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(Jewish Science Fiction and Fantasy) Jonathan L. Friedmann - Goliath As Gentle Giant - Sympathetic Portrayals in Popular Culture-Lexington Books (2022)
(Jewish Science Fiction and Fantasy) Jonathan L. Friedmann - Goliath As Gentle Giant - Sympathetic Portrayals in Popular Culture-Lexington Books (2022)
(Jewish Science Fiction and Fantasy) Jonathan L. Friedmann - Goliath As Gentle Giant - Sympathetic Portrayals in Popular Culture-Lexington Books (2022)
Series Editor
Valerie Estelle Frankel
Jonathan L. Friedmann
LEXINGTON BOOKS
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Published by Lexington Books
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Contents
Preface vii
Introduction 1
v
Preface
“It ain’t necessarily so.” George and Ira Gershwin’s cautionary phrase has
echoed across generations of readers skeptical of the Bible’s historical verac-
ity, political-theological agenda, and apologetic posture. The song, originally
from the all-Black opera Porgy and Bess (1935), casts doubt on Jonah’s stay
in the “fish’s abdomen,” baby Moses’ river basket ride, and David’s defeat of
Goliath. Hall Johnson, a noted composer and arranger of African American
spirituals, dismissed the song’s suggestion that poor southern Blacks would
even think of being “liberated from the superstitious awe of Divinity.”1 Such
a song, Johnson concluded, could only be found in a “white revue.”2
Misrepresentations aside, Johnson keyed in on an important point: the
Gershwin brothers apparently penned this song, in particular, as Jews. Jewish
listeners have long heard distinctly Ashkenazic strains in “It Ain’t Necessarily
So,” connecting its opening lines to the chant for the Torah blessings.3
Lyrically, too, the song seems Jewishly tinged: it eschews biblical literal-
ism and implicitly invites reinterpretation—fundamental aspects of Jewish
religious culture. Indeed, the “questioning dimensions” of Jewish textual
study are often puzzling to non-Jewish and especially Christian readers of
the Bible.4
The premise of this book resonates with the Gershwin tune. Suppose the
duel of David and Goliath was not as simple as the Bible reports. Suppose
Goliath was not merely a one-dimensional villain. Suppose David was not
the pious hero he is made out to be. Suppose, in other words, “it ain’t neces-
sarily so.”
Despite Judaism’s culture of questioning, such notions are not raised
in classical commentaries, which eagerly exaggerate David’s heroism and
double down on Goliath’s depravity. The message and structure of the tale,
succinctly told in one biblical chapter (1 Sam. 17), was apparently too simple
vii
viii Preface
and too archetypal to tamper with. Christian retellings and inspirational writ-
ings, with their proclivity for literalism, are even more strongly glued to the
one-sided, surface meaning. Popular entertainment follows suit. Whether por-
traying the duel or recalling it as a metaphor, “David and Goliath” is widely
invoked as an underdog parable or contest of brains over brawn. Goliath, the
crude giant who comes and goes quickly in the text, is merely an obstacle
in David’s rise to power or, in the expanded metaphor, any sizable or unjust
challenge the “little guy” must overcome.
In the Hebrew Bible and stories loyal to it, Goliath is the stereotypical giant
of folklore: big, brash, violent, and dimwitted. Rehabilitating his image is not
an intuitive pursuit. Text and tradition offer little to inspire sensitive revisions.
Yet, the few examples presented in this book demonstrate the possibility of
sympathetic treatments.
Viewed broadly, these popular culture projects—one from television, one
from “pop science,” and one from a graphic novel—fit within discourse on
understanding the “other.” What insights emerge when we imagine things
from Goliath’s perspective? How might this affect our reading of the bibli-
cal account or its many retellings and interpretations? What sort of man was
Goliath really? As Hillel the Elder implored us, “Do not judge another until
you have reached their place.”5
****
Thank you to Valerie Estelle Frankel, series editor, for reading an earlier draft
of this book and alerting me to numerous contemporary references to Goliath
and his duel with young David. Valerie has the immense world of science
fiction and fantasy at her very capable fingertips. Thank you also to Judith
Lakamper, associate acquisitions editor at Lexington Books, for shepherding
the book through peer review and publication, and to the Lexington staff for
producing this handsome volume. I am especially grateful to my wife, Elvia,
whose love, honesty, and creativity inspire me every day.
NOTES
1. Hall Johnson, quoted in Ellen Noonan, The Strange Career of Porgy and Bess:
Race, Culture, and America’s Most Famous Opera (Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina Press, 2012), 181.
2. Ibid.
Preface ix
3. Jack Gottlieb, Funny, It Doesn’t Sound Jewish: How Yiddish Songs and
Synagogue Melodies Influenced Tin Pan Alley, Broadway, and Hollywood (New
York: SUNY Press, 2004), 156, 218.
4. Miriam B. Raider-Roth, Professional Development in Relational Learning
Communities: Teachers in Connection (New York: Teachers College Press, 2017), 110.
5. Pirkei Avot 2:4.
Introduction
The idea for this book began with a reading of Tom Gauld’s whimsical and
melancholy graphic novel Goliath. In Gauld’s retelling of David and Goliath,
events unfold from the Philistine’s point of view. Instead of a savage warrior
or belligerent beast, he is a gentle giant forced to play the role of fearsome
challenger. Only in the last few pages, leading up to the giant’s death, do we
catch a glimpse of young David, who comes across as an arrogant and uncar-
ing villain. I read this graphic novel to my daughter when she was nine years
old. She had not yet been exposed to the Bible story nor to its many “for
children” versions. She was unaware of “David and Goliath” as a metaphor
for the underdog’s unlikely victory. Instead, she was introduced to the story
as a tragedy, and to this day she refuses to reread Gauld’s book.
This got me thinking about Mark Twain’s prose poem “The War-Prayer.”1
Church members are gathered as their country prepares for war. The fiery
minister, filled with patriotic zeal, beseeches God to grant them victory and
preserve their troops from harm. The congregation is sufficiently whipped
into militant religious fervor. Suddenly, an “aged stranger” appears “with his
long body clothed in a robe that reached to his feet, his head bare, his white
hair descending in a frothy cataract to his shoulders, his seamy face unnatu-
rally pale, pale even to ghastliness.”2 The assembly sits in confused attention
as the prophet-like stranger approaches the minister, taps him on the arm,
and motions for him to step aside. The stranger preaches that there are two
types of prayers: one that is said aloud, and one that remains unspoken. In the
zero-sum “game” of war, a prayer for decisive victory implies another prayer
for the annihilation of the enemy:
O Lord our God, help us to tear their soldiers to bloody shreds with our shells;
help us to cover their smiling fields with the pale forms of their patriot dead;
1
2 Introduction
help us to drown the thunder of the guns with the shrieks of their wounded,
writhing in pain; help us to lay waste their humble homes with a hurricane
of fire; help us to wring the hearts of their unoffending widows with unavail-
ing grief; help us to turn them out roofless with their little children to wander
unfriended the wastes of their desolated land in rags and hunger and thirst,
sports of the sun flames of summer and the icy winds of winter, broken in spirit,
worn with travail, imploring Thee for the refuge of the grave and denied it—for
our sakes who adore Thee, Lord, blast their hopes, blight their lives, protract
their bitter pilgrimage, make heavy their steps, water their way with their tears,
stain the white snow with the blood of their wounded feet! We ask it, in the spirit
of love, of Him Who is the Source of Love, and Who is the ever-faithful refuge
and friend of all that are sore beset and seek His aid with humble and contrite
hearts. Amen.3
After the prayer ends, the churchgoers conclude that “the man was a lunatic,
because there was no sense in what he said.”4
The worshipers’ inability to imagine another’s vantage point contrasted
with Twain’s own habits. His writings regularly express empathy for the
oppressed and antipathy for social norms that promote oppression. Roughing
It includes sensitive portrayals of Chinese immigrants in California and
Nevada.5 Huck Finn realizes that Jim, the runaway slave, “cared just as much
for his people as white folks do for their’n.”6 Responding to European anti-
semitism, Twain wrote a humanizing portrait, “Concerning the Jews.”7 He
went a step further in his autobiography, describing himself—and everyone
else—as a microcosm for all human feelings and experiences:
The last quarter century of my life has been pretty constantly and faithfully
devoted to the study of the human race—that is to say, the study of myself, for
in my individual person I am the entire human race compacted together. I have
found that there is no ingredient of the race which I do not possess in either a
small way or a large way. When it is small, as compared with the same ingredi-
ent in somebody else, there is still enough of it for all the purposes of examina-
tion. In my contacts with the species I find no one who possesses a quality which
I do not myself possess.8
army that followed them into the sea; not one of them remained” (Exod.
14:26, 28). They sang jubilantly to “the Lord, the warrior” who “shatters
the foe” and “consumes them like straw” (Exod. 15:3, 6–7). Rabbinic sages
were disturbed by the wholesale drowning. They imagined God preventing
angels from singing along: “How dare you sing for joy when my creatures are
dying.”9 Perhaps the Israelites were permitted to sing because they needed the
emotional release. Still, the Talmud teaches that personal elation should never
blind one to another’s misfortunes, following a verse from Proverbs: “If your
enemy falls, do not exult; if he trips, do not rejoice, lest the Lord see it and be
displeased, and avert his wrath from them” (24:17–18).10 In other words, God
resents it when people gloat at someone else’s suffering—even if that suffer-
ing is well deserved. To this day, participants in the Passover seder remove
drops of wine at the mention of each plague to honor the Egyptian dead.11
Goliath was granted no such sensitivity. His characterization in the Book
of Samuel is as stereotypical as they come: large, brutish, boastful, aggres-
sive, heavily armed and armored, and only suited for fighting. Shortly after
slaying Goliath, David returns victoriously from battle, greeted by the songs
and dances of Israelite women (1 Sam. 18:5–7). Rather than chastising the
celebrants or showing remorse for the toppled giant, rabbinic lore amplified
Goliath’s one and only dimension, turning him into an even more monstrous
and blasphemous heel—a pattern that continued in Jewish, Christian, and
Islamic commentaries and modern-day religious and mass entertainment.
The New Living Translation’s Life Application Study Bible sums up the reli-
gious view:
These remarks are followed by four “lessons” from Goliath’s life: “Strengths
can conceal weaknesses; God will not be mocked; God transforms strength
into weakness and weakness into strength; God equips those who trust him
with spiritual armor.”13 This interpretation and many like it draw from the
plain meaning of the text. Taking the Bible at face value, they accept Goliath
as a menacing nuisance, necessary for David’s rise to power and, secondarily,
for teaching that faith helps overcome obstacles.
4 Introduction
The torrent of abuse and obscenities got to David and he accepted [Goliath’s]
challenge. Amused, Goliath walked up to kill David as if he were going out to
rake the leaves. The boy reacted impulsively by whipping out his slingshot and
firing a racquetball-sized rock directly into Goliath’s skull, killing him instantly.
Then he lifted the giant’s heavy sword into the air, and brought it down with a
thud, decapitating Goliath.14
A conclusion rounds out the volume with a recapitulation of the main top-
ics and an assessment of how the term “Goliath,” removed from the biblical
tale and allusions to it, has become a generic synonym for “giant,” “behe-
moth,” “colossus,” “jumbo,” “mammoth,” and the like. This non-context-
dependent meaning is commonplace in popular entertainment, from roller
coasters to children’s book protagonists to animated and live-action heroes.
Yet, attempts to make the biblical giant into a likable or even neutral character
remain exceedingly scarce. The takeaway is clear: aside from the few excep-
tions highlighted in this book, viewing Goliath favorably usually requires that
he cease being Goliath.
A note on the meaning of “popular culture” as it appears herein: rather
than limiting examples to those with mainstream appeal or monetary success,
“pop” is used in distinction to so-called highbrow culture. It encompasses the
“people’s culture,” as presented in and informed by mass media, as opposed
to that which appeals only to rarefied tastes. All forms of film, television,
comic books, spectator sports, and commercial music—whether or not they
attract a wide audience—are, in this sense, popular culture. As such, this book
draws freely and equally from obscure and lucrative comics, cult and block-
buster films, “legitimate” sports and sports entertainment, and little-known
and bestselling albums.
NOTES
1. Albert Bigelow Paine, Mark Twain: A Biography (New York: Harper, 1912), 1234.
2. Mark Twain, The War-Prayer (New York: Harper, 1970).
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. See chapter 54 in Mark Twain, Roughing It (Hartford, CT: American, 1872).
6. Mark Twain, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (New York: Webster, 1885), 201.
7. Mark Twain, “Concerning the Jews,” reprinted in Janet Smith, ed., Mark Twain
on the Damned Human Race (New York: Hill and Wang, 1994), 156–77.
8. Mark Twain, Mark Twain’s Own Autobiography: Chapters from the North
American Review (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1924), 225.
9. b. Megillah 10b; b. Sanhedrin 39b.
10. b. Berakhot 31a.
11. This compassionate explanation is ubiquitous but modern, originating in
the nineteenth century and becoming widespread during the twentieth century.
See Zvi Ron, “Spilling Wine While Reciting the Plagues to Diminish Joy?,”
TheTorah.com, 2020, https://www.thetorah.com/article/spilling-wine-while-reciting-
the-plagues-to-diminish-our-joy.
12. Life Application Study Bible (Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House, 2013), 441.
Introduction 7
13. Ibid.
14. “The 1st Book of Samuel,” in Mark Russell and Shannon Wheeler, God Is
Disappointed in You (Marietta, GA: Top Shelf, 2013).
15. Ibid.
1.
The phrase “David and Goliath” has long been synonymous with confronting
great challenges, overcoming incredible odds, and underdog victories. The
two figures represent stark contrasts of physical traits and abilities: a mas-
sive warrior who uses conventional objects of war; a small shepherd who
uses unconventional means (stone and sling).1 In the popular imagination,
Goliath is a stand-in for any powerful adversary, while David is any scrappy
or resourceful “little guy.” The ubiquity of this symbolism is arguably more
indebted to post-biblical amplifications than to the Bible itself, which offers
few details but lays the groundwork for an ever-growing assortment of retell-
ings and re-creations. Between 1500 and 1700 alone, more than 100 poems,
plays, and prose works derived from the Davidic narrative were produced
in Western Europe. The most popular subjects were David’s love affair with
Bathsheba, the rebellion of his son Absalom, and the slaying of Goliath.2
Johann Kuhnau, a German polymath and composer, included “David and
Goliath” among his six biblical sonatas published in 1700. The piece’s first
movement explores the “insolent bravado of the giant”; the second portrays
the trembling Israelites; the third expresses David’s confidence and the
giant’s fall; the fourth depicts the flight of the Philistines; and movements
five through seven convey the joyous Israelites, the women dancing, and
general jubilation.3 Kuhnau’s was one of many musical and visual artworks
that drew—and continue to draw—inspiration from the story.
By the nineteenth century, numerous sermons and books included varia-
tions of the phrase: “We all know the story of David and Goliath.”4 More
than an awareness of its popularity among Bible readers and Sunday school
students, the phrase acknowledged how pervasive the story had become in the
broader culture as a metaphor for an underdog victory—even before the term
“underdog” had been coined. According to the Oxford English Dictionary,
“underdog” originally referred to the losing dog in a dogfight. The dictionary
locates the term’s first printed use in a London Daily Telegraph article from
1887. However, nearly three decades earlier, in 1859, it appeared in a poem
9
10 Chapter 1
by David Barker, “The Under Dog in the Fight,” which ran in the New York
Evening Post and other American newspapers.5 Barker’s poem captures the
universal impulse to root for the underdog:
The other side of this metaphor is the “overdog” or “top dog”: a powerful
or successful person, group, or institution who is favored to win or achieve/
retain dominance. Overdog victories can be thrilling for top dogs and their
supporters, but their predictability is rarely the stuff of compelling storytell-
ing. Underdog victories, on the other hand, are inherently attractive, in large
part because most people identify with the struggles of the less advantaged
and believe it is just and right for them to finally succeed.6 Many also relish
the thought of upending the natural or social order, as an 1882 article from
Popular Science describes: “[I]f the under dog in the social fight runs away
with a bone in violation of superior force, the top dog runs after him bellow-
ing, ‘Thou shalt not steal,’ and all the other top dogs unite in bellowing, ‘This
is divine law, and not dog law.’”7
By the 1920s, “underdog and overdog” and “David and Goliath” had
become virtually interchangeable. An article by Charlie Chaplin for the
Ladies’ Home Journal, published in 1922, suggests the association was
already clichéd: “The triumph of the mite over the mighty was sure to be
sympathetic. It is the old idea of the under dog, or of David and Goliath.”8
A 1939 analysis of a Chaplin film uses similar language: “It may be
a David-and-Goliath affair. It may be a turning worm. It may be a lucky acci-
dent that places the underdog on top.”9
Today, the battle of David and Goliath is the paradigmatic underdog par-
able. However, the popular image of tiny David smiting enormous Goliath is
not simply a modern retrieval of an ancient myth. Goliath’s presence beyond
the Bible was boosted by medieval and early modern authors, who exagger-
ated the giant’s size, monstrous features, beastly habits, and evil instincts. The
twelfth-century Glossa Ordinaria, compiled mostly from Bible commentar-
ies of the Church Fathers, allegorizes David versus Goliath as Christ versus
Satan—a depiction found in several illuminated books, including Speculum
humanae salvationis (fourteenth century).10 Cursor Mundi, an anony-
mous fourteenth-century religious poem, depicts Goliath as a stereotypical
club-wielding brute.11 Michael Drayton’s 1630 poem, “David and Goliath,”
describes the giant’s brow as “two steep penthouses [hanging] down over his
eyelids.”12 Abraham Cowley’s unfinished epic “Davideis, a Sacred Poem of
Underdog and Overdog 11
the Troubles of David” (1656) has Goliath filling an entire valley and the sun
being frightened by the glow from his armor.13
In her classic study of the Grail legend, From Ritual to Romance, folklor-
ist Jessie L. Weston hears echoes of Goliath’s name in tales of heroes and
imposing foes engaged in single combat. The toppled villain in a Scottish
tale is named Golishan. An Arthurian romance tells of Gawain, King Arthur’s
nephew, defeating Golagros. Another Arthurian legend has Percival fight-
ing Golerotheram. Although these fearsome opponents are not giants per se,
Weston asks, “Are these all reminiscences of the giant Goliath, who became
the synonym for a dangerous, preferably heathen, adversary . . . ?”14
Modern literature continues the trend. Joseph Heller, in his irreverent novel
God Knows, imagines that Goliath’s “eyes were like coals, his beardless,
mottled face darkly studded. . . . The veins and tendons in his muscled neck
swelled vividly when he finally drew a gargantuan breath and opened wide
his jaws to speak. His voice was deafening.”15 Poet Margaret Avison’s Goliath
is not only bearded, but has a purple beard.16
Such otherizing both exaggerates Goliath’s deviousness and, by com-
parison, enhances David’s godliness, wholesome vigor, and worthiness as an
opponent. Children’s literature, especially, portrays Goliath as an “archetypal
bully” with “fangs, warts, and crooked and gaping teeth,” and David as a
relatable weakling-underdog.17 These images are often part of an encompass-
ing “boy tale” aesthetic.18 The pastoral setting, David’s origin as a humble
shepherd, his simple piety, his “rite of passage” battle, and his unlikely vic-
tory fit the pattern of an idealized “boy wonder,” with the aim of molding
the character of the person reading it. Not surprisingly, this goal is most
pronounced in children’s stories, which typically focus on David’s boyhood
years, remove the duel from the larger Davidic narrative, and most certainly
omit David’s later moral failings. Yet, these simplifying tendencies are also
present in works for adults, suggesting not only that early encounters with the
sanitized story stay with us as we grow older, but also that David’s boyhood
and defeat of Goliath hold up as a stand-alone tale.
