
social network system can provide more than just opportunities for social interactions. For
2466 example, nighttime food deliveries are often necessary, which increases the potential risks of
physical dangers and decreases access to support from crowdsourcing platforms. Therefore,
crowdsourcing networks (i.e. communication channels) should always be available for
delivery workers to ask questions or voice concerns. This also helps to foster social
interactions among delivery workers. Interacting with other workers by sharing their
everyday experiences (e.g. where they pick up food and drop it off, customer responses and
neighborhoods that they have served) would help to reduce feelings of social isolation when
performing delivery work alone. These interactions can facilitate shared similar visions and
goals between delivery workers, thereby developing a sense of socialization and well-being.
This can encourage delivery workers to be open to learning associated skills to fully
complete task requirements and properly use technology, ultimately improving their job
performance.
Limitations and recommendations for future studies. There are certain limitations of this
study that need to be addressed to direct future research to those specific aspects. First,
although the study data were collected from the largest online community of crowdsourcing
food delivery workers in South Korea, the sampling frame used in this study was not
obtained randomly. In addition, about 45% of our sample had less than one year’s
experience of crowdsourced delivery work, which can cause biased results in terms of
handling technology-related issues. Therefore, it is necessary to replicate the study model
using more scientific and rigorous data to confirm the study’s findings. A prior study by
Nevo and Kotlarsky (2020) highlighted the need for a longitudinal examination of
interactions among stakeholders (e.g. restaurants and customers) within the crowdsourcing
context. Thus, future literature needs to address crowdsourcing risk issues by including
other business sectors using longitudinal data. Due to applying the STS theory to the study
context, the risk dimensions of crowdsourcing food delivery platforms may not be
comprehensive. Future research should focus on the unique nature of online food delivery
service and use a broader spectrum to address more relevant risk factors. In addition,
crowdsourced food delivery workers and their commitment may be dependent on working
motivations, which have not been addressed in this study. Therefore, it is recommended that
individual motives should be incorporated into future research, as a larger focus on the
heterogeneous characteristics of crowdsourced workers is required. Lastly, crowdsourced
workers’ low job commitment was assessed as a determinant of their perceived risks about
technical systems. However, delivery workers’ low commitment can be caused by
crowdsourcing technology-driven issues. This calls for future studies to investigate what
other factors may lead to workers’ low job commitment in the context of crowdsourcing food
delivery service.

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Corresponding author
Meehee Cho can be contacted at: chom2h2@khu.ac.kr

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