In Patterns of American Popular Heroism, James Shoopman cites David
and Goliath as an underpinning of a range of hero narratives, whether or not
the author is conscious of its influence. These include cowboy movies, mili-
tary fiction, detective novels, superhero adventures, and more. “Across time
and distance,” writes Shoopman, “the world fantasizes the ability of the right
person, in the right time and place to fight-down intractable evils. Aeneas
crosses the sea and fights irrational enemies to found a new Trojan homeland,
young King-to-be David fells Goliath with a single stone, Sir Galahad finds
the Holy Grail.”19 The story is most strongly imprinted on the underdog vic-
tors of popular culture: “Jason Bourne, Luke Skywalker, Harry Potter—all
of these are David against Goliath, winning the victory of the least likely to
12 Chapter 1
behemoth. The 2020 film Percy vs. Goliath, starring Christopher Walken,
centers on a Canadian farmer and a giant corporation whose GMOs are
interfering with his crops. Another illustration of the metaphor’s ubiquity is
Survivor: David vs. Goliath (2018), the thirty-seventh season of the competi-
tive reality show. Contestants were divided into two “tribes” embodying the
biblical figures: David, composed of ten underdogs, and Goliath, compris-
ing ten overachievers. Predictably, a member of the David tribe won the
competition.
Joining overt and less-obvious examples are innumerable references to the
metaphor in stories and scripts. For instance, in the supernatural television
series Angel, the geeky Wesley refers to David and Goliath when standing
up to an enormous Haxil demon (“Expecting,” season one, 1999).32 In the
military science fiction adventure series Stargate SG-1, the team arrives on
a planet inhabited by medieval Christians. Simon, a monk, faces a demon
“like David before Goliath” (“Demons,” season three, 1999).33 In the Star
Trek: Voyager episode “Collective” (season six, 2000), the Doctor remarks,
“Behold! The David that slew our Goliath,” referring to a pathogen that had
wiped out Borg drones on a cube in the Delta Quadrant.34
The durable symbolism of David and Goliath is abundantly attested in the
titles of wide-ranging books and articles, as the appendix to this volume dem-
onstrates. Like any metaphor, the phrase can help us understand the events or
circumstances taking place and the actors or parties involved. Yet, at the same
time, the metaphorical framing tends to constrict our perception and prevent
us from seeing things in any other way.
In the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode “Darmok” (season five,
1991), the crew of the USS Enterprise-D tries to establish communication
between the United Federation of Planets and the Tamarians (also known as
the Children of Tama).35 Previous attempts were unsuccessful, as the univer-
sal translator could decipher individual words but not their intended meaning.
In an effort to bridge the communication gap, Enterprise captain Jean-Luc
Picard is transported to the wild environs of the planet El-Adrel IV, along
with the Tamarian captain Dathon. Through their harrowing encounters with
a monstrous creature, which ultimately kills Dathon, Picard realizes that the
Tamarians communicate with metaphors drawn from their native mythology.
Among the phrases are: “Shaka, when the walls fell,” a metaphor for failure;
“Temba, his arms wide,” meaning giving and receiving; “Sokath, his eyes
uncovered,” a metaphor for comprehension; and “Darmok and Jalad . . . at
Tanagra,” a friendship forged through facing a common enemy—itself an
underdog tale involving comparatively puny mortals battling a powerful
monster. At the end of the episode, the latter metaphor is adapted to reflect
what had transpired: “Picard and Dathon . . . at El-Adrel.”
16 Chapter 1
NOTES
1. Heda Jason, “The Story of David and Goliath: A Folk Epic?” Biblica 60:1
(1979): 52.
2. Ted-Larry Pebworth, “Cowley’s Davideis and the Exaltation of Friendship,” in
The David Myth on Western Literature, ed. Raymond-Jean Frontain and Jan Wojcik
(West Lafayette, IN: Perdue University Press, 1980), 97.
3. C. Hubert H. Parry, The Oxford History of Music, Vol. III: The Music of the
Seventeenth Century (Oxford: Clarendon, 1902), 374.
4. Eliza (Lady) Verney, Practical Thoughts on the First Forty Chapters of the Book
of the Prophet Isaiah (London: James Nisbet, 1858), 129.
5. David Barker, “The Under Dog in the Fight,” Washington Union, April 6, 1859.
6. Joseph A. Vandello, Nadav Goldschmied, and Kenneth Michniewicz, “Underdogs
as Heroes,” in Handbook of Heroism and Heroic Leadership, ed. George R. Goethals,
Roderick M. Kramer, and Scott T. Allison (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2017), 345.
7. Goldwin Smith, “Science and Morality,” Popular Science, April 1882, 761.
8. Charles Chaplin, “We Have Come to Stay,” Ladies’ Home Journal,
October 1922, 61.
9. Milton Wright, What’s Funny and Why: An Outline of Humor (New York:
Whittlesey House, 1939), 42.
10. David Lyle Jeffrey, A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature
(Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 1992), 314; Sara Kipfer, “Goliath; V. Visual
Arts,” in Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception, vol. 10, ed. Hans-Josef Klauck
(Berlin: De Gruyter, 2015), 599.
Underdog and Overdog 19
11. Jeffrey Jerome Cohen, Of Giants: Sex, Monsters, and the Middle Ages
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 86.
12. Michael Drayton, The Works of Michael Drayton, vol. 3 (London: W. Reeve,
1753), 1631.
13. Abraham Cowley, Poems: Miscellanies, the Mistress, Pindarique Odes,
Davideis, Verses Written on Several Occasions, ed. A. R. Waller (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1905), 333.
14. Jessie L. Weston, From Ritual to Romance (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1920), 91.
15. Joseph Heller, God Knows (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984), 72.
16. Margaret Avison, Winter Sun (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1960), 92.
17. Paul B. Thomas, “Goliath; IV. Literature,” in Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its
Reception, vol. 10 (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2015), 598.
18. See Jessica Fitting, “Children’s Literature and the ‘David and Goliath’ Story,”
Journal of Theta Alpha Kappa 34:2 (2010): 38–53.
19. James G. Shoopman, Patterns of American Popular Heroism: From Biblical
Roots to Modern Media (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2020), 28.
20. Ibid., 82.
21. Anthony Hatcher, Religion and Media in America (Lanham, MD: Lexington,
2018), 135.
22. Booker, The Seven Basic Plots, 245.
23. Ibid., 48.
24. These examples are taken from Theresa Bane, Encyclopedia of Giants and
Humanoids in Myth, Legend and Folklore (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2016).
25. St. John Simpson, “Annihilating Assyria,” in In Context: The Reade Festschrift,
ed. Irving Finkel and St. John Simpson (Oxford: Archaeopress, 2020), 141, 142.
26. Joel M. LeMon, “Beheading in the Ancient World,” Bible Odyssey,
February 16, 2011, https://www.bibleodyssey.org/en/passages/related-articles/
beheading-in-the-ancient-world.
27. Bane, Encyclopedia of Giants and Humanoids in Myth, Legend and
Folklore, 6–7.
28. Sulpicius Severus, Historia Sacra, cited in Stephens, “‘De Historia
Gigantum,’” 55.
29. L. Jagi Lamplighter, Prospero Regained: Prospero’s Daughter (New York:
Macmillan, 2011); Cassandra Clare, Queen of Air and Darkness (New York: Simon
& Schuster, 2018).
30. Bane, Encyclopedia of Giants and Humanoids in Myth, Legend and
Folklore, 14, 47.
31. “David versus Goliath,” TV Tropes, https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/
Main/DavidVersusGoliath.
32. David Semel, dir., “Expecting,” Angel, season 1, episode 12, 1999.
33. Peter DeLuise, dir., “Demons,” Stargate SG-1, season 3, episode 8, 1999.
34. Allison Liddi, dir., “Collective,” Star Trek: Voyager, season 6, episode 16, 2000.
35. Winrich Kolbe, dir., “Darmok,” Star Trek: The Next Generation, season 5,
episode 2, 1991.
20 Chapter 1
Source Materials
The biblical saga of King David has captivated audiences for millennia. A
composite narrative of heroic legends, morality tales, pious poetry, political
propaganda, theological statements, and cultural myths, David was both a
product and exemplar of Israelite popular literature. The original storytellers
had no compulsion to apologize for his moral failings, lapses in judgment,
or weakness for women; such faults and frailties added drama, deepened
themes, and made David tantalizingly realistic. David was an “ideal type,”
not because he was perfect, but because he was a thoroughly human “every-
man” who modeled piety in the “midst of the exigencies of life”1—an image
bolstered by his name gracing seventy-three biblical psalms. Rabbinic custom
later attributed the entire Book of Psalms to him.2 The Dead Sea Scrolls went
many steps further, crediting David with 3,600 psalms and 450 songs.3
Modern authors continue to explore David’s complex characterization,
highlighting the same traits and exploits that have long secured his place
among the “who’s who” of biblical personages. In King David: The Real Life
of the Man Who Ruled Israel, Jonathan Kirsch argues that David “possessed
every flaw and failing a mortal is capable of, yet men and women adored
him and God showered him with many more blessings than he did Abraham
or Moses.”4 Joel Baden’s book, The Historical David: The Real Life of an
Invented Hero, “exposes an ambitious, ruthless, flesh-and-blood man who
achieved power by any means necessary, including murder, theft, bribery,
sex, deceit, and treason.”5 David Wolpe’s David: The Divided Heart attempts
to “unravel his complex character” and paint a “portrait of an exceptional
human being who, despite his many flaws, was truly beloved by God.”6
The bout with Goliath is arguably the most well-known Davidic tale.
Here is the basic outline: the Israelites and Philistines are positioned in
opposing camps; a Philistine champion (Goliath) emerges calling for single
combat; King Saul and his men are afraid; David tells Saul that he wants
to face Goliath; David refuses Saul’s sword and armor; David prepares his
sling and stones; Goliath mocks David; David proclaims that God is on his
21
22 Chapter 2
side; David fells Goliath with a stone and beheads him; the Philistines flee
and the Israelites give chase; David deposits Goliath’s head in Jerusalem
(1 Sam. 17:1–58).
This is the “coming of age” chapter in David’s life. Untrained and unwanted
on the battlefield, the “ruddy-cheeked, bright-eyed, and handsome” (1 Sam.
16:12) shepherd accepts the seemingly impossible challenge. Armed only
with his sling and stones (shepherd’s tools) and driven by an unshakable faith,
the boy shows flashes of cunning, courage, and warrior instincts that will
define him in adulthood. He is even rewarded with a bride, Saul’s daughter
Michal, solidifying his transition to maturity. Narratively, Goliath is merely
a plot device: an obstacle and stepping-stone to David’s predetermined role
as Israel’s king (1 Sam. 16:13). Hardly an endearing figure, he towers over
his heroic challenger as a stereotypical warrior-brute, whose size and military
prowess are matched by his hubris and disdainfulness. David’s victory is a
surprise, but the giant gets what he deserves.
In most retellings and recollections, David’s victory is presented as the
triumph of faith and purity over depravity and brutality. While the hero’s
life becomes messy and morally fraught as he grows in years and power, his
battle with the giant is treated as fodder for inspirational and uncomplicated
children’s stories. However, as we shall see, this is not the only way to view
Goliath—or young David.
Before delving into contrarian depictions, it is important to survey the ins
and outs of the source materials, how they came to be, and the impact they
have had on our perceptions. The academic study of the origins and com-
position of the David and Goliath legend is robust, interdisciplinary, and, at
times, complex. Informed by historical, political, theological, archaeological,
and literary analysis, the story has been assessed and reassessed from many
sides. The picture of Goliath that emerges is one of an amalgamated character
repurposed from fabled giants and brute men, Greek lore and military history,
and political and territorial strife—all filtered through the inventive, embel-
lishing, contemporizing tendencies of oral storytelling. Despite ample room
for creative expansion and character development, biblical and later authors
painted Goliath into a superficial corner, making him bigger and badder but
never more than a monotonal villain. From the vantage point of the Bible and
its traditional commentaries, Goliath is far from sympathetic.
Giants appear early on in the Hebrew Bible. In the verses preceding Noah
and the Flood, we are introduced to the Nephilim, an ancient race of giants
Source Materials 23
believed to dwell in the land of Canaan. The giants originated from the cou-
pling of divine beings and mortal women, as Genesis 6:1–4 recounts:
When men began to increase on earth and daughters were born to them, the
divine beings [or “sons of God”] saw how beautiful the daughters of men were
and took wives from among those that pleased them. The Lord said, “My breath
shall not abide in man forever, since he too is flesh; let the days allowed him
be one hundred and twenty years.” It was then, and later too, that the Nephilim
appeared on the earth—when the divine beings cohabitated with the daughters
of men, who bore them offspring. They were the heroes of old, men of renown.
This account, like many antediluvian episodes and cameos in Genesis, reads
like a condensation of a once well-known but now forgotten legend. The pre-
ceding verses (Gen. 4:17–5:32) contain bare references to pre-deluge person-
ages who were no doubt part of larger story traditions. Genesis 4:20–22, for
instance, mentions that Jabal “was the ancestor of those who dwell in tents
and amidst herds,” his brother Jubal “was the ancestor of all who play the
lyre and the pipe,” and their half-brother Tubal-cain “forged all implements
of copper and iron.” Tubal-cain’s sister, Naamah, is also named, and may
have been the first singer, although her role—whatever it was—is omitted
from the text.7 These figures, only tersely noted and appearing nowhere else
in the Bible, recall the primordial founders of civilization in Mesopotamian
lore.8 The genealogy in Genesis 5 likewise rattles off names with little or no
details, mapping out ten generations of “begets” from Adam to Noah. The
ages of these once-mentioned characters are exaggerated, another sign of
their legendary status, with Enosh living 905 years (Gen. 5:11), Jared lasting
962 years (Gen. 5:20), and Methuselah winning the longevity prize with 969
years (Gen. 5:27). In fact, the relatively short Nephilim lifespan (120 years)
is explained as a consequence for the breach of divine-human boundaries that
produced the giants (Gen. 6:3). Their identification as “heroes of old” is out
of sync with this punishment and the general depiction of giants in the Bible,
suggesting that, sometime in the distant past, the image of the hero-giant was
replaced by the villain-giant. God’s rationale for the impending Flood comes
immediately after the Nephilim are introduced:
The Lord saw how great was man’s wickedness on earth, and how every plan
devised by his mind was nothing but evil all the time. And the Lord regretted he
had made man on earth, and His heart was saddened. The Lord said, “I will blot
out from the earth the men whom I created—men together with beasts, creeping
things, and birds of the sky; for I regret that I made them.” (Gen. 6:5–7)
Nephilim next appear in Numbers 13:33, where their great size frightens the
Israelite spies Moses had sent to scout the land of Hebron. The verse further
24 Chapter 2
of Ahijah, whose father was the fallen angel Shamchazai and whose mother
was Ham’s wife.12 The story tradition also exaggerates their size beyond
reasonable dimensions, with their feet alone measuring eighteen cubits in
length.13 And, with great size comes great evil: Sihon and Og are depicted
as more dreadful than Pharaoh, and their downfall is compared to crossing
the Red Sea.14 Og’s death is particularly fantastical. He lifts a mountain over
his head measuring three parasangs long (approx. nine miles) and intends to
drop it on the Israelite camp. His plan is thwarted by ants dispatched by God,
which crawl on him and cause him to lose his grip. As the mountain slips onto
Og’s neck, Moses axes him on the ankle, causing him to fall to his death.15
The terms Rephaim and Raphah occur twenty-five times in the Bible,
sometimes in passing (e.g., Gen. 14:5, 15:20) and other times in connection to
the “Valley of Rephaim” (Josh. 15:8, 18:16; 2 Sam. 5:18, 22; 1 Chron. 11:15,
14:9). The Moabites identified a population of Rephaim as Emim—“a people
great and numerous, and as tall as the Anakites” (Deut. 2:10–11)—while
the Ammonites knew other Rephaim as Zamzummim—“people great and
numerous and as tall as the Anakites” (Deut. 2:20–21). Interestingly, Emim is
derived from the Hebrew word eimah, meaning “terror” or “fear” (in Modern
Hebrew, seret eimah means “horror film”). So, rather than a proper name,
the appellation likely indicates how the Moabites perceived the Rephaim.
Similarly, the term Zamzummim is related to zimzum, which means “buzz”
or “hum,” perhaps a derogatory reference to their “primitive” language. Other
notable giants include Arba, whom the Book of Joshua identifies as the great-
est of the Anakim and the forefather of “the Anak” (14:15, 15:13). Hebron
was once named for him (Kiriath-arba), and anak is the modern Hebrew word
for “giant.” The Amorites—the Canaanite tribe ruled by Sihon and Og—are
also described as giants in Amos 2:9–10: “whose stature was like the cedar’s
and who was stout as the oak.”
Giant lore continued in extra-canonical literature. Most prominent is
the First Book of Enoch, a text whose only known complete version is an
Ethiopic translation of a Greek translation derived from the original Hebrew
or Aramaic, dating to around the fourth century BCE and ascribed by tradi-
tion to Enoch, the great-grandfather of Noah (Gen. 5:18–24). The first section
of the book, known as the Book of Watchers (1 Enoch 1–36), tells of angelic
beings, called Watchers, who leave their heavenly abode to sire children
with mortal women, following Genesis 6:1–4. The result is disastrous, as the
Watchers teach human beings forbidden practices and their hybrid offspring
are murderous giants. God sends four archangels to punish the Watchers
and restore order.16 The portrayal of giants in 1 Enoch may have been a
polemic against the Diadochi, Alexander’s successors, who claimed that
they descended from gods. The giants’ bloody deeds resemble those of the
Diadochi, who led armies through Palestine during at the end of the fourth
26 Chapter 2
century BCE. The stories are also similar to Greek myths about primordial
wars of giants.17 Genesis 6:1–4 is further expanded upon in the Book of
Giants, a group of Aramaic fragments found at the caves of Qumran (Dead
Sea), as well as in surviving Middle Iranian fragments of the Manichaean
Book of Giants.18
Taken together, these stories imbue giants with a host of genetically deter-
mined propensities: violence, deviance, amorality, and primitiveness. The ste-
reotypical link between giantism and militarism was so pronounced that even
Judah Maccabee, warrior-hero of the Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE), is
extolled poetically: “Like a giant he put on his breastplate, he bound on his
armor of war and waged battles, protecting the camp by the sword” (1 Macc.
3:3). This simile draws on the giant’s military reputation without assuming
the less savory aspects.
Giants’ traits are stressed in a sequence of four combat reports in 2 Samuel
21:15–22, recounting David’s men defeating Philistine giants. In the first,
Ishbi-benob, “a descendant of the Raphah,” attempts to murder David but
is instead attacked and killed by Abishai ben Zeruiah, one of David’s loyal
soldiers (vv. 15–17). A second battle with the Philistines includes Sibbecai the
Hushathite, another of David’s men, killing the giant Saph (v. 18). The third
fight involves Elhanan, a Bethlehemite soldier, killing Goliath the Gittite,
“whose spear had a shaft like a weaver’s beam” (v. 19). The fourth account
tells of “a giant of a man, who has six fingers on each hand and six toes on
each foot,” taunting Israel (à la Goliath in 1 Sam. 17) and being struck down
by Jonathan, the son of David’s brother Shimei (vv. 20–21). These terse
verses, likely remnants of larger story traditions, conclude with a eulogy for
the giants: “Those four were descended from the Raphah in Gath, and they
fell by the hands of David and his men” (v. 22).
GOLIATH
An obvious problem arises in the third report, in which Elhanan, not David,
is identified as Goliath’s killer. A later version in 1 Chronicles 20:5 attempts
to smooth out the discrepancy, proposing that Elhanan actually slayed
Goliath’s brother Lahmi. In addition to reconciling the earlier accounts—a
primary agenda of the Book of Chronicles—this reworking builds on the
assertion that “David and his men” defeated giants (2 Sam. 21:22), even as
David’s direct involvement is absent from the four accounts. As a result, the
Chronicler’s addition of Lahmi not only disentangles Elhanan from Goliath,
but also solidifies David’s role as destroyer of giants. Taking a different stab
at harmonization, Rashi, an eleventh-century rabbinic commentator, pro-
posed that Elhanan and David were one and the same. Other explanations
Source Materials 27
previous chapter (1 Sam. 16), such as introducing David and his family as
new characters and introducing young David to King Saul. These redundant
aspects help ground the David and Goliath duel in the period of “young
David,” reminding the reader that he is still a small, pure, overlooked, and
physically weak shepherd when he faces the Philistine—attributes not as
clearly portrayed in the Greek version.
Other details unique to the Hebrew account similarly emphasize David’s
youth and disadvantaged position. For example, his eldest brother scolds
him for being on the battlefield (“manly” turf) and asking naïve questions (1
Sam. 17:26–29), David is swordless, and a stone from his simple sling kills
the Philistine (1 Sam. 17:50—“Thus David prevailed over the Philistine with
a sling and a stone, and struck the Philistine and killed him; but there was
no sword in David’s hand”). In the Greek telling, David goes directly to Saul
without first mingling with the Israelite soldiers or upstaging his older broth-
ers; he merely topples Goliath with the stone; and he kills the champion by
beheading him (possibly with David’s own sword)—all of which imply an
older and more seasoned soldier.
Performance critics would add that the Hebrew rendition was but one ver-
sion among many. Oral recitation remained the primary mode of storytelling
in the Ancient Near East, even after story variants were committed to writ-
ing. In this sense, the written texts—whether the shorter Greek or longer
Hebrew—are the “fossil remains of living oral performances.”31 Authors in
antiquity selected from oral and written sources, interjected their own ideas,
and composed versions that were subject to change with each telling.32 Their
narratives relied on “gobbets,” or generic markers that functioned as “reg-
isters”33 or aides-mémoires: story patterns, characters, objects, key phrases,
etc.34 Extemporization was more important than memorization; written
accounts served as models or semi-rigid frameworks into which novelties
were introduced.
One Goliath-specific variation concerns his height. In the Hebrew text, he
is “six cubits and a span tall,” or roughly 9 feet, 9 inches. The Greek text has
him at a more human “four cubits and a span,” or about 6 feet, 9 inches—an
inch shorter than Hall of Fame pitcher Randy Johnson. Intriguingly, while
the longer account is preserved in the oldest-known Hebrew fragments of
1 Samuel (4QSama; mid-first century BCE),35 that source lists Goliath at four
cubits and a span, matching the Greek version. The comparatively modest
stature was also recorded by Romano-Jewish historian Josephus (first century
CE), and occurs in the Lucian Greek recension (third century CE), the
Alexandrinus (fifth century CE), and other early codices.36 Goliath’s size was
likely exaggerated in the oral tradition as the story was recited/performed
for different audiences over time. The amplification of his height also sup-
ports the view that Elhanan’s giant was absorbed into David’s tale: not only
30 Chapter 2
was the anonymous Philistine given the name Goliath, but, like Goliath in
2 Samuel 21:19, he became a Raphah. Moreover, a careful reading of the text
reveals that Saul and his men were intimidated by Goliath’s military training,
not his size per se. When David tells Saul that he wants to fight Goliath, Saul
responds: “You cannot go to that Philistine and fight him; you are a boy and
he has been a warrior from his youth!” (1 Sam. 17:33). Of course, even at
6’9” Goliath would have been an imposing presence. The average Israelite
male was probably around 5 feet tall.37
Archaeologist Jeffrey Chadwick further notes that Goliath’s height of four
cubits and a span roughly corresponds to the width of the gates of Gath, the
remains of which were found at Tell es-Safi (approximately halfway between
Jerusalem and Ashkelon).38 As such, Goliath may have been a metaphorical
personification of the size and strength of Gath’s defensive barrier. Chadwick
speculates: “The ancient writer used a real architectural metric from that time
to describe Goliath’s height, likely to indicate that he was as big and strong
as his city’s walls.”39 Although this theory has yet to catch on, it does resonate
with metaphoricalizing elsewhere in the Bible. For instance, the toppling of
the walls of Jericho by priest-blown horns (shofarot) in Joshua 6:1–27 is most
likely a narrative spin on an earthquake that leveled the city long before the
Israelites’ purported conquest. The power of the sacred horns was conceived
as equal to the force of an earthquake.40
Another much-commented-upon aspect of Goliath is his armor and weap-
onry. Both the Hebrew and Greek texts report (with slight variation): “He
had a bronze helmet on his head, and wore a breastplate of scale armor, a
bronze breastplate weighing five thousand shekels. He had bronze greaves on
his legs, and a bronze javelin slung from his shoulders. . . . [T]he iron head
of his spear weighed six hundred shekels; and the shield-bearer marched in
front of him” (1 Sam. 17:5–7). This eclectic assortment, essentially making
Goliath a “human tank,”41 does not match what is known of Philistine armor.
His headgear is unlike the feathered helmets seen in Egyptian reliefs, his scale
armor is Mesopotamian- or Syrian-style, and his large shield contrasts with
the typically small Philistine shield.42
Azzan Yadin sees Goliath’s panoply as a critique or satire of Greek con-
ventions and Homeric storytelling. The helmet, breastplate, greaves, and
shield-bearer are conventions of Greek culture, as are one-on-one cham-
pionship bouts and the legitimization of a future king through combat. In
contrast, biblical election usually involves divine anointment, angelic/pro-
phetic announcement, birth to a barren mother, or other non-violent means.43
Archaeologist Israel Finkelstein agrees, noting that the “standard [Greek]
hoplite’s accouterments were identical to Goliath’s, consisting of a metal hel-
met, plate armor, metal greaves, two spears, a sword, and a large shield,” and
adding that with “their heavy armor and aggressive tactics, the Greek hoplites
Source Materials 31
embodied the image of a threatening, arrogant enemy that would have been
all too well known to many Judahites of the late seventh century BCE.”44
Furthermore, the passage’s literary style, with its descriptions of weights and
materials, mirrors Homer’s attention to detail, but is at odds with the Bible’s
more economical narrative style.45 (Erich Auerbach elucidated these stylistic
contrasts in his classic essay, “Odysseus’ Scar.”46)
David and Goliath could also be an intentional reversal of the single com-
bat between Paris and Menelaus, as told in the opening of Book Three of the
Iliad. Paris, the fair, unskilled, and unwarriorlike Trojan prince, precipitates
a war with the Achaeans by stealing the beautiful Helen from her husband,
Menelaus. In a show of mock bravery, Paris challenges to fight any of the
Achaean warriors, but when Menelaus steps forward, Paris shrinks back into
the Trojan ranks. Hector, the leader of the Trojan forces, chastises his brother
Paris for his cowardice. Paris finally agrees to duel Menelaus to decide which
of the men would have Helen as his wife. Paris and Menelaus face off, but
neither is able to drive the other with his spear. After breaking his sword over
Paris’ helmet, Menelaus grabs Paris by the helmet and drags him through
the dirt. The goddess Aphrodite, an ally of the Trojans, snaps the strap of the
helmet, releasing Paris. Menelaus retrieves his spear, but before he can strike
Paris, Aphrodite whisks the prince away. Yadin notes that Paris and David are
characterized in similar ways: young, untrained, and beautiful.47 Yet, unlike
Paris, a feeble challenger whose god facilitates his cowardly escape, David
courageously accepts the challenge from his vastly more experienced oppo-
nent and, fueled by faith, strikes him down.
It is also worth noting that single combat, as described by Homer, was pri-
marily devised to minimize bloodshed. It was a winner-take-all contest: two
representatives fought to the death in place of their armies, and to the win-
ner’s side went the victory. However, instead of surrendering, the Philistines
flee in horror after witnessing David’s triumph (1 Sam. 17:51–53). This break
with convention not only puts an exclamation mark on the surprise of David’s
feat, but also gives the Israelites cause to pursue the Philistines, kill them,
and loot their camp. Aside from adding insult to injury, these actions keep the
Israelite-Philistine war going throughout both books of Samuel.
According to Yadin, the appropriation and subversion of Greek ele-
ments—culminating with the youthful and inexperienced shepherd defeating
the heavily armored Greek-like warrior—were polemical choices reflecting
the growing Greek influence at the time the text was redacted, likely in the
sixth century BCE, rather than the time of David (eleventh century BCE),
with additions and revisions perhaps extending into the fifth century BCE.48
Philistia experienced a national awakening during this period, which involved
a search for non-Semitic roots, an interest in Homeric epics, and a revival
of their kinship with the Greeks on Cyprus. Greek culture was particularly
32 Chapter 2
The Rags to Riches story first introduces us to its hero or heroine in childhood,
or at least at a very young age before they have ventured out on the stage of the
world. [David is introduced as a shepherd of his father’s flock and an attendant
to Saul (1 Sam. 17:12–15).] As yet they are not fully formed, and we are aware
that in some essential way the story is concerned with the process of grow-
ing up. [David leaves the sheep and ventures onto the field of battle (1 Sam.
17:20).] When we first see them in this initial stage, it is always emphasized
how the little hero or heroine are at the bottom of the heap, seemingly inferior
34 Chapter 2
to everyone around them. [David’s oldest brother, Eliab, chastises him for
being on the battlefield (1 Sam. 17:28).] Often they are the youngest child, and
disregarded for being so. [David is the youngest of eight sons and is previously
overlooked by his father (1 Sam. 16:6–12)]. They thus begin in the shadows
cast by more dominant figures around them, who not only can see no merit in
them but are usually deeply antagonistic to them. [David’s three oldest brothers,
Saul, and Goliath.]59
Formulaic numbers are another folkloric feature of the story. Most obvious is
forty, the number of days Goliath calls out for a challenger (1 Sam. 17:16).
In folklore throughout the Ancient Near East, forty is a symbol for “many” or
“a long time.” The Flood is brought on by rain for forty days and forty nights
(Gen. 7:4)—a span repeated in Goliath stepping forward forty mornings and
evenings.60 Moses spends forty days on Mount Sinai with God (Exod. 24:18);
the Israelites sojourn forty years in the wilderness (Num. 14:33); Elijah takes
forty days and nights to walk to Mount Horeb (1 Kgs. 19:8); and so on. There
are also many occurrences of threes: David’s three oldest brothers (1 Sam.
17:13); Goliath’s weapons—sword, spear, and javelin (v. 45); three iterations
of Goliath’s speech (vv. 8–9, 16, 23); three mentions of the opposing camps
(vv. 2–3, 19, 21); and repeating Saul's offering of his daughter three times
(vv. 25, 26–27, 30).61
Viewed with a wider lens, the story is itself one of three seemingly inde-
pendent accounts of David’s entrance into Saul’s court. The first involves the
prophet Samuel visiting Jesse to anoint one of his sons as the future king.
Jesse presents seven of his sons, but all are rejected. Samuel asks if any sons
are missing, to which Jesse replies, “There is still the youngest; he is tend-
ing his flock” (1 Sam. 16:11). Samuel anoints the young shepherd, David,
in the presence of his brothers (v. 12). This scene is immediately followed
by another entrance story. Saul is suffering from intense mental anguish,
described as the divine spirit departing from him. In order to soothe their
king, the courtiers send for a “music therapist” who is skilled at the lyre.
That musician is David, whom Saul keeps in his court to play whenever the
“[evil] spirit of the Lord came upon him” (1 Sam. 16:23). David’s bout with
Goliath is a third entrance story. David is introduced to King Saul as if they
had never met before: “Saul said to him, ‘Whose son are you, my boy?’ And
David answered, ‘The son of your servant Jesse the Bethlehemite’” (1 Sam.
17:58). Readers and commentators have struggled to reconcile these stories.
Raymond-Jean Frontain and Jan Wojcik ask in their book, The David Myth
in Western Literature:
[D]id Saul first meet David only after he had killed Goliath, as is implied in
1 Samuel 17:55–56, or had he known him previously as the harpist who was
Source Materials 35
sent to cure him of his evil spirit? And why does he seem unaware of Samuel’s
anointing the boy? Surely news like that would have spread quickly through all
Israel, despite whatever precautions Samuel might have taken.62
Did the author(s) or editor(s) include all three because they were uncertain
about what actually happened?63 Or were these three chosen from many other
folk traditions of David’s rise? In either case, why three? Booker observes
that many legends and fables include three as a “trigger for something impor-
tant to happen” or as a “number of growth and transformation.”64 As in the
Davidic narrative, sequences of three usually begin with a mild scene, con-
tinue with a more dramatic moment, and culminate with a climactic, transfor-
mative event. Booker cites the three treasure caves of Aladdin; three houses in
“The Three Little Pigs”; three wolf encounters in “Little Red Riding Hood”;
three ghostly visitors in A Christmas Carol; three visits to the giant’s castle
in “Jack and the Beanstalk”; and more. “Much as we say ‘Ready, steady, go’
to prepare and concentrate the runners at the start of a race,” Booker writes,
“so the process of three conveys the steady build up to the moment of trans-
formation which enables the hero or heroine to move on to the next stage.”65
AN OPEN STORY
NOTES
3. 11Q5 col. 27. John J. Collins, A Short Introduction to the Hebrew Bible, 2nd ed.
(Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2014), 156.
4. Jonathan Kirsch, King David: The Real Life of the Man Who Ruled Israel (New
York: Ballantine, 2000), 58.
5. Joel Baden, The Historical David: The Real Life of an Invented Hero (New York:
HarperOne, 2014).
6. David Wolpe, David: The Divided Heart (New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press, 2014).
7. Jonathan L. Friedmann, “Who Was Naamah? Insights from Robert Crumb’s
The Book of Genesis Illustrated,” Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 31:2
(2019): 167–76.
8. Jon D. Levenson, “Genesis,” in The Jewish Study Bible, ed. Adele Berlin and
Marc Zvi Brettler (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 19.
9. Robert D. Miller II, Oral Tradition in Ancient Israel (Eugene, OR: Cascade,
2011), 81.
10. Walter E. Stephens, “‘De Historia Gigantum’: Theological Anthropology
before Rabelais,” Traditio 40 (1984): 52.
11. Pirkei de-Rabbi Eliezer 23.
12. b. Niddah 61a; Yalqut Reubeni on Genesis 7:7.
13. Deuteronomy Rabbah 1:25.
14. Midrash Tehillim 136:11.
15. b. Berakhot 54a–b.
16. Daniel M. Gurtner and Loren T. Stuckenbruck, T&T Clark Encyclopedia of
Second Temple Judaism Volume One (London: T&T Clark, 2020), 165–69.
17. Jacob Neusner and William Scott Green, ed., Dictionary of Judaism in the
Biblical Period, 450 B.C.E to 600 C.E., Volume 1 (New York: Macmillan, 1996), 251.
18. See Loren T. Stuckenbruck, The Book of Giants from Qumran (Tübingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 1997).
19. Joel M. Hoffman, The Bible Doesn’t Say That: 40 Biblical Mistranslations,
Misconceptions, and Other Misunderstandings (New York: Macmillan, 2016), 45–46;
Baruch Halpern, David’s Secret Demons: Messiah, Murderer, Traitor, King (Grand
Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001), 150–51.
20. Shimon Bar-Efrat, “Second Samuel,” in The Jewish Study Bible, ed. Adele
Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 659.
21. Azzan Yadin, “Goliath’s Armor and Israel’s Collective Memory,” Vetus
Testamentum 54:3 (2004): 376.
22. Stanley Isser, The Sword of Goliath: David in Heroic Literature (Atlanta, GA:
Society of Biblical Literature, 2003), 35.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid., 376–77.
25. Ibid., 376.
26. Shimon Bar-Efrat, “First Samuel,” in The Jewish Study Bible, ed. Adele Berlin
and Marc Zvi Brettler (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 593.
27. See Benjamin J. M. Johnson, Reading David and Goliath in Greek and
Hebrew: A Literary Approach (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2015); and Dominique
38 Chapter 2
Barthélemy, David W. Gooding, Emanuel Tov, and Johan Lust, The Story of David
and Goliath: Textual and Literary Criticism (Fribourg and Göttingen: Vandenhoeck
and Ruprecht, 1986).
28. Anneli Aejmelaeus, “Rewriting David and Goliath?,” in From Scribal Error
to Rewriting: How Ancient Texts Could and Could Not Be Changed, ed. Anneli
Aejmelaeus, Drew Longacre, and Natia Mirotadze (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht, 2020), 166.
29. Ibid., 165–80.
30. Ibid., 174, 178–79.
31. David Rhoads, “The Art of Translating for Oral Performance,” in Translating
Scripture for Sound and Performance: New Directions in Biblical Studies, ed. Ernst
Wendland (Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2012), 28.
32. Miller II, Oral Tradition in Ancient Israel, 121.
33. John Miles Foley, The Singer of Tales in Performance: Voices in Performance
and Text (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995), 50.
34. Miller II, Oral Tradition in Ancient Israel, 37.
35. See Benjamin J. M. Johnson, “Reconsidering 4QSama and the Textual Support
for the Long and Short Versions of the David and Goliath Story,” Vetus Testamentum
62:4 (2012): 534–49.
36. See J. Daniel Hays, “Reconsidering the Height of Goliath,” Journal of the
Evangelical Theological Society 48:4 (2005): 701–14.
37. Ibid., 710.
38. Bruce Bower, “The Biblical Giant Goliath May Not Have Been So Giant
After All,” Science News, November 23, 2020, https://www.sciencenews.org/article/
bible-warrior-goliath-david-not-giant-height-gath.
39. Ibid.
40. See Jonathan L. Friedmann, “The Fall of Jericho as Earthquake Myth,” Jewish
Bible Quarterly 48:3 (2020): 171–78.
41. Joan Comay, The Hebrew Kings (New York: William Morrow, 1977), 21.
42. K. Galling, “Goliath und seine Rüstung,” Vetus Testamentum 15 (1966): 150–
69; Yadin, “Goliath’s Armor and Israel’s Collective Memory,” 376.
43. Yadin, “Goliath’s Armor and Israelite Collective Memory,” 379–80. See also
Israel Finkelstein, “The Philistines in the Bible: A Late-Monarchic Perspective,”
Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 27:2 (2002): 127–67.
44. Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman, David and Solomon (New York:
Free Press, 2006), 197, 198.
45. Yadin, “Goliath’s Armor and Israelite Collective Memory,” 392.
46. “Odysseus’ Scar” is the first chapter in Erich Auerbach, Mimesis: The
Representation of Reality in Western Culture, trans. W. R. Trask (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1953).
47. Yadin, “Goliath’s Armor and Israelite Collective Memory,” 389.
48. Ibid., 382; Isser, The Sword of Goliath, 99.
49. Yadin, “Goliath’s Armor and Israelite Collective Memory,” 382.
50. Ibid., 385.
Source Materials 39
51. See, for instance, James K. Hoffmeier, “David’s Triumph Over Goliath: 1
Samuel 17:54 and Ancient Near Eastern Analogues,” in Egypt, Canaan and Israel:
History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature, ed. S. Bar, D. Kahn, and J. J. Shirley
(Leiden: Brill, 2011), 87–114; Philip J. King, “David Defeats Goliath,” in “Up
to the Gates of Ekron”: Essays on the Archaeology and History of the Eastern
Mediterranean in Honor of Seymour Gitin, ed. Sidnie White Crawford and Amnon
Ben-Tor (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 2007), 350–57; Alan R. Millard,
“The Armor of Goliath,” in Exploring the Longue Durée: Essays in Honor of
Lawrence E. Stager, ed. J. David Schloen (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2009),
337–43; and Moshe Garsiel, “The Valley of Elah Battle and the Duel of David with
Goliath: Between History and Artistic Theological Historiography,” in Biblical and
Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Honour of Bustenay Oded, ed. Gershon Galil, Mark
Geller, and Alan Millard (Leiden: Brill, 2009), 391–426.
52. Jeffrey R. Zorn, “Reconsidering Goliath: An Iron Age I Philistine Chariot
Warrior,” BASOR 360 (2010): 1.
53. Ibid., 386.
54. Hoffmeier, “David’s Triumph Over Goliath,” 108.
55. Isser, The Sword of Goliath, 44–45, 182–83.
56. Bernard F. Batto, Slaying the Dragon: Mythmaking in the Biblical Tradition
(Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1992), 1.
57. For more on interactions between the Bible and other mythologies, see
Northrop Frye and Jay Macpherson, Biblical and Classical Myths: The Mythological
Framework of Western Culture (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004); Dexter
E. Callender Jr., ed., Myth and Scripture: Contemporary Perspectives on Religion,
Language, and Imagination (Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2014);
Bruce Louden, Greek Myth and the Bible (New York: Routledge, 2018).
58. See Jason, “The Story of David and Goliath,”41–47, for an application of V.
Propp’s Morphology of the Folklore (1968).
59. Christopher Booker, The Seven Basic Plots: Why We Tell Stories (New York:
Bloomsbury, 2004), 54.
60. See Aron Pinker, “The Number 40 in the Bible,” Jewish Bible Quarterly 22:3
(1994): 163–72.
61. Jason, “The Story of David and Goliath,”47–48.
62. Raymond-Jean Frontain and Jan Wojcik, ed., The David Myth in Western
Literature (Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1980), 9.
63. Kirsch, King David, 58.
64. Booker, The Seven Basic Plots, 231.
65. Ibid.
66. Isser, The Sword of Goliath, 3–4.
67. Honko, “The Quest for Oral Text,” Folklore Fellows Newsletter 12 (1996): 1, 6.
68. Miller II, Oral Tradition in Ancient Israel, 38.
69. Frontain and Wojcik, The David Myth in Western Literature, 9.
70. Steven Bowman, “Sefer Yosippon: History and Midrash,” in The Midrashic
Imagination: Jewish Exegesis, Thought, and History, ed. Michael Fishbane (New
York: State University of New York Press, 2012), 284.
40 Chapter 2
Xena’s Goliath
Grieving Avenger
41
42 Chapter 3
confesses, “I’ve had to live with the nightmare of losing my family. The only
dream I’ve had is to kill the man that took them from me.” The Philistine
king Dagon has hired Goliath as a mercenary-protector in their conflict with
the Israelites. (In the Bible, Dagon is the chief Philistine god; here he is their
king. See Jdgs. 16; 1 Sam. 5; 1 Chron. 10.) Goliath explains, “This job will
give me the money to track [Gareth] down,” later adding that Dagon knows
where to find Gareth and will divulge the information once the Israelites are
defeated. Xena and Gabrielle next encounter a group of Philistine soldiers,
led by Dagon, who are holding Israelites captive. The teenage David is
among them.
At the Philistine encampment, we see a lineup of Israelites taken into
custody for being “criminals” and having “weapons,” David’s sling being
the primary evidence. The episode makes no mention of David’s shepherd
days; he is already a soldier in the Israelite army. Still, his possession of the
sling—a shepherd’s tool—points to his earlier occupation. Jonathan, stand-
ing next to David in the lineup, reveals that he is the son of King Saul, to
which Dagon snarks: “You call that petty criminal a king?” Accusations of
criminality aside, there is some truth to Dagon’s comments. Current archaeol-
ogy suggests that Saul, David, and Solomon were more like tribal chieftains
than grandiose kings; whatever “kingdom” they controlled was not nearly as
organized or powerful as the Bible recounts.16
Dagon invites Xena to dinner, where he explains that the Israelites are on
Philistine land and must abide by his rules. Xena counters that the Philistines
seem to be occupiers who have enslaved the Israelites and deprived them
of free will. Dagon replies, “We’re going to bring civilization to the
Israelites. . . . You don’t know the lengths I’ve gone to work with them in a
peaceful way. They just won’t listen to reason. Of course, what should you
expect from people who believe in only one god?” He also insists that the
land “was an unproductive desert when we got there, and now it’s a thriving
area.” On the surface, this comment explains away the fact that the episode,
and the series as a whole, was filmed in the lush lands of New Zealand—a
far cry from the semi-arid biblical locale. On a deeper level, it echoes the kib-
butz movement’s mythology of transforming Israel from swamps to civiliza-
tion. However, it is unclear if this “occupier knows best” ideology is meant
as a critique of modern-day Israel—the Israelites are, after all, the story’s
“good guys”—or perhaps a reference to the historical roots of the Philistines.
“Philistine” probably derives from the Hebrew term peleshet, meaning “roll-
ing” or “migratory,” referring to the Philistines’ origins as a non-Canaanite
people who took up residence in the region.17 Whatever the case, Xena
refuses Dagon’s invitation to join him in the conflict.
Meanwhile, Gabrielle brings food to David and the other Israelite prisoners
locked up in a Philistine dungeon. Gabrielle tells David that Xena will come
Xena’s Goliath 45
for me,” Gabrielle says and shrugs. David explains that the Israelite god is
greater than all the other gods combined, and serves as a caretaker of the
world—like a shepherd. Whether or not this quasi-proselytizing is intended
as the writer’s own affirmation of biblical monotheism, as some have sug-
gested,19 David’s monologue is consistent with his scriptural statements.
David then shares a song he has been composing, which happens to be Psalm
23: “The Lord is my shepherd; I lack nothing. He makes me lie down in
green pastures; He leads me to still waters . . .” There is a long history of
interpreting biblical psalms, and especially the seventy-three attributed to
David, in light of David’s life story. Thirteen Davidic psalm headings allude
to specific incidents, such as Psalm 51: “A psalm of David, when Nathan the
prophet came to him after he had come to Bathsheba.”20 Psalm 23 does not
provide a specific context, but reading it in connection to David’s encounter
with Goliath is conventional. As Justin Z. DuBose, a pastor and U.S. Army
Reserves chaplain, states, “Everyone knows Psalm 23 and 1 Samuel 17 is
about David and Goliath.”21
This sets the scene for the duel between David and Goliath. Unlike the bib-
lical bout, which finishes almost as soon as it begins, this version has Goliath
swinging his sword and missing David several times. David misfires his sling
twice, once hitting Goliath’s heavily armored chest and once sending a stone
over the giant’s head. When the clouds open and the sun’s rays poke through,
Xena shouts, “Now!” Israelite soldiers raise their metal shields to reflect light
onto Goliath’s face, causing him to remove his reflective helmet. David slings
a perfect shot at Goliath’s exposed forehead, knocking him to the ground.
The Israelites attack the stunned Philistines as the fleeing Dagon yells: “This
is far from over!” Xena comes to the side of the dying Goliath, who is not
decapitated, and comforts him as he takes his final breaths.
XENA AS MIDRASH
“No Bible myths or icons were reportedly mangled during the production of
this motion picture.” So reads the tongue-in-cheek disclaimer during the end
credits of “The Giant Killer.” Each episode of the series features a humorous
disclaimer referencing some aspect of the story. For instance, the first season
episode “Altared States,”22 a spin on the Binding of Isaac from Genesis 22
in which Anteus (Abraham) is manipulated by his god-imitating son Mael
(Ishmael) to sacrifice his other son Ikus (Isaac), states: “No Unrelenting or
Severely Punishing Deities were harmed during the production of this motion
picture.” Humor aside, the disclaimer accompanying “The Giant Killer” is
arguably applicable to all forms of midrash: the Jewish practice of elaborat-
ing on the fixed biblical text to fill lacunae or resolve contradictions in the
48 Chapter 3
Throughout the evolution of our tradition there have always existed two oppo-
site streams flowing through our religious life. One is the sacred word; the other
is the “play” on the sacred word. The sacred word—the stable stream—can be
described as fixed, untouchable, unchanging, rigid, static. On the other hand, the
stream of the “play on words” can be described as free, creative, ever changing,
dynamic. These two opposing streams of the static and dynamic, coexisting,
and interplaying with each other, have served as the perfectly balanced ingre-
dients to support the process of preservation. The unchanging fixed word is the
anchor—the free play element embellishes and stimulates the fixed word, but
does so without tampering with it or modifying its original substance.23
Such exegeses serve to relevantize the Bible for the lives and circumstances
of later readers. Indeed, midrashim are central to Jewish culture and tradi-
tionalism because they enhance and extend the Bible’s wisdom and message;
they are a practical enactment of the desire for textual relevance. Ithamar
Gruenwald calls this the “midrashic condition,” or a “mental attitude or
disposition in which the interpretative attention expressed entails more than
Xena’s Goliath 49
third century BCE.33 In Joseph Heller’s novel, God Knows, David complains
that Chronicles is “a prissy white-wash in which the juiciest parts of my life
are discarded as unimportant or unworthy. Therefore, I hate Chronicles. In
Chronicles I am a pious bore, as dull as dishwater and as preachy and insipid
as that self-righteous Joan of Arc, and God knows I was never anything
like that.”34
Midrash conceives of Goliath as a model blasphemer and stand-in for all
who challenge God’s authority. He is of ignoble birth, boasts about slaying
two sons of the high priest Eli, and captures the Ark of the Covenant. He
stands in “arrogant countenance before even God” and has an image of the
deity Dagon engraved on his heart.35 Intriguingly, the Talmud transforms the
giant Ishbi-benob—who attacks David but is killed by his warrior-nephew
Abishai (2 Sam. 21:16–17)—into Goliath’s brother. Recalling Goliath’s mis-
sion in Xena, Ishbi-benob seeks revenge for the death of his brother:
The midrashic intent is not to humanize the giants or add nuance to the
one-sided biblical portrayal. After all, villains are also known to seek
revenge. Motivation matters: avenging from a place of love and heartache
(Xena’s Goliath) versus avenging out of hatred (Ishbi-benob). The aggadist
accomplishes two aims with this tale. First, the miraculous opening of the
earth gives further evidence of God’s favor for David—a common feature of
rabbinic lore, which often invents miracles and acts of piety to distract from
the moral lapses and shortcomings of the biblical David. Second, it further
connects Goliath from 1 Samuel 17 and verses about David’s men defeating
four giants in 2 Samuel 21:15–22. By making Ishbi-benob the brother of the
Goliath killed by David—and ignoring Elhanan’s Goliath (2 Sam. 21:19)—
the story removes any lingering doubts about David’s giant-killer status and
his Goliath’s association with the other giants (Rephaim). Further connecting
the narratives, the rabbis identified Orpah, Naomi’s daughter-in-law in the
Book of Ruth, as the mother of all four giants. Unlike Ruth, Naomi’s other
daughter-in-law, who goes off to Bethlehem and marries an Israelite, Orpah
stays in Moab. She is therefore treated unfavorably in rabbinic lore, including
52 Chapter 3
her transformation into the mother of giants and her death for trying to help
Ishbi-benob battle David and Abishai.37
Far from making Goliath likable or even relatable, these and other elabo-
rations double down on his wickedness. Although the Bile characterizes
Goliath’s challenge as defying Israel, “the ranks of the living God” (1 Sam.
17:25–26), he does not ridicule the Israelite deity or declare his devotion to
Dagon. Without a hint of theology, he calls for an Israelite challenger, states
the conditions of the fight, and, when confronted by David, mocks his oppo-
nent’s qualifications. In the few lines he speaks, Goliath professes neither
loyalty to the Philistines nor hatred of the Israelites. In fact, he comes across
more as the “hired gun” of “The Giant Killer” than as the desecrator of rab-
binic lore.
GOLIATH ON FILM
The story of David and Goliath has had numerous small- and silver-screen
adaptations, both as the main subject and as a component of a larger
David-centric saga. Like all iterations—biblical, rabbinic, and beyond—these
contemporary retellings have specific agendas, contexts, and audiences in
mind. For instance, the 1960 Italian-made film David and Goliath (David
e Golia) presents David as a muscular sword-and-sandal champion of lib-
erty, willing to risk his life to defend the downtrodden and uphold the social
order.38 David is a dedicated soldier for a just cause, “skilled but not blood-
thirsty,”39 while the film’s women serve as the moral foundation, steadfastly
supporting their husbands and sons who have gone off to war—even as this
means sacrificing a stable domestic life. Goliath, played by circus giant Aldo
Pedinotti, is a barbaric symbol of oppression whose defeat by a righteous
liberator seems preordained. As Kevin M. McGeough observes in his essay
analyzing David’s masculinity and morality in biblical cinema, “The paral-
lels for post-war middle-class American life in [Bible epics of the era] are not
subtle nor are they intended to be.”40
The Story of David, a three-hour television movie from 1976, had
“realism” as its primary goal.41 More archaeologically informed than its
Hollywood predecessors, the project was advised by David Noel Freedman,
a noted archaeologist, Bible scholar, and one of the first Americans to work
on the Dead Sea Scrolls.42 Its “fact-based” Goliath is a large man, but not a
true giant. Upon Freedman’s suggestion, Goliath speaks an indecipherable
language, described as a dialect of the Sea Peoples (without the benefit of
subtitles). This is meant to convey historical accuracy, but also serves to fur-
ther otherize the already one-dimensional, unrelatable, and only briefly seen
Philistine champion. A touch of rite-of-passage authenticity is added when
Xena’s Goliath 53
David’s singing voice noticeably drops after killing Goliath, thus signifying
his transition from boyhood to manhood.43 (Many pubescent bar mitzvah
boys can attest to similar vocal changes.)
More recent filmic depictions have come from the evangelical Protestant
world, with predictable goals and messaging. Two independent Christian
films, David and Goliath (2015)44 and David vs. Goliath: Battle of Faith
(2016),45 preach to the same choir in slightly different ways. The 2015 movie,
directed by Timothy A. Chey, claims to be “biblically correct,” which, for the
target audience, does not mean biblically accurate (let alone historically accu-
rate), but in accordance with the values and ideology of twenty-first-century
conservative American Christians, especially males.46 Chey explained to The
Christian Post:
I want [the audience] to be moved to tears and increase their faith in the true
and living God. I want them to stop being lukewarm. To make a stand for God.
To slay the demonic giants who beseech us in this life. I want them to leave the
theater and say “I will make a stand for the Lord” and tell those giants “You
come against me with sword and spear and javelin, but I come against you in
the name of the Lord Almighty, the God.”47
religious lessons. Here, the message is equally about having resolute faith
and reinforcing narrowly defined, conservative ideals of masculinity: build-
ing physical strength, solving problems with violence, and hiding “feminine”
emotions. There is none of the sensitivity, inner conflict, vulnerability, or
emotionality of the biblical David. Again quoting McGeough: “Despite the
arguably homoerotic subtext of half-naked men working out with their oiled
bodies on display, in the context of the community this film is intended for,
these scenes seem to offer athletics as a socially acceptable location of het-
eronormative engagement with other male bodies.”50
It is worth noting that several David films feature the reciting of Psalm 23.
In the 1951 epic David and Bathsheba, Gregory Peck’s King David recounts
his earlier battle with Goliath while reciting the psalm to himself.51 The Bible,
a miniseries broadcast on the History Channel in 2013, has David reciting/
composing Psalm 23 in the lead up to his bout with Goliath.52 In David and
Goliath (2015), David recites the psalm as he walks through the Valley of
Elah. Like David in “The Giant Killer,” these scenes connect Psalm 23 to cir-
cumstances surrounding the battle with Goliath: as the young shepherd walks
through a literal valley, haunted by the shadow of death, he imagines himself
being shepherded to safety by the “Great Shepherd” in the sky. What sets
Xena’s David apart is that no effort is made to connect David to his shepherd
roots. When we meet him, he is already a valued soldier and a close friend
of Jonathan, both of which occur in the Bible after he kills Goliath. This not
only helps condense the David story into a single episode, but also bypasses
the messy relationship between David and Jonathan’s father Saul, which is
nowhere alluded to and would have distracted from the battle-focused plot.
Of all the filmed portrayals of David and Goliath, “The Giant Killer” is
most resonant with King David from 1985, starring Richard Gere in the title
role.53 The film takes a cynical stance on the polarizing issues of religion and
politics. The Philistine king tells David, “In our country madmen are held to
be sacred. Grasp that and perhaps you have grasped the very essence of reli-
gion.” His critique of the Israelites’ unjust treatment of non-Israelites seems
like a veiled criticism of modern Israel, similar to what is implied in Xena.
During his battle with Goliath, David misfires twice—just as he does in “The
Giant Killer.” Later, when God rejects David’s plans for the Holy Temple,
David uses Goliath’s sword to smash a model temple to pieces—a thinly
veiled swipe at organized religion.
“The Giant Killer,” which aired ten years later, continues this cynical
outlook. The 1990s witnessed a shift in American religious life away from
religious “dwelling,” the acceptance of religious authority and organizational
structures, toward spiritual “seeking,” the construction of individualized
belief systems cherry-picked from a range of existing traditions.54 Although
the Xenaverse occupies several mythical realms simultaneously, Xena has
Xena’s Goliath 55
doubts about them all. Her refusal to adopt any one tradition reflects the era’s
“spiritual-but-not-religious” ethos (which is still very much alive); but instead
of constructing a “do-it-yourself” spirituality, Xena enters ancient myths
as they unfold, usually to challenge authority, do battle with mythological
beings, or act as the moving force behind the scenes, as in “The Giant Killer.”
By the 1990s, too, some academics, notably Israel Finkelstein, were chal-
lenging the existence of a historical David and united monarchy.55 These
scholars came to be known as “minimalists,” as they avoided both the
“neofundamentalist ‘literary’” and “archaeological-harmonistic” presuppo-
sitions that characterized much of biblical scholarship.56 Instead of setting
out to prove the legitimacy of Bible stories, their collective, though largely
independent, efforts “downgrade” ancient Israel to the status of one people
among many.57 Archaeologist William G. Dever, who rejects both the extreme
credulity of fundamentalists and the extreme skepticism of minimalists, nev-
ertheless remarks:
Questions about the reliability of the biblical narrative have led to reevalua-
tions of its theocentric and ethnocentric agendas. Were Israel’s enemies truly
the heartless monsters described in the text? Was the “good versus evil” fram-
ing, which centuries of interpreters took for granted, historically sound? More
specifically for us, were the Philistines really just one-note villains?
Unsurprisingly, the realities were more complex. Some scholars, including
Hermann Michael Niemann of the University of Rostock, view the Bible’s
portrayal of an ongoing Israelite-Philistine war (1 Sam. 4 to 2 Sam. 5) as
the invented product of class envy and Davidic royal ideology. In its place
is a socioeconomic rivalry between contrasting cultures: wealthy coastal
merchants (Philistines) and less affluent hill people (Israelites). As Niemann
writes, “In Mediterranean history the coexistence of rich coastal merchants
with poorer hill people was the rule, and war was the exception.”59 Much
later, “Philistine” became a pejorative for a narrow-minded person devoid of
culture and indifferent to art. This new meaning, which developed in Europe,
creates an additional barrier to appreciating who these ancient people actu-
ally were. Indeed, material evidence of Philistine culture comes largely from
56 Chapter 3
EMOTIONAL REALISM
Xena’s siding with the Israelites against the Philistine “occupiers” is con-
sistent with the traditionalist view, although Dagon’s explanation of his
motives—however problematic—gives more justification for their show of
force than the Bible is willing to divulge. The portrayal of the Philistine king
in King David (1985) is similarly nuanced. The main departure is in the epi-
sode’s presentation of Goliath. He remains a humungous, fearsome opponent,
but his actions against the Israelites are not personal; they are a means to an
end. It is his love for his slain family and justified scorn for Gareth, not any
particular feelings about Israel, that put him on the “wrong side.”
To be sure, religious readers have little reason to view Goliath in a favor-
able light. According to their cherished text, he is a wicked, unintelligent,
overgrown encapsulation of all that is wrong with the Philistines. His death
at the hands of David, the anointed one of God, is unequivocally deserved.
Those seeking “historical accuracy” are likewise disinclined to redeem
Goliath in any way. Their interest lies in determining his height, identifying
aspects of his armor, and assessing his weaponry, not the human element.
Secular writers also tend to take the story at face value. Viewing Goliath
through an archetypal lens, the story becomes an underdog tale or a parable
Xena’s Goliath 57
Because we are shown the story of Goliath, the strong man of the Philistines,
from a Jewish point of view, he is presented as an archetypal monster:
immensely strong, boastful, heartless and stupid. Everything about him is dark,
because he is the champion of the other side. But then we come to the story
of Samson, Israel’s own strong man. To his own people, Samson was seen as
nothing but a shining hero, prepared to sacrifice his own life in slaying 3000
Philistines. To the Philistines, however, he would have seemed a heartless and
murderous monster. They would have seen him exactly as the children of Israel
saw the Philistines’ own hero Goliath.65
Booker drives the point home with a parallel from modern times:
[W]e saw a striking echo of this thousands of years later when, at the start of
the twenty-first century, the people of Israel faced a horrifying challenge from
Palestinian suicide bombers. To the Israelites they were nothing but ruthless
terrorists. To the Palestinians they were selfless heroes. But when the great
Jewish hero Samson pulled down the pillars of the hall, to be crushed along
with all the Philistines, what was he himself but the historical equivalent of a
suicide bomber.66
NOTES
15. George E. Turner, Orville Goldner, and Michael A. Price, The Making of Kong
(New York: Pulp Hero, 2018), 169–70.
16. See, for instance, Lester L. Grabbe, “Iron Age: Tribes to Monarchy,” in The
Oxford Illustrated History of the Holy Land, ed. H. G. M. Williamson and Robert G.
Hoyland (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 33–60.
17. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: Human History of the Mediterranean (New
York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 55.
18. Terry Giles and William J. Doan, Twice Used Songs: Performance Criticism
and the Songs of Ancient Israel (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2009), 25–44.
19. Ivar Kvistad, “Xena’s Double-Edged Sword: Sapphic Love and the Judeo-
Christian Tradition,” Refractory 8:1 (1998): n.p.
20. Other psalms with contextualized Davidic superscriptions are: Pss. 3, 7, 18, 34,
52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, and 142. See Harry S. Nasuti, Defining the Sacred Songs:
Genre, Tradition, and the Post-Critical Interpretation of the Psalms (Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic, 1999), 128–62.
21. Justin Z. DuBose, I & II Samuel: A Devotional Look (Morrisville, NC: Lulu,
2013), 31.
22. Michael Levine, dir., “Altared States,” Xena: Warrior Princess, season 1, epi-
sode 19, 1996.
23. William Sharlin, “The Static and Dynamic in Synagogue Song,” in Jewish
Sacred Music and Jewish Identity: Continuity and Fragmentation, ed. Jonathan L.
Friedmann and Brad Stetson (St. Paul, MN: Paragon House, 2008), 58.
24. Ithamar Gruenwald, “Midrash and the ‘Midrashic Condition’: Preliminary
Considerations,” in The Midrashic Imagination: Jewish Exegesis, Thought, and
History, ed. Michael Fishbane (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1993), 7.
25. Among many examples of feminist biblical criticism, see Ellen Frankel, The
Five Books of Miriam: A Woman’s Commentary on the Torah (New York: Putnam’s
Sons, 1996).
26. Valerie Estelle Frankel, “Hercules, Xena and Genre: The Methodology Behind
the Mashup,” in The New Peplum: Essays on Sword and Sandal Films and Television
Programs Since the 1990s, ed. Nicholas Diak (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2018), 126.
27. See: Midrash ha-Gadol on Genesis 45:26; Targum Pseudo-Jonathan on
Genesis 46:17; Genesis Rabbah 94:9; Ecclesiastes Rabbah 9:18:2.
28. Ruth Tenzer Feldman, Blue Thread (Portland, OR: Ooligan, 2012); The Ninth
Day (Portland, OR: Ooligan, 2013); Seven Stitches (Portland, OR: Ooligan, 2017).
29. Emily McAvan, The Postmodern Sacred: Popular Culture Spirituality in the
Science Fiction, Fantasy and Urban Fantasy Genres (Jefferson, NC: McFarland,
2012), 80.
30. Ibid., 82.
31. Michael Hurst, dir., “A Day in the Life,” Xena: Warrior Princess, season 2,
episode 15, 1997.
32. Joseph Heinemann, “The Nature of the Aggadah,” in Midrash and Literature,
ed. Geoffrey H. Hartman and Sanford Budick (New Haven: Yale University Press,
1986), 45.
Xena’s Goliath 63
33. Ming Him Ko, The Levite Singers in Chronicles and Their Stabilising Role
(New York: T&T Clark, 2017), 113.
34. Heller, God Knows, 4.
35. Emil G. Hirsch, “Goliath,” in The Jewish Encyclopedia, vol. 6, ed. Isidore
Singer (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1906), 38.
36. b. Sanhedrin 95a.
37. Ibid.
38. Ferdinando Baldi and Richard Pottier, dirs., David e Golia, ANSA, 1960.
39. Kevin M. McGeough, “The Problem with David: Masculinity and Morality in
Biblical Cinema,” Journal of Religion & Film 22:1 (2018): 28.
40. Ibid., 7.
41. David Lowell Rich and Alex Segal, dirs., The Story of David, Columbia
Pictures Television, 1976.
42. McGeough, “The Problem with David,” 5.
43. Ibid., 20.
44. Timothy A. Chey, dir., David and Goliath, RiverRain Productions, 2015.
45. Wallace Brothers, dirs., David vs. Goliath: Battle of Faith, Faith Warrior
Productions, 2016.
46. McGeough “The Problem with David,” 10.
47. Stoyan Zaimov, “CP Exclusive: ‘David and Goliath’ Director Assures Big-
Budget Movie Will Be ‘Biblically Correct in Every Way,’” The Christian Post,
April 25, 2014, https://www.christianpost.com/news/cp-exclusive-david-and-goliath-
director-assures-big-budget-movie-will-be-biblically-correct-in-every-way-118614/.
48. McGeough, “The Problem with David,” 31.
49. Ibid., 32.
50. Ibid., 26.
51. Henry King, dir., David and Bathsheba, 20th Century Fox, 1951.
52. Roma Downey and Mark Burnett, dirs., The Bible, Lightworkers Media, 2013.
53. Bruce Beresford, dir., King David, Paramount Pictures, 1985.
54. Robert Wuthnow, After Heaven: Spirituality in America Since the 1950s
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 3–4.
55. See: Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible Unearthed:
Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts (New
York: Simon and Shuster, 2001); Israel Finkelstein, Amihai Mazar, and Brian Schmidt,
eds., The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of
Israel (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2007); and Israel Finkelstein, “A Great
United Monarchy? Archaeological and Historical Perspectives,” in One God—One
Cult—One Nation: Archaeological and Biblical Perspectives, ed. Reinhard G.
Kratz and Hermann Spieckermann (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2010), 3–28.
56. Norman K. Gottwald, “Triumphalist Versus Anti-Triumphalist Versions of
Early Israel,” Currents in Research: Biblical Studies 5 (1997): 30.
57. Megan Bishop Moore, Philosophy and Practice in Writing a History of Ancient
Israel (New York: T&T Clark, 2009), 76.
64 Chapter 3
58. William G. Dever, The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: Where
Archaeology and the Bible Intersect (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans,
2012), 287.
59. Hermann Michael Niemann, “Neighbors and Foes, Rivals and Kin: Philistines,
Shepheleans, Judeans Between Geography and Economy, History and Theology,”
in The Philistines and Other “Sea Peoples” in Text and Archaeology, ed. Ann
E. Killebree and Gunner Lehmann (Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature,
2013), 264.
60. Brian R. Doak, Ancient Israel’s Neighbors (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2020), 152.
61. Caitlin Yoshiko Kandil, “How Philistine Became a Dirty Word,” Moment,
February 6, 2014, https://momentmag.com/jewish-word-philistine.
62. Matthew Arnold, On the Study of Celtic Literature and On Translating Homer
(London: MacMillan, 1893), xi.
63. Vladimir Nabokov, “Philistines and Philistinism,” in Lectures on Russian
Literature, ed. Fredson Bowers (Orlando, FL: Harvest, 1981), 310.
64. Israel Finkelstein, quoted in Kandil, “How Philistine Became a Dirty Word.”
65. Booker, The Seven Basic Plots, 584.
66. Ibid.
67. Scott T. Allison and George R. Goethals, Heroes: What They Do and Why We
Need Them (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 196.
68. Nancy Kruse, dir. “Simpsons Bible Stories,” The Simpsons, season 10, epi-
sode 18, 1999.
69. Robert J. Myles, “Biblical Literacy and The Simpsons,” in Rethinking Biblical
Literacy, ed. Katie Edwards (New York: T&T Clark, 2015), 159–60.
70. Siegfried H. Horn, “The Divided Monarchy: The Kingdoms of Judah and
Israel,” in Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple, ed.
Hershel Shanks (Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1999), 142.
71. David Bokovy, “Ahab,” Bible Odyssey, https://www.bibleodyssey.org/en/
people/main-articles/ahab.
72. See the anthology: Thomas Kyd, Thomas Middleton, William Shakespeare,
John Marston, and Henry Chettle, Five Revenge Tragedies: The Spanish Tragedy,
Hamlet, Antonio’s Revenge, The Tragedy of Hoffman, The Revenger’s Tragedy (New
York: Penguin, 2012).
73. Patrick Colm Hogan, Effective Narratology: The Emotional Structure of Stories
(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2011), 223.
74. Ien Ang, Watching Dallas: Soap Opera and the Melodramatic Imagination
(London: Methuen, 1985).
75. Ibid., 221.
76. McAvan, The Postmodern Sacred, 80.
77. Royce Mahawatte, George Eliot and the Gothic Novel: Genres, Gender,
Feeling (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2013), 11.
4.
65
66 Chapter 4
DAVID AS OVERDOG
Gladwell opens David and Goliath with an examination of the biblical bout.
He observes that slings and stones were common tools for shepherds like
David, who used them to fend off predators and protect their flocks.5 David
alludes to this when he explains to King Saul: “Your servant has killed both
lion and bear; and that uncircumcised Philistine will end up like one of them”
(1 Sam. 17:36). In the hands of skilled slingers, stones can be formidable pro-
jectiles. The Israelite leader in Gibeah hand-picked 700 soldiers who “could
sling a stone at a hair and not miss” (Jdgs. 20:16). The Romans had special
tongs for removing stones embedded in soldiers’ bodies. Medieval paint-
ings depict slingers striking birds in mid-flight. Irish slingers could hit coins
tossed high in the air.6 According to archaeologist Baruch Halpern, ancient
slingers were especially effective against infantrymen, whose heavy armor
made them slow-moving targets.7 In Gladwell’s reading, David’s refusal to
wear Saul’s armor owed less to it being oversized and more to it being a
hindrance to his specialized skill.8 David’s confidence, then, was not simply
youthful naivety, misplaced arrogance, or pious certainty. Goliath had virtu-
ally no chance against a weapon that plagued infantry on the battlefield. If a
slinger could shoot down a marching soldier at a great distance, how much
more so when they came face to face? David had the advantage all along.
Gladwell was not the first popular author to make this observation. Joseph
Heller’s novel God Knows (1984), a bitingly satirical and raucously confes-
sional autobiography of the aging King David, imagines what David thought
when he laid eyes on Goliath:
[I]n no other brain but mine did the obvious consideration arise that Goliath
might be successfully met in single combat on conditions different from those
implied in his own preparations for the fray. Frankly, the way I saw it, Goliath
didn’t stand a chance. The poor fucker was a goner. With either hand, every
one of those chosen men of Benjamin could sling stones at a hairbreadth fifty
yards away and never miss. . . . I could blast the pomegranate itself to a splash-
ing pulp just about every time I tried. And the face of Goliath was larger than a
pomegranate. Between the brass of his chest and the brass of his helmet, from
his neck to his hairline, was exposed an area of bare flesh as large as a good-
sized Persian melon.9
The Philistines must have been shocked by how quickly Goliath was toppled;
when they “saw that that their warrior was dead, they ran” (1 Sam. 17:51).
Single combat was usually a violent dance with attacks, defenses, and
counterattacks. But, instead of the usual clanging swords and clashing
shields, “David put his hand into the bag; he took out a stone and slung it. It
Malcolm Gladwell’s Goliath 67
struck the Philistine in the forehead; the stone sank into his forehead, and he
fell face down on the ground” (1 Sam. 17:49). The fight was over before it
even began. Gladwell quotes Eitan Hirsch, a ballistics expert for the Israeli
Defense Forces: “We find that David could have slung and hit Goliath in a
little more than one second—a time so brief that Goliath would not have
been able to protect himself and during which he would be stationary for all
practical purposes.”10
According to Gladwell, Goliath’s size made his defeat all the more inevita-
ble. Not only was the Philistine champion accustomed to fighting grown sol-
diers—making him especially unprepared for a puny, unarmored, swordless
challenger—but he also likely suffered from acromegaly: a pituitary gland
disorder, usually caused by a benign tumor, which results in the excessive
production of growth hormone. Acromegalics experience abnormal enlarge-
ment of bones of the hands, arms, feet, legs, and head, as well as thickening
of soft tissues of the body, including the heart, lips, and tongue. Deterioration
of mobility, bone thinning, and vision problems (the pituitary tumor com-
presses nerves leading to the eyes) are also common. Goliath’s labored
movement is juxtaposed with David’s spryness: “When the Philistine began
to advance toward him again, David quickly ran up to the battle line to face
the Philistine” (1 Sam. 17:48). Radiologist Stanley Sprecher suggests that
the slung stone entered Goliath’s cranial vault through a thinned frontal bone
that resulted from an enlarged frontal paranasal sinus: “The stone lodged in
Goliath’s enlarged pituitary and caused a pituitary hemorrhage, resulting in
transtentorial herniation and death.”11 Additionally, Goliath insists that David
come closer to him, implying a weakness of vision. When Goliath finally
sees David he yells, “Am I a dog that you come against me with sticks?”
(v. 43)—an odd statement given that David is holding a single stick (v. 40).
Gladwell further asserts that Goliath’s shield-bearer, who walks in front of
him, is essentially his “visual guide.”12 Vladimir Beringer and Chaim Cohen
make the same point in their article, “The Nature of Goliath’s Visual Disorder
and the Actual Role of His Personal Bodyguard,” arguing that the guard car-
ried a shield to mask his real purpose and preserve the giant warrior’s military
reputation.13
It is worth noting, too, that Polyphemus the Cyclops was also visually
impaired. Even before being blinded by Odysseus and his men, Polyphemus
relied on touch more than vision in choosing his human victims, milking
his flock, and repositioning the rock door of his cave.14 Was poor eyesight a
widely known condition of giants?
Extrapolating from the above, Goliath appears to have been an
advanced-stage acromegalic. Increased height associated with the disorder,
known as gigantism, occurs in childhood but stabilizes by adulthood. In
Goliath’s case, he was left with an impressive 6-foot, 9-inch frame (according
68 Chapter 4
There was once a boy who looked a bit different. We’ll call him Leo Sayer.
Because that’s his name. Some people laughed at Leo because he had silly hair.
Others didn’t want to be his friend because he was always telling them that he
was right and they were wrong. Leo decided to use his odd hair and off-putting
mannerisms to his advantage and changed his name to Malcolm. Malcolm
wrote a book telling people how everything they knew was wrong. It became a
bestseller. So Malcolm wrote another book just the same. And another. He even
rewrote Aesop’s Fables. Still no one noticed. Malcolm cultivated a persona of
being an outsider while earning huge amounts of money from banks, tobacco
and pharmaceutical companies. Malcolm earns more for a one-hour talk than
you will earn in a year. So who is laughing now?23
REAL GIANTS
Everyone kept asking me why would I want to go to all this trouble to record
the life of a talentless, grossly exploited freak? A man whose best filmic efforts
had been termed as “extremely bad taste,” a man who could find no acclaim dur-
ing his lifetime and even less in death. I think it is important that we remember
that there was a lot more to Rondo Hatton than an ugly, sad face on a motion
picture screen. Beneath the face was a man, a real man living the role. Hatton
was a deeply religious, caring, gentle human being. He was not oblivious to his
misfortune—it hurt him terribly—but he lived simply and is remembered fondly
by those who knew him.47
Was Goliath similarly playing a role in the theater of war? His antics in
the biblical text are familiar to followers of professional wrestling, where
the ring is the stage and wrestlers are the actors.49 Much like a wrestler’s
costume, Goliath’s flamboyant armor immediately signals his “invincible
warrior” character, and his assorted metals serve as a “championship belt.”
His intimidating shouts and mocking barks resemble “cutting promos”: short
monologues or dialogues used to advance a wrestling storyline, denigrate an
opponent, and boast about one’s dominance. As the story’s heel, Goliath’s
words, repeated morning and evening for forty days, are intended to foment
disdain among readers. When the match arrives, David has been sufficiently
hyped as a “babyface” (wrestling protagonist), and, like his wrestling coun-
terparts, he is determined to fight injustice (represented by Goliath). Yet, in a
twist on the wrestling structure, David resorts to heel tactics. Ordinarily, it is
the “bad guy” who upends the rules of engagement, brings in foreign objects,
or uses illegal moves, often for an extended period (“heat sequence”) devised
to build sympathy for the babyface.50 But here, David is the cheater and his
maneuvers end the match very quickly. In wrestling parlance, this in-ring
surprise is a variation of “turning heel”: the good guy’s sudden change into
a villain.
Of course, the purpose of the story is to set David up as a hero. But he
is a complicated hero with no compunction about bending the rules. In the
words of Israeli writer Ruth Margalit, David is “humanity’s first antihero.”51
His bout with Goliath foreshadows the morally inconsistent man he will
become. Likewise, Goliath is not merely a simplistic villain. There is noth-
ing “evil” about being a skilled fighter. The Israelites boasted many prolific
warriors: Joshua, Gideon, Jephthah, Samson, Joab, Jehu, etc. After battling
the Philistines, David and Saul are greeted by women singing: “Saul has
slain his thousands; David, his tens of thousands!” (1 Sam. 18:7). In this
blood-drenched setting, both sides would have loved having a warrior of
Goliath’s size and ability to “work the mic.” What makes him a heel is that
he is “an uncircumcised Philistine” (1 Sam. 17:26).
The Bible tells us nothing about Goliath outside of 1 Samuel 17. What was
he like as a person? Did he have friends? Was he married? How old was he?
How long had he been a champion? What motivated him? In contrast, David
is arguably the Bible’s most well-developed and multifaceted character. He is
sometimes good and sometimes bad; he triumphs, suffers, grows, regresses,
softens, and hardens. As Bible scholar Yael Ziegler puts it, “David can be
gracious or harsh, restrained or passionate, ambitious or selfless, politically or
ideologically motivated, depending on the situation.”52 In other words, he is a
human being. Much less so Goliath, who shows up as a towering, showy, and
arrogant barbarian—a monster to be slain on David’s journey to greatness. He
76 Chapter 4
is no doubt good at what he does; the Israelites fear him and the Philistines
cheer him. But, by the time he faces David, the physical prowess that made
him a legend seems to have faded. He still looks and speaks the part, but his
eyes are weak and he is much frailer than he appears.
The demands of single combat surely exacerbated the symptoms of acro-
megaly, which, if left untreated, can lead to rapid deterioration and premature
death. While some modern-day acromegalics can live to old age, many others
experience shortened lifespans. Of the actors listed above, Peter Kiel died
at seventy-two and Carel Struycken is still alive in his seventies, but Ted
Cassidy died at forty-six, Neil McCarthy at fifty-two, Lock Martin at forty-
two, and Rondo Hatton at fifty-one. Death may have come even sooner in
the biblical period, when anatomically normal men lived an average of forty
years and women only about thirty, with many dying in childbirth.53
The pressure on Goliath to perform through chronic pain and strain recalls
the career of world-famous acromegalic wrestler André the Giant, who died
of congestive heart failure at age forty-six. Standing 6 feet and weighing 216
pounds by age twelve and billed at 7’4” and 520 pounds when he was body-
slammed by Hulk Hogan at WrestleMania III (1987), André the Giant—born
André René Roussimoff in a quaint French village—was not diagnosed
with acromegaly until 1970, when he was twenty-four. As cartoonist Box
Brown relates in his graphic biography, Andre the Giant: Life and Legend,
the diagnosis came prior to his Japanese wrestling debut. Brown illustrates
the doctor’s assessment in a two-page diagram: “As big as he is now, he’ll
continue to grow. He’ll age prematurely. His brow and jaw will grow more
pronounced. His heart and organs won’t be able to keep up with his body. His
joints, too. He’ll be a cripple.” Outwardly unphased, André insists, “I don’t
care what he says . . . I’m clear to go tonight, right? . . . Let’s have a good
show, then.”54 Later in the book, André is standing shirtless in an idyllic coun-
tryside. Reflecting on his mortality, he resolves to live his life to the fullest:
“I have had good fortune in my life. If I were to die tomorrow, it would be
with the knowledge that I’ve eaten more good food, drunk more beer, more
fine wine. I’ve had more friends. And I’ve seen more of the world than most
ever will.”55
Brown’s illustrated book, published in 2014, has been joined by other
appreciations, notably Brandon M. Easton and Denis Medri’s graphic biog-
raphy, Andre the Giant: Closer to Heaven (2016); an HBO documentary
(2018); and Bertrand Hébert and Pat Laprade’s biography, The Eighth Wonder
of the World: The True Story of André the Giant (2020). Each treatment is
sensitive to the brutal toll inflicted by acromegaly and the wrestling lifestyle.
“Condemned to be André the Giant 24 hours a day, seven days a week,” write
Hébert and Laprade, “he was likely depressed—at very least, sad that he
couldn’t go anywhere without being stared at, pointed at, or touched. He was
Malcolm Gladwell’s Goliath 77
40 years old and knew he wouldn’t live to see 50.”56 Closer to Heaven begins
with André in a quiet moment toward the end of his life:
The internal struggle within all people isn’t between good and evil . . . it’s
between optimism and pessimism. I learned this lesson far too late in life. I’ve
heard that a pessimist believes that memories are only regrets organized in
chronological order . . . The optimist says that you should be lucky to live long
enough to have regrets. Neither view is correct. We live on the border between
optimism and pessimism. The darkness and the light. But when you’re at the end
of the road, you have to learn to let the light in, no matter how much it hurts.
Lord knows, there’s been a lot of pain. And Lord knows how often I’ve smiled
through it.57
Much like Rondo Hatton, André the Giant was known to be friendly despite
his imposing physique and an affliction that could have turned him sour.
William Goldman, who authored the novel and screenplay for The Princess
Bride (1987), wrote the part of Fezzik specifically for André. Goldman
remarked that the giant was as kind and lovable as the character he por-
trayed.58 Although his size and features should have made him a wrestling
heel and Hollywood villain, Rob Reiner, director of The Princess Bride,
recalls, “He did not do bad guy well. That was not his thing.”59
André briefly turned heel in early 1987 to build his feud with Hogan.
Behind the scenes, André’s health was quickly declining. For the main event
of WrestleMania III, he entered the Pontiac Silverdome on a motorized cart
because he could not walk to the ring. The feud storyline was contrived
to “pass the torch” to Hogan, an ascendant star in the World Wrestling
Federation, and to allow André to take a step back. But he was not a natural
villain. As he reflects in Closer to Heaven: “People are hungry for a story.
Every match, no matter how poorly constructed, tells a story. My story was
always ‘David v. Goliath’ except that Goliath was the hero.”60
A more recent example is The Great Khali (Dalip Singh Rana, b. 1972),
a 7’1”, 347-pound Indian-born acromegalic wrestler. During his career with
World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), Khali went back and forth between
being a heel (Apr. 2006–Oct. 2008; May 2011–Jan. 2012) and a face (Oct.
2008–May 2011; Jan. 2012–Nov. 2014). Formerly an officer with the Punjab
Police, Khali trained at local gyms before being recruited to train in a special-
ized wrestling program in the United States. His massive size and menacing
facial features aided his quick rise through various wrestling promotions. He
became the WWE World Heavyweight Champion in 2007, making him the
first Indian to hold that title. Out of the ring, Khali, whose character name
honors the Hindu goddess Kali, is a devoutly religious man who meditates
78 Chapter 4
daily, abhors alcohol and tobacco, and studied under the guru Ashutosh
Maharaj.61
In 2012, Khali’s pituitary tumor was removed to stop the progression of
acromegaly and prolong his life. (Another acromegalic wrestler, Paul Wight,
aka Big Show, also halted the disorder with surgery in the 1990s.) Still,
Khali remains at greater risk of heart disease, hypertension, and diabetes.
ABC News interviewed several endocrinologists following Khali’s surgery,
a few of whom raised ethical concerns. Dr. Glenn Braunstein of Cedars-
Sinai Medical Center wondered how long WWE had known about Khali’s
condition, and whether treatment was put off because his affliction was good
for business. “The prominent eyebrows, the bulbous nose, the chin protrud-
ing, the massive ears—this is quite typical of patients with acromegaly,”
Braunstein said, adding that anyone with access to Google could have made
the diagnosis.62 Wrestling promotions of all types—big, small, regional,
national, televised, non-televised—are notorious for prioritizing the interests
of the organization, controlling the wrestling talent, and making it difficult
for wrestlers to decline matches, regardless of their physical or mental state.63
Stories of chronic injury, painkiller addiction, and early death are all too
common.64 The “old-school show must go on” mentality is deeply embedded
in wrestling culture,65 as it must have been in the combat culture of ancient
times. Goliath—like André the Giant and Khali—had no choice but to fight
through his ailments. Other incredibly large wrestlers, including Yokozuna,
Umaga, and Bam Bam Bigelow, died early as a result of drug abuse, enlarged
hearts, and accumulated stress on their bodies.
It should also be noted that André the Giant, The Great Kahli, and other
oversized wrestlers are known to have small repertoires of basic moves. Most
common are clawholds showcasing their massive hands, stationary kicks
showing off their impressive height, chokeslams displaying their raw power,
and belly splashes emphasizing their great weight—none of which require
exceptional skill. Their in-ring gimmicks are almost entirely rooted in them
being large and hard to budge.66 The giants’ slow and clunky movements only
get worse with time and grind. Goliath’s “wrestling psychology” followed the
same pattern: he used his size and bravado to intimidate opponents, but his
limited physicality did not match the hype.
It might seem like a stretch to compare single combat in the ancient world—
death matches that determined the outcome of battles—and professional
wrestling—scripted displays of sports entertainment. Literary theorist Roland
Barthes’s comments on professional wresting would not apply to mortal
Malcolm Gladwell’s Goliath 79
NOTES
18. Daniel Engber, “Gladwell Is Goliath: Do puny readers stand a chance against
his latest book?,” Slate, October 7, 2013, https://slate.com/technology/2013/10/
malcolm-gladwells-david-and-goliath-reviewed.html.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Christopher F. Chabris, “Book Review: ‘David and Goliath’ by Malcolm
Gladwell,” Wall Street Journal, September 28, 2013.
22. John Crace, “David and Goliath by Malcolm Gladwell—digested read,”
Guardian, October 6, 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/oct/06/
david-goliath-malcolm-gladwell-digested-read.
23. Ibid.
24. Tina Rosenberg, “Malcolm Gladwell: Guru of the Underdogs,” Atlantic,
October 2013, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2013/10/
the-underdogs-guru/309458/.
25. Ezra Klein, “In Defense of Malcolm Gladwell,” American Prospect, May 7,
2009, https://prospect.org/article/defense-malcolm-gladwell/.
26. Jason Kehe, “The Lovability of Malcolm Gladwell: A Gladwellian
Analysis,” Wired, September 9, 2019, https://www.wired.com/story/
gladwellian-review-malcolm-gladwell/.
27. John Grasso, Historical Dictionary of Wrestling (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow,
2014), 27.
28. Jennifer L. Eberhardt, Biased: Uncovering the Hidden Prejudice That Shapes
What We See, Think, and Do (New York: Penguin, 2020), 61.
29. Robert Bogdan, Freak Show: Presenting Human Oddities for Amusement and
Profit (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), 323.
30. Rosemarie Garland-Thomson, Extraordinary Bodies: Figuring Physical
Disability in American Culture and Literature (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1997), 36.
31. Keith Brown, “Notes on the Terror Film,” Forum 2 (2006): 3–4.
32. Diane Long Hoeveler, “Frankenstein, Feminism, and Literary Theory,” in The
Cambridge Companion to Mary Shelly, ed. Esther H. Schor (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2003), 54.
33. Petra Kuppers, Contemporary Performance: Bodies on Edge (New York:
Routledge, 2004), 45.
34. Jacob Johanssen and Diana Garrisi, “Media and the Skin,” SKINmed 16:1
(2018): 11–12.
35. George Chastain, “The Brute Men: Medical Marvels! Giants of the Genre!
Monsters of the Ring! And Other Awesome Brutes!,” in Scott Gallinghouse, Rondo
Hatton: Beauty Within the Brute (Orlando, FL: BearManor, 2019), 171–84.
36. Gallinghouse, Rondo Hatton, 14–17.
37. Ibid., 18.
38. Cory Legassic, “‘The Perfect Neanderthal Man’: Rondo Hatton as The Creeper
and the Cultural Economy of 1940s B-Films,” in Recovering 1940s Horror Cinema:
Traces of a Lost Decade, ed., Charlie Ellbé, Kristopher Woofter, and Mario DeGiglio-
Bellemare (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2014), 299.
82 Chapter 4
Nobody does silence like Tom Gauld. It sits heavy on his lonely lunar land-
scapes, dismantled robots and dilapidated moonbases; it pulls his tiny mute
figures even further away from us as they wave proudly at the top of their
doomed enterprises. Pages of perfectly paced silence make the few deadpan
words he does use weightier, perfectly economised, no more or less than you’ll
ever need.4
85
86 Chapter 5
These tools are expertly displayed in Gauld’s Goliath, which has the giant
as its central character.5 Although Gauld is not himself religious, he did not
intend the book to be “anti-religious” or even “anti-David.” Rather, as he
explained in an interview with Campbell, he wanted to show that “the God
(or maybe just the strong religious faith) which makes David so powerful is
definitely not there for Goliath.”6 His Goliath departs drastically from that
of the one-sided biblical tale. “In the Bible version he’s hardly a character
at all,” Gauld observed. “He’s more of a list of measurements: How tall he
is, how long his spear is, how much his armor weighs.”7 The Bible account
leaves much space to fill, but instead of resuming the path of pious readers
and commentators, Gauld chose to humanize rather than monsterize the giant.
Without the firmly ingrained view of the story—or deeply held reverence for
David or the deity who fuels his victory—he was able to give a fresh perspec-
tive. His Goliath is a giant in size only: he is told to wear armor despite being
a poor swordsman; he is commanded to act like a warrior despite being an
administrator; he is forced to shout threats despite being a quiet introvert. He
is more comfortable sitting against a rock or staring at the sky than strutting
along the battlefield.
This chapter begins with a historical and conceptual overview of Goliath in
graphic storytelling and children’s Bibles. Throughout these genres, Goliath
has remained an underdeveloped character, hardly ever straying from the bib-
lical type. A number of examples are analyzed with the aim of demonstrating
just how unusual Gauld’s treatment truly is. He has given us a Goliath we
never knew before and can never forget.
Outside of Gauld’s sensitive treatment, very few comics creators have dared
to do anything more than add to Goliath’s despicableness. Indeed, before
Gauld, few artists have depicted Goliath as anything but the plot point he
serves in the Davidic saga. Most comic book depictions are found in Bible
adaptations, rather than superhero stories, and are essentially re-creations of
iconic pieces from art history: Bernini’s sculpture of David slinging a stone
(1623–1624); Guillaume Courtois’ sword-wielding David standing on top
of the fallen Goliath (between 1650 and 1660); Edgar Degas’s David and
Goliath facing off in single combat (c. 1863); and so forth.
The relatively little attention paid to the biblical giant in superhero comics
is somewhat surprising given how well-known he is, how prototypical he is
of the brutish (super)villain, and how long sequential art has been around.
While the origins and history of comics are the subject of much debate,
Tom Gauld’s Goliath 87
graphic storytelling can be traced to paleolithic cave and rock paintings. Early
languages were generally pictographic, with pictures representing words,
phrases, or ideas. This was true of Egyptian hieroglyphics; Phoenician/
Paleo-Hebrew; cuneiform systems of Mesopotamia, Persia, and Ugarit; and
other ancient inscriptions. Over 3,000 years ago, Egyptians drew, copied,
and circulated drawings of animals on papyrus and limestone flakes. Tabulae
with satirical cartoons were popular in first-century Rome.8 “Prototypical
sequential illustrations” are attributed to Dutch painters Hieronymus Bosch
(c. 1450–1516) and Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525–1569), who used paint-
ings to tell unfolding stories.9 The seventeenth century brought political
cartoons, which developed captions, speech balloons, and illustration tech-
niques still used today. The first comic book may have been Swiss caricaturist
Rodolphe Töpffer’s Histoire de M. Vieux Bois (known as The Adventures of
Obadiah Oldbuck), first published in Geneva in 1837. Unlicensed English-
language versions appeared in the United Kingdom and the United States
in the 1840s. Humorous illustrated magazines were also popular during the
nineteenth century. One such magazine, Punch, or the London Charivari,
coined the term “cartoon” (funny drawing) in 1843.10 The first American-born
newspaper comic strip, Richard Felton Outcault’s The Yellow Kid, debuted in
Joseph Pulitzer’s New York World in 1895 and switched to William Randolph
Hearst’s New York Journal the following year. Comic strips multiplied greatly
in subsequent decades.11 King Features began publishing Comics Monthly in
1922. That book, like other early efforts, contained reprints of popular syn-
dicated comic strips. In 1933, Eastern Color Printing published Funnies on
Parade—another collection of reprints—the first publication to use the now-
standard comic book size. Superman debuted in Action Comics no. 1 (1938),
ushering in the superhero era. Comics publishing pioneer Maxwell Charles
Gaines (né Ginzburg), discussed later, was instrumental in producing Funnies
on Parade and launching Superman.
It seems appropriate that writer Jerry Siegel and artist Joe Shuster, the sons
of Jewish immigrants, would create Superman as a “sun-god” in the mold of
the biblical Samson, whose Hebrew name, Shimshon, is related to shemesh,
meaning “sun.” Samson most likely began as a folkloric sun god, and his
depiction is consistent with ancient renderings of the sun as flowing locks
of hair.12 Samson’s hair, like the sun’s rays, is a symbol of strength: when
the sun is dimmed, its force diminishes; when Samson’s hair is trimmed, his
power dissolves. His activities in the Book of Judges occur near the Philistine
border town of Beth Shemesh (“House of the Sun”), possibly the site of an
ancient sun-worshiping temple.13 His strength peaks in the summer months,
“during the season of the wheat harvest” (Jdgs. 15:1), and his life ends in the
dark of blindness, suggesting winter (Jdgs. 16:21). His death between the
falling pillars may also symbolize the setting sun.14 Superman, too, derives
88 Chapter 5
his strength from the Earth’s yellow sun: the more solar energy he absorbs,
the more power he has.
Comic book superheroes are, in many ways, modern versions of archetypal
myths. As art historian Christopher Wood posits in his book, Heroes Masked
and Mythic: Echoes of Ancient Archetypes in Comic Book Characters, aspects
of Iron Man are indebted to the Homeric hero Odysseus, the Black Panther
resembles the African warrior Memnon, Wonder Woman draws from tales
of Amazon women, and so on.15 But what about villains? As we have seen,
Goliath is one of many legendary giants whose immense size and monstrous
features represent the overpowering forces of evil. They tend to be stock char-
acters whom the hero/ines must vanquish in order to achieve their destinies.
Comic books are filled with brutish, oversized villains: Giganto, enemy of
the Fantastic Four, is an underground monster who wages war on the surface;
Thor’s enemy Mangog embodies the hatred of a billion beings destroyed by
Odin and the Norse gods; the giant Mongul is one of Superman’s more formi-
dable enemies; the mindless monstrosity Doomsday actually kills Superman
(who is later resurrected); and many more.
Yet, while these massive villains might be spiritual descendants of Goliath
and his mythological ilk, Goliath of the Bible has never been a recurring char-
acter in superhero comic books—even as creators regularly recycle legend-
ary heroes and villains: Mighty Samson (Gold Key), Loki (Marvel), Golem
(Marvel and DC), Hades (Marvel and DC), Hercules (Marvel and DC), Zeus
(Marvel and DC), Osiris (Marvel and DC), Gaea (Marvel and DC), and
Medusa (Marvel and DC), just to name a handful. The biblical Goliath briefly
appears in Marvel Comics’ Avengers no. 10 (1964), where he is summoned
by Immortus the time-manipulator to battle Giant-Man, an alias of scientist
Hank Pym, who discovered subatomic particles that increase or decrease the
size and mass of objects or living beings.16 Harnessing these “Pym Particles,”
Dr. Pym is able to shrink to the size of an insect (assuming the Ant-Man alias)
or grow to humungous proportions (Giant-Man). In his giant form, Hank Pym
also adopted the Goliath name: a synonym for “giant” disconnected from the
villainy of the biblical namesake (first in Avengers no. 28, 1966).17 The super-
hero Hawkeye took on the Goliath identity after using Pym’s size-changing
gas (Avengers no. 63, 1969).18 Pym’s lab assistant, Bill Foster, had a brief
career as Black Goliath, beginning in Luke Cage, Power Man no. 24 (1975)19
and continuing in his eponymous five-part mini-series (1976).20 A splash page
in the series’ first issue shows the grinning hero towering over the villains:
“The name is Black Goliath, group. And yes, I know that both halves of that
handle belabor the obvious.”21 Foster’s quip makes light of both the clichéd
use of Goliath as “giant” and the blaxploitation gimmick of putting “Black”
in the names of Black characters, as if the adjective were necessary—Black
Adam, Black Panther, Black Racer, Black Lightning, Black Manta, etc. Bill
Tom Gauld’s Goliath 89
Foster would later return simply as Goliath. The moniker has also been
applied to the Incredible Hulk, as in the scholarly anthology, The Ages of the
Incredible Hulk: Essays on the Green Goliath in Changing Times.22
Yet, while the Goliath name has been used for a variety of unrelated Marvel
and DC characters of large stature, ranging from heroes to villains to dragons,
the biblical Goliath is not among them. Instead, the ancient giant is mostly
confined to the generally uninspired Bible comics genre, which has its lineage
in children’s Bible stories more than in superhero fare. This owes in part to
sensitivities and marketing concerns of the early creators of superhero com-
ics, who were largely Jewish, and their readership, who were predominantly
Christian. Creators were more comfortable playing with characters culturally
understood to be mythological (e.g., from Greek, Norse, or Egyptian lore)
than mining from texts Americans considered sacred. Wonder Woman fight-
ing Ares was safe; contemporizing Goliath was not—especially during the
censorship era of the 1950s.
The giant’s brief appearance and disappointing showing in the Book of
Samuel also made him a lackluster fiend. After all, a menacing figure who
boasts about his superiority for forty days, only to be swiftly killed by a
stone-slinging child, is not exactly supervillain material. Contrastingly,
Samson, among the few Bible characters to become a superhero in various
guises—beginning with his 1939 appearance in a Fox Feature Syndicate
book by writer Will Eisner and artist Alex Blum (under the pseudonym
“Boon”)23—appears in several disjointed and episodic adventures in Judges
13–16 before his self-sacrificing end. The short biblical vignettes inspired
comics writers to add their own heroic exploits to the mix (à la midrash).
Another impediment is that Goliath is not very interesting. In the Bible and
the many for-children’s iterations—illustrated, animated, and otherwise—
Goliath is merely a useful foe for David. Goliath’s duration and character
development are stunted by the parameters of the brief chapter; once he is dis-
posed of, he no longer serves a narrative purpose. He is a temporary obstacle
in the hero’s saga. Indeed, the album cover for the 1974 children’s musical
Rock on the Head, composed by church musician Don Wyrtzen, manages to
sum up the story in one sentence: “It [tells of] the extraordinary faith of a
young boy triumphing over the sheer physical strength of a big bully!”24
Adhering to these narrative constraints, Gauld examines what Goliath did
before and between shouting threats at the Israelites. The tale ends the same
way: Goliath is killed by young David. But in his retelling, David is the one
with a bit part, arriving only in the last few pages to carry out the biblically
determined smiting. The key difference is that, by this point, the reader has
grown attached to the kind and sensitive giant whose size condemns him to
be a warrior impersonator. Through Gauld’s delicate use of minimal words,
unassuming artwork, empty space, and limited colors (shades of black,
90 Chapter 5
BIBLE COMICS
While the biblical Goliath makes only a few cameo appearances in superhero
comics, he is a staple of kid-friendly Bible comics and illustrated Bibles.
Bible stories for children have been printed since the sixteenth century, not
long after Johannes Gutenberg began printing the first mass-produced Bible
(1450s).25 Unlike Gutenberg’s complete Latin Vulgate text, children’s editions
were typically abridged, adapted, and written in the vernacular.26 Even earlier,
Bible stories from Peter Comestor’s Historia Scholastica (c. 1170) were used
to familiarize young students with biblical tales. Other early volumes were
Nicholas Fontaine’s L’Histoire du Vieux et du Nouveau Testament (1670),
aimed at Catholic youth, Johann Hübner’s Zweymahl Zwey und funffzig
Biblische Historien (1714), and several volumes from England, including The
Holy Bible Abridged (1757), History of the Holy Bible Abridged (1764), and
The Bible in Miniature (c. 1800).27
Jewish publishers began making children’s Bibles in nineteenth-century
Germany. The books were part of the broader post-Emancipation goals of
updating and reformulating Judaism in accordance with Christian culture.
Between 1915 and 1936, over two dozen Bible story collections were pub-
lished in the United States for Jewish religious schools.28 As in Germany,
these abbreviated, sanitized texts came primarily from the modernizing
Reform movement, which downplayed “antiquated” Talmudic folklore,
legalism, and particularism and elevated the Hebrew scriptures. The Bible’s
newfound prominence in Jewish education owed to three main factors: its sta-
tus as a literary “classic,” following the American educational template; the
fact that the “Old Testament” was shared with Christian neighbors; and the
belief that the text was a storehouse of “universalist principles.”29 Moreover,
as Penny Schine Gold points out in her book, Making the Bible Modern,
the existence of free public schooling in America led to the development of
Jewish supplemental education. Such programs borrowed from the Christian
congregational Sunday school model, which had limited hours of instruc-
tion and therefore cherry-picked Bible stories that could yield moralizing
lessons.30
Beyond their exclusive use of the Hebrew Bible, what made Jewish
Children’s Bibles Jewish was their emphasis on the Israelites (ancestors of the
Jews) and the absence of Christological overlays. Naturally, Christian books
were less interested in “Jewish history” and more focused on how the “Old
Testament” predicted or connected to the New Testament. For example, one
Tom Gauld’s Goliath 91
Of course, the figure he saw wasn’t that of Samuel, physical or spiritual. Samuel
was dead and buried about sixty miles away, and wouldn’t become conscious
until more than three thousand years later when he will be resurrected to meet
Christ when the Son of God returns from heaven to begin ruling the people on
Earth. (Hebrews 11:32–35; I Corinthians 15:51–52; I Thessalonians 4:14–17)
The sorceress had not created an illusion by her own powers, but she had
wrongly contacted evil spirits who were able to impersonate Samuel. All this,
however, was under the control of someone else—the leader of evil spirits, or
demons, who are sometimes referred to as fallen angels. That leader is Satan.
But Satan cannot do anything that God does not allow him and his evil spirits
to do. (Job 1:8–12)31
[Esau] was not the kind of boy to care for the things that went with the birth-
right, he did not care to say prayers, and did not want to know anything about
religion, nor did he like to take care of anyone but himself. He did not even like
to stay in the house. All he did care for was to go hunting.33
[Jacob] was just the kind of boy who should have liked the things that went with
the birthright. He was very much like his grandfather, Abraham, and his father,
Isaac. He liked to stay at home, helping his mother around the house and his
father in the field. He also loved to think and talk about religion.34
from the “the spaghetti and meatball school of design,” Wolverton earned a
reputation as “America’s weirdest artist” for the humorously hideous aliens
in his science-fiction comics, his bizarre comedy strips “Powerhouse Pepper”
and “The Culture Corner,” and his work for MAD magazine.41 Yet, Wolverton
wanted to be remembered for his Bible illustrations. At first glance, the art-
ist’s wild tendencies might seem incongruous with the sacred source material,
but as his son Monte explained: “He saw that the biblical account was full of
conflict, pathos, tragedy, violence, bloodshed and horror. It was, after all, a
story of humanity—and in this way, Wolverton’s comic horror work and his
grotesquely humorous drawings were consistent with his theological under-
standing of the human condition.”42
Wolverton produced two chapters on David and Goliath (“Goliath
Challenges God!” and “David as National Hero”) spanning a total of nineteen
pages. They begin with David soothing Saul with his lyre (1 Sam. 16), con-
tinue with the David and Goliath story proper (1 Sam. 17), and conclude with
Saul plotting against David (1 Sam. 18). Compared to other child-oriented
Bibles, Wolverton’s account of David’s life is less “wart averse,” albeit with
a heavily apologetic tone. He does not shy away from mentioning Goliath’s
decapitation, David’s attraction and marriage to Michal, or how the “Israelites
overtook and killed thousands of them in a wild retreat that covered many
miles.”43 Even so, the chapters’ six illustrations match Fitting’s observations:
(1) David is introduced in an idyllic pasture with his lyre, staff, and sheep,
accompanied by the caption: “David was content to return to the peaceful
pursuit of herding sheep after his stay with Saul in the city. As with Moses,
it gave him an opportunity to pray and to meditate, and to start composing
a vital part of the Bible, the Psalms”;44 (2) David rushes to save his flock
from an attacking lion, showing a glimpse of his bravery;45 (3) An enormous
Goliath, standing well over 10 feet tall, towers over his shield-bearer—
emphasizing the great challenge David will soon face;46 (4) David “take(s)
food to three of his brothers who were camping with the Israelite army about
fifteen miles away”—showing David as a non-combatant delivery boy;47 (5)
Goliath’s shield-bearer stands in shock as the stone “miraculously” hits the
giant between the eyes;48 (6) The story concludes with a carefully gore-less
illustration and the caption: “Mile after mile the Israelite soldiers chased the
Philistine troops to the west, overtaking and slaughtering thousands. The
vengeful pursuers didn’t halt until they had driven a remnant of the enemy all
the way to several cities in Philistia.”49
For the most part, Wolverton’s text remains faithful to the structure and key
details of the original, with added dialogue, expository notes, and character
development to fill out the terse biblical account. For example, in describing
David fending off the lion, he notes:
94 Chapter 5
At one time a lion leaped from behind nearby rocks to seize between its teeth
a lamb that had strayed away a short distance. The lions of that land weren’t as
large and powerful as mature African lions. But they could easily kill a person
with one ferocious thrust of a clawed paw, and David knew it. Nevertheless, he
leaped after the lion as it tried to scramble over steep boulders. David fiercely
struck the beast on its spine with the staff he carried at all times. The dazed ani-
mal dropped the lamb and stumbled to the ground. The young shepherd seized
the lion by its long chin hair and snapped its head backward with such force that
its neck was broken.50
from the Bible: From Creation to Judah Maccabee. Scarf Press reprinted
the entire series in 1979 as Jimmy Swaggart Presents Picture Stories from
the Bible (featuring David felling Goliath on the cover).56 According to Don
Jolly, who studies the intersection of religion and popular culture, the title’s
success had little to do with its stale writing or uncredited (and uninspiring)
artwork. Rather, Picture Stories and similar Bible comics “existed for parents
to buy on behalf of their children. Materially, they were comic books, but cul-
turally they were something else.”57 In fact, at the same time that Gaines was
promoting Bible stories, All-American was also publishing the more popular
Sensation Comics, starring Wonder Woman, a scantily clad symbol of female
power. The Catholic Church’s National Organization for Decent Literature
forbade Catholics by “debt of sin” from buying, selling, owning, lending, or
reading the title.58 Nevertheless, in an industry that boasted sales of 70 to 150
million copies per month, there was certainly room for parent- and religious
school–pleasing fare.
Gaines moved on to found EC Comics in 1944, which began as
“Educational Comics” but was changed to “Entertaining Comics” after
Gaines died in a boating accident in 1947. His son and successor, William,
turned the company’s focus to envelope-pushing horror comics.59
The Picture Stories rendition of David and Goliath spans six pages, begin-
ning with a brief account of David being called to play his lyre for the ailing
King Saul.60 After a smiling Saul says, “I feel much better,” the story cuts
to a messenger reporting that the Philistines have gathered in the Valley of
Elah.61 Meanwhile, David has returned to his father’s flock and sits gazing
at the pastoral setting. Goliath shouts his challenge across the valley. A few
Israelites express their terror: “He is so big and strong!” “We have no one
to fight such a man!”62 David’s father sends him to deliver “bread, cheese
and parched corn” to his brothers on the front lines. Upon hearing Goliath’s
challenge, David tells Saul, “Once a lion and a bear attacked my sheep, and I
killed both of them—I can slay this giant Goliath who defies your armies.”63
Without a hint of hesitation, Saul offers his armor to David, who refuses and
instead gathers stones from the brook. In four quick panels, David announces
that he will smite the giant, the stone hits the giant between the eyes, and
David gestures toward his fallen foe with a sword. “Then David runs up to
Goliath,” a caption reads, “and with Goliath’s own sword cuts off his head”
(the decapitation is not illustrated).64 The next panel shows Israelite soldiers
boasting about the Philistines fleeing; there is no mention of the Israelites’
ensuing attack. The remainder of the story, stretching four and a half pages,
has David and Jonathan becoming fast friends, David taking Michal as his
wife, some sanitized battle scenes, and Saul’s growing jealousy over David’s
swift ascent.
96 Chapter 5
The artwork and storytelling choices are stale and wooden, confirming
Jolly’s observation that “Bible tale” comics resemble the medium in format
but in few other ways. The characters are stiff, difficult to tell apart, and
thoroughly Anglo in appearance. Goliath, who is supposed to be exception-
ally large and well-armored, at times appears only slightly taller than fellow
Philistine soldiers and dressed in the same uniform. Indeed, Goliath is almost
identical to Saul, the only differences being their hair color (Saul’s beard is
black, Goliath’s is red), Saul wears a sash over his armor, and Goliath has
bad teeth. David’s rendering is inconsistent: he sometimes resembles a child
and other times a young adult. Most of the backgrounds are minimally filled
in or just a single color, and many of the figures appear as monochromatic
shadows in the background.
The avoidance of bloodshed and unseemly content is to be expected.
Elsewhere in Picture Stories, the conquest of Jericho similarly omits the
excessive attack that follows the wall’s collapse.65 Whereas the Book of
Joshua has the Israelites pilfering silver, gold, and objects of iron and cop-
per for “the treasury of the Lord” (Josh. 6:19); killing women, children, and
livestock (Josh. 6:21); and burning down the city and “everything in it” (Josh.
6:24), Picture Stories reduces the brutal scene to a single panel showing a
bloodless clash of soldiers. What is curious is that the battle between David
and Goliath—the centerpiece of young David’s life—occurs in such a short
sequence and with such little fanfare. Over two-thirds of the story recounts
what happens after the duel.
Bible comics received a boost in the mid-1950s, following the publication
of Jewish German-American psychiatrist Fredric Wertham’s Seduction of the
Innocent (1954). Earlier research had viewed comics as a mostly positive
contribution to literacy.66 However, opinions began to shift during the 1940s,
with children’s author Sterling North warning: “Unless we want a coming
generation even more ferocious than the present one, parents and teachers
throughout America must band together to break the ‘comic’ magazine.”67
Wertham’s book took these concerns to the next level, speciously arguing,
“The pattern was one of stealing, gangs, addiction, comic books and vio-
lence.”68 While crime and horror comics were his main targets, no genre was
left unscathed: cartoon animals corrupted the minds of toddlers; romance
comics promoted prostitution; superheroes undermined parental authority;
and so forth. Hysteria reached the U.S. Senate, which organized the Senate
Subcommittee to Investigate Juvenile Delinquency (1953–1954). Wertham
was the expert witness at the public hearings, and William Gaines, purveyor
of the gleefully violent and “extremely liberal”69 EC Comics, was the prime
“culprit.” The committee did not make an official ruling, but unfavorable
press coverage led the comic book industry to adopt the Comics Code
Authority: a self-regulatory ratings code certifying the wholesome content
Tom Gauld’s Goliath 97
of books carrying the authority’s badge on their covers (i.e., free of murder,
gore, drugs, horror, sex, gunplay, etc.). The scrutinizing atmosphere forced
a number of companies out of business. EC Comics dropped all of its titles
except for MAD, which was converted to a black-and-white magazine, thus
evading comic book censorship.
Bible comics were especially appealing to worried parents. In 1955,
Gilbertson’s Classics Illustrated published The Story of Jesus, scripted by
former Methodist missionary Lorenz Graham and featuring a back-cover
endorsement by Christian Herald editor Daniel A. Poling. Atlas Comics,
which had been severely damaged by anti-comics alarmism, published a
five-issue series, Bible Comics for Young People (1953–1954). Classics
Illustrated and Dell Comics both published adaptations of the 1956 film The
Ten Commandments.70
Famous Funnies debuted its four-issue Tales from the Great Book in
1955.71 Like other Bible comics of the period, the series borrowed the
kid-centric approach of Picture Stories. The series was a safe alternative to
the much-maligned and similarly titled Tales from the Crypt, published by
EC from 1950 to 1955. What separated the series from other Bible comics
was the artwork by John Lehti, who had honed his action-adventure chops
on Tarzan, Flash Gordon, and Tom Corbett, Space Cadet. His illustrated
stories—ranging from Samson to the fall of Jericho to the Judean boy-king
Joash—more closely resembled the dynamic, detailed style kids expected
from mainstream titles. His characters were still unrealistically white and
wholesome-bordering-on-generic, but exciting wraparound covers and vivid
action sequences gave the books an allure not often found in children’s Bible
comics. For parents, the covers featured an enlarged Comics Code Authority
badge that was noticeably larger than those used by DC and Marvel Comics.
Lehti had a knack for dramatizing the typically sparse biblical text. In
his hands, invented dialogue, ancillary characters, and embellished action
sequences enhanced the original, much as midrash does in the rabbinic tradi-
tion. Lehti’s story, “Young David,” appears in issue four of Tales from the
Great Book, alongside tales of Jesus’ miracles of loaves and fishes, the maid
of Naaman’s wife, the Three Wise Men, Moses and Miriam, Lazarus being
restored to life, and an unillustrated recounting of Noah’s Ark.72 The order of
stories in each of the four issues is less concerned with chronology—Hebrew
Bible and New Testament tales are randomly shuffled together—than with
giving an impression of biblical unity. This is most pronounced in “The
Little Captive Maid,” which Lehti introduces as a story “based on historical
research . . . though portions are unrecorded in the Bible they are not con-
trary to, nor do they change the biblical account in II Kings 5:1–14.”73 In the
story, the maid, called Damaris, convinces the leprous Naaman to dip into
the Jordan River to be healed, as the prophet Elisha has instructed. Naaman
98 Chapter 5
is healed and declares, “Now I know there is but one God in all the earth. . . .
Elisha must be rewarded!,” to which his wife adds, “And you, too, Damaris!”
This is followed with a caption: “And centuries later, Jesus of Nazareth told
the world— ‘. . . If ye have faith as a grain of mustard seed, ye shall say unto
the mountain, remove hence to yonder place; and it shall remove; and nothing
shall be impossible to you.’ Mt. 17:20.”74
For his story of young David, Lehti does not focus on the bout with
Goliath. Instead, he expands on the Bible’s brief reference to David fighting
a bear (as opposed to Wolverton’s choice of a lion). In the biblical account,
David presents the encounter as proof that he can defeat the ferocious giant:
Your servant has been tending his father’s sheep, and if a lion or a bear came and
carried off an animal from the flock, I would go after it and fight it and rescue it
from its mouth. And if it attacked me, I would seize it by the beard and strike it
down and kill it. Your servant has killed both lion and bear; and that uncircum-
cised Philistine shall end up like one of them, for he has defied the ranks of the
living God. The Lord . . . who saved me from the lion and bear will also save
me from the Philistine (1 Sam. 17:34–37).
Lehti develops this monologue into a nine-page story, framing the narra-
tive with Psalm 23—similar to the psalm’s use in the Xena episode. Lehti
interprets the text’s shepherd metaphors as an allusion to God, the “Great
Shepherd,” who saves David from a bear: “The Lord is my shepherd, I lack
nothing. . . . Though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I fear
no harm, for You are with me . . .” (vv. 1, 4).
Like so many children’s Bible stories, we first see David tending to his
flock. However, there are some unique aspects from the start. David, who
convincingly looks the part of a shepherd boy, calls out the names of his
sheep and is accompanied by a sheepdog named Shendi. David joins his par-
ents, brothers, and attending servants for supper, leaving Shendi in charge of
the sheep. “Before you return to the sheep, my son,” his father, Jesse, says,
“play something for me on your harp.” David grabs his harp (lyre) and shares
the opening verses of Psalm 23, noting that it is a work in progress. We next
see David in the field at night, unable to find Shendi or the flock. The follow-
ing day, one of David’s older brothers approaches him. “All right, youngster,
today is my turn with the sheep—you are free to go off and waste your time
making up songs.”75 David explains that Shendi is missing and that there is
evidence of a struggle.
David follows Shendi’s tracks into the hills, finds the dog, wraps its
wounds, and they hike back to the sheepfold. In perfect “boy tale” fashion,
a caption reads: “Like many a young lad, [David] puts too much trust in the
invincibility of the dog he loves—and even now the pair of fierce eyes glare
Tom Gauld’s Goliath 99
down at him in hatred!”76 David returns to see that the predator has struck
again, this time killing a lamb and injuring his brother, who is convinced the
attacker is no mere animal, but a demon. As David leads his flock through
a ravine, the sheep become frightened and stampede wildly. In the distance,
David spots the bear with a lamb in its jaws. He orders Shendi to watch the
sheep while he confronts the beast. David enters a bear cave, saves the lamb,
and proceeds to fight the bear. David is knocked down and his thoughts turn
to prayer: “Just as I save the lamb, the Lord is my shepherd. . . . He will save
me. . . . I must have no fear!” At that moment, he remembers that God “made
the noses of all bears extremely tender.”77 He punches the bear in the nose
and the beast falls on David’s sword. David is next seen reclining in a field,
playing his harp, and singing the finished texts of Psalm 23. “In living,” Jesse
explains to his wife, “his experiences furnished him with the right words.”78
In 1961, Dell published a comic-book adaption of the Italian film David e
Golia, a dubbed version of which was released in the United States as David
and Goliath (1960).79 (Orson Welles, who played Saul in the movie, directed
his own scenes and required no dubbing.) The book opens with Samuel fore-
seeing the rise of a new king, much to the chagrin of King Saul and Abner,
Saul’s cousin and chief commander. Among the comic’s (and film’s) added
elements are scenes of young David practicing his rock slinging and his
romance with a village girl named Elga; dialogue given to the Philistine king
Asdod and his recruitment of Goliath with a payment of gold; the introduction
of Goliath’s friend, a “petty cutpurse, a rascal, called Creth”;80 Goliath dem-
onstrating his strength by lifting the “Rock of Samson,” a boulder raised only
once before by Samson himself; the anachronistic depiction of Jerusalem as
home to Saul’s palace and the Holy Temple; David arriving in Jerusalem, pur-
chasing slaves to free them, and fighting off soldiers who manhandle political
dissidents; Goliath’s killing of an Israelite emissary named Benjamin, who
was sent to retrieve the Ark of the Covenant from the Philistines; and Abner
sending David into battle, “seeking David’s death to end his only popular
rival for Saul’s throne.”81 All of this leads to a final confrontation between
David and Goliath, spanning five pages, and the Israelites’ attack that fol-
lows. The comic/film ends with David bringing Goliath’s sword to Saul. As
he does, Abner is lurking in the shadows, readying himself to assassinate
David. In the nick of time, Saul produces a bow and arrow and strikes Abner
down. “Glory to David—Hero to Israel!” shouts Saul. David replies: “Long
live Saul—King of Israel!”82 The curtains close on David accepting Michal’s
hand in marriage.
These and numerous other departures are as much midrashic inventions as
they are byproducts of turning a one-chapter Bible story into a feature-length
film. The added romance, intrigue, characters, and grand settings conform
with cinematic expectations. The comic’s uncredited artwork resembles the
100 Chapter 5
style and competence Lehti brought to Tales from the Great Book. In both
the film and the comic, David is athletic, muscular, fully grown, and shirt-
less—more in line with Ben-Hur (1959) or Spartacus (1960) than with the
innocent boy of biblical lore. Most interesting is the backstory supplied for
Goliath, who appears as a money-motivated, cave-dwelling mercenary with a
violent streak. Unfortunately, this portrayal only reinforces his uncomplicated
villainousness. A touch of humanity is perhaps seen in his capacity for friend-
ship, even though his friend is a cretin.
Controversial Protestant fundamentalist-evangelical cartoonist Jack Chick
published his take on David and Goliath in 1986.83 One of the hundreds of
“Chick tracts” produced during his half-century career, the story, titled The
Terminator?, takes its name from the 1984 box office smash hit of the same
name (minus the question mark). Following in the American footsteps of
co-opting popular media to spread the “good news,” Chick—who was “born
again” after hearing Charles E. Fuller’s Old-Fashioned Revival Hour in
1960—not only borrowed the easily digestible illustrated short-story form,
but also a propagandistic booklet design (1 or 2 panels per page, approx. 3 by
5 inches, around 20 pages) that had proven successful in Communist China.84
The tracts, which some conservative Christians hand out at Halloween, are
far less “child safe” than the practice suggests. Filled with graphic images
and fire-and-brimstone assaults on Catholicism (deemed a “false religion”)
and supposed societal “sins” (abortion, drugs, alcohol, homosexuality, the
occult, rock music, blasphemy, liberalism, ecumenism, feminism, Dungeons
& Dragons, etc.), the tracts have traumatized many impressionable young
people over the years.
Chick, who died in 2016, hoped to frighten readers into accepting Jesus
Christ as their savior—a goal that, while difficult to quantify, was likely aided
by the comics’ often-horrifying, almost-photorealistic black-and-white draw-
ings. (Chick drew many of the tracts himself, but also worked with at least
two other illustrators.85) A notorious recluse, Chick regularly voiced harsh,
over-the-top armchair condemnations of current events. For instance, his
1995 tract, “Who Murdered Clarice?,” tells of an abortion doctor who dies of
suicide. Facing divine judgment, it is revealed that the doctor had been sell-
ing baby parts. The 2012 tract, “Global Warming,” characterizes the climate
crisis as a hoax: “Jesus is calling the shots . . . not the environmentalists!”86
According to the Chick Publications website, the tracts have sold some
900 million copies in over 100 languages. An article for Vox, written by cul-
tural theorist Alissa Wilkinson, breaks down the various tracts into a simple
two-part formula: (1) Dream up the most extreme consequences for a “social
ill”; (2) Insist that Hell can only be avoided by accepting Chick’s “pope-
hating, King James Bible–loving version of Jesus Christ as your personal
Tom Gauld’s Goliath 101
savior.”87 Not surprisingly, this fiery approach has divided critics, with the
ecumenical conservative magazine First Things calling Chick “one of the
most prolific and polarizing religious leaders in US history.”88 Following
his death at age ninety-two, the Billy Graham–founded Christianity Today
eulogized him as “the cartoonist who wanted to save your soul from hell.”89
The Southern Poverty Law Center designates Chick Publications as a hate
group for its anti-Catholic, ant-Muslim, anti-atheist, and homophobic ide-
ology.90 The tongue-in-cheek Chick Tract Club calls Chick “The King of
Underground Publishing,” and collectors—devoted and ironic alike—can
consult The Unofficial Guide to the Art of Jack T. Chick.91
The Terminator? opens with a bold caption instructing, “Read 1 Samuel
17.” Instead of starting with young David, we are immediately introduced
to an enormous, ogre-like Goliath uprooting a tree and lifting it in the
air. An attendant to the Philistine king describes Goliath as “an ultimate
weapon”—like Schwarzenegger’s Terminator—and reveals that he is only
nine years old.92 “The years pass by,” and the king marvels at the skill his
champion has developed under the tutelage of an unnamed, muscle-bound,
eyepatch-wearing mentor (a character seemingly ripped from Mad Max). At
this point, Chick reminds us that the “Philistines bowed to Dagon. When peo-
ple bow to idols, they are actually worshipping devils. . . . God hates that!”93
Enter David, a humble shepherd whom Samuel anoints to replace an increas-
ingly self-absorbed and paranoid King Saul. David’s lyre playing causes the
“evil spirit” to depart from Saul, which is shown as a menacing ghost.
The story cuts to David battling a lion with the caption, “David was no
coward!”94 We then see a fully armored Goliath shaking his fist in the air,
standing beside his comparatively tiny shield-bearer. Goliath is described as
eleven-and-a-half feet tall—even larger than his 9’9” stature in the Hebrew
text. Jesse sends David to the battlefield with supplies for his brothers, where
the young shepherd insists on challenging the giant. At this point, Goliath’s
face is shown to be that of a demonic troll—a fearmongering personifica-
tion of ungodly evil. David collects five smooth stones, shakes his hand
at Goliath, and quotes the King James Bible: “Thou comest to me with a
sword . . . but I come to thee in the name of the Lord of hosts, the God of
the armies of Israel. . . .”95 A brisk duel follows with “Dagon’s Terminator”
meeting his demise. A grotesque drawing of David holding Goliath’s severed
head concludes the sequence. Through interspersed Bible verses, Chick tells
us that, after Saul’s death:
David became king. He was shepherd to his people. Isaiah prophesied that
Israel’s Messiah would come through David’s line. [Isa. 7:14] Almost 1,000
years later, that Messiah, Jesus Christ was born of a virgin. [John 10:11; 1:10] . . .
Jesus left heaven to teach us love. [John 3:16] . . . Jesus was the perfect sacrifice,
102 Chapter 5
God the Son shed His blood to wash away your sins. [Rom. 5:8] . . . Jesus’ first
visit to earth was as the lamb. But soon He’ll return in power and glory. [Rev.
19:21] . . . The Lord Jesus will reign over the world from Jerusalem . . . and
Satan will be cast into the lake of fire. [Rev. 20:20; Matt. 25:41] . . . Who will
you serve? Jesus Christ—Eternal life in heaven—or Satan—Eternal pain in the
lake of fire? The choice is YOURS.96
Baker’s tale begins with young David arriving at Saul’s palace. The reader
is immediately struck by David’s small stature—he is barely larger than a
toddler—and Saul’s vicious and deranged appearance. A palace guard
explains that Saul had killed the last musician who attempted to soothe him.
He warns David, “The king’ll bite your face off! You really wanna bring
that cute face of yours home in a sack?” As he says this, the fresh blood of a
eunuch flows under the door. David asks, “You’re telling me King Saul is on
the other side of that door?” David produces his lyre and plays a few notes.
The door opens to broken furniture, dead bodies, and assorted refuse scattered
about Saul’s dimly lit throne room. “You’re hired,” says the king.98
David delivers provisions to his brother Eliab in the Elah Valley. David
hears Goliath in the distance and squints his eyes to get a good look. His
nonchalant brother, who is preoccupied with the food David brought, casually
explains that Goliath yells at them every day. “He’s all talk. Except when he’s
slaughtering us.”99 Excited to learn that Saul is offering riches to anyone who
slays the giant, David attempts to charge forward. He is stopped by Saul’s
guards, who bring him to the king. “Young man, you surprise me,” Saul tells
him. “Nice little harp boy. My perfect, wholesome, perky little armor bearer.
What is this I hear about you?” David professes his worthiness as an oppo-
nent, recounting his killing of the lion and bear: “The Lord who delivered me
from the paw of the lion and the paw of the bear will deliver me from the
hand of the Philistine.”100 David declines to wear Saul’s armor, fills his sack
with stones, and marches determinedly to Goliath.
This is followed by twenty pages of beautifully rendered, wordless sequen-
tial art displaying Baker’s animation prowess. The fight receives the suspense
and spectacle it richly deserves but rarely receives. Goliath is supernaturally
large and animalistic, with decapitated human heads hanging around his neck
on a chain. David’s first stone misses the giant’s head, and Goliath’s sword
104 Chapter 5
cuts through David’s sack, sending the other stones flying. David is nearly
speared as he dives for a loose stone. The spear hits the ground with such
force that it splits in two. Goliath topples over, allowing David to reload his
sling. As Goliath dives at the young shepherd, a stone catches him squarely
between the eyes. Blood splatters and the Philistines stand paralyzed in
shock. Their champion is dead. David lifts Goliath’s massive sword and slices
off his head with a bloody “CHOP!”101 A scowling David lifts the giant’s
head, which is bigger than he is, for all to see.
Saul is at first elated but soon grows envious of the young hero. The “evil
spirit” returns to Saul, and David is again called on to play his lyre. Saul tries
to spear David as he plays, but instead of merely missing, as he does in the
biblical text (1 Sam. 19:9–10), Baker has David grabbing the spear away
from Saul and pointing its tip toward the mad king’s face. The guards inter-
vene and Saul thinks, “I have to get rid of this kid.”102 The story continues
through David’s adult years to the birth of Solomon to Bathsheba, with plenty
of explicit, high-energy, and entertaining scenes along the way. Liberties are
taken for comedic and dramatic effect; but, as the back cover states, the book
is “irreverent—yet biblically accurate.”
Each of the comics surveyed above are restrained by 1 Samuel 17. Despite the
various creative choices and expansions, David remains a hero and Goliath
remains a villain. Only two of the books develop Goliath’s backstory, and
both do so by amplifying his bad qualities: Dell’s David and Goliath makes
him a cave-dwelling primitive with a lust for gold, while the Chick tract
makes him a hideous killer trained from youth.
A rare instance of humanizing, albeit in an intentionally silly story, occurs
in Superman’s Pal Jimmy Olsen no. 62 (1962).103 The five-page story, titled
“Jimmy’s Duel with Goliath,” written by Leo Dorfman and penciled by
Curt Swan, begins with the Daily Planet’s young, redheaded photojournalist
dressed as the shepherd boy David for Professor Potter’s “scientists’ mas-
querade ball.” Jimmy arrives at Potter’s lab, where the professor is sewing the
last buttons onto his Napoleon costume. Jimmy slips a few metal balls into
his shepherd’s pouch while he waits. Meanwhile, goons from Lex Luthor’s
gang pound down the lab door. One of them shouts at Jimmy: “We’re after
some green kryptonite Potter’s got stashed away! But what’re you wearin’
that David costume for? You expectin’ to meet Goliath? Ha! Ha!”104 Jimmy
slings a stone at one of the goons, summons Superman on his signal watch,
is shot by a ray gun, and drifts into a haze.
Tom Gauld’s Goliath 105
“The Red-Headed Beatle of 1,000 B.C.,” from Superman’s Pal Jimmy Olsen
no. 79 (1964), Jimmy travels back in time to a biblical landscape, where
he meets a young Samson (disguised as “Mighty Youth”).111 Jimmy starts a
“Beatle craze thousands of years back in the past” by playing the unmusical
shofar and banging on a drum (writer Leo Dorfman’s not-so-subtle dig at the
rock-and-roll craze).112 The cover of Superman’s Girlfriend Lois Lane no.
98 (1970) features Lois cutting Superman’s invulnerable hair with “magic
shears.” “Lois . . . No!” shouts Superman. “You duped me just like Delilah
did Samson! You’ve robbed me of my powers!”113
While Tom Gauld’s Goliath is not directly linked with these reconceptions
of biblical stories, themes, and characters, its alternative view is more closely
aligned with them than with conventional Bible comics. There is a resonance,
especially, between Gauld’s pacifistic giant and the figure in “Jimmy’s Duel
with Goliath” who wants to defect from the cruel and cowardly Philistines.
Yet, whereas the Jimmy Olsen story is merely frivolous whimsy—with
Goliath being vulnerable to kryptonite and the story’s tension centering on
whether “history” will be saved by David slaying Goliath—Gauld reimagines
the giant as a genuinely sympathetic protagonist. His story is a nuanced, post-
modern reassessment of the complexities of war, the vagaries of heroism, and
the nature of the Philistines, who come across as no more or less despicable
than the Israelites.
The story opens with an evening view of the Philistine encampment, where
Goliath—resembling a tall, slender cone with an egg-shaped head—slouches
over an outdoor writing desk. Thirsty, he lumbers down a hill to a body of
water, scoops a mug full, takes a sip, and notices a large pebble. He picks
up the stone, admires it, and plops it into the water—foreshadowing his own
fall by a stone. We next see a Philistine captain asking the king to authorize
his plan to break the stalemate with the Israelites, who are positioned on
the other side of the valley. The disinterested king approves the plan, which
involves outfitting Goliath with a sword, spear, and costume armor—the lat-
ter of which slowly breaks apart as the story progresses. Goliath is also given
a nine-year-old shield-bearer whose purity, innocence, and tenacity match
those of the shepherd David.
Meanwhile, a solider approaches Goliath to see if he might be willing to
wrestle a captive bear in a prize fight. “We’d split the take fifty-fifty. . . .
‘Giant versus Bear’: that’s gold.” “No,” Goliath replies. “There’s no way . . .
no.”114 This amusing scene contrasts with David’s boast about killing the bear
and lion that attack his flock. Goliath possesses no such courage and no desire
to harm an animal.
The captain reveals his plan. Goliath is to read a prepared message
within earshot of the Israelite camp: “I am Goliath of Gath, champion of
Tom Gauld’s Goliath 107
the Philistines. I challenge you: Choose a man, let him come to me that we
may fight. If he be able to kill me then we shall be your servants. But if I kill
him then you shall be our servants” (paraphrasing 1 Sam. 17:8–9).115 Goliath
faints at the news, explaining that he is “the fifth-worst swordsman in my
platoon. . . . I do paperwork!” “You’re missing the point, Goliath,” the cap-
tain assures him. “You look like a champion. All you need to do is act like
a champion and the enemy will cower before us. There won’t be any actual
fighting. This is a battle of the minds.” “But what if somebody does want to
fight me?” Goliath asks. “Won’t happen. Trust me, Goliath.”116
The days pass and the young shield-bearer becomes restless. “Is somebody
going to fight you now?” he asks Goliath. “I hope not,” Goliath replies. “I’ve
got a dagger. I’ll help you,” the boy says, exhibiting the same youthful fear-
lessness as the biblical David.117 Days later, the boy relays several rumors
the Philistines have been spreading about Goliath: he eats rocks, he can burn
things by looking at them, he killed a camel by punching it. Surely, these sorts
of stories also circulated among the frightened Israelites.
The next day, a figure approaches Goliath and his shield-bearer. Could this
be a challenger? No, it is an elderly shepherd who seems unaware there is a
war going on. The confused old man might represent David’s future had he
not challenged Goliath and advanced to the throne.
Goliath weighs the possibility of running away, but decides to stay in the
field overnight and think it over. “I’m starting to quite like it out here. . . .
It’s sort of beautiful, don’t you think?” he asks the shield-bearer. “No,” the
boy replies. “It’s not beautiful. It’s boring. It’s just boring.” Meanwhile, the
“ferocious” bear is spotted wandering around harmlessly. “He must have
escaped,” Goliath says, presumably still contemplating his own release from
the Philistines.118
Sometime later, the captain approaches Goliath in the field. “I’m worried.
It’s been forty days: the king wants results. I think we might pull the plug.”
Goliath is heartened by this development, but instead of giving up, the captain
tells him, “Really go for it today, yeah?”119 Fog has settled in the field and
a faint voice is heard in the distance. “The Lord has delivered me . . . out of
the paw of the lion, and out of the paw of the bear . . .” Goliath finally spots
the source of the words. “Just a kid,” he tells his shield-bearer. “Quiet, I can’t
hear what he’s saying.” “And I will smite thee . . . and take thine head from
thee,” the voice calls out. “Oh,” says Goliath, just before a stone hits him
between the eyes. An expressionless David takes the giant’s sword, chops off
his head, puts it a bag, and drags it away. “And when the Philistines saw their
champion dead they fled.”120
This tragic-comic portrait is nothing like the standard religious school les-
son, as exemplified in the Methodist Sunday School Journal for Teachers and
Young People, published in 1889:
108 Chapter 5
NOTES
1. Irene Velentzas, “‘Comics Open Up the Idea of What a Story Can Be’: A
Conversation with Tom Gauld,” Comics Journal, August 18, 2020.
2. Hayley Campbell, “Small Human Ordinariness: An Interview
with Tom Gauld,” Comics Journal, May 23, 2012, http://www.tcj.com/
small-human-ordinariness-an-interview-with-tom-gauld.
3. Velentzas, “‘Comics Open Up the Idea of What a Story Can Be.’”
4. Campbell, “Small Human Ordinariness.”
5. Tom Gauld, Goliath (Montreal: Drawn and Quarterly, 2012).
6. Campbell, “Small Human Ordinariness.”
7. Ibid.
8. See Alexander Theroux, The Enigma of Al Capp (Seattle, WA: Fantagraphics,
1999), 36.
9. See Comiclopedia: Illustrated Artist Compendium, https://www.lambiek.net/
comiclopedia.html.
10. Jessica Plummer, “What Was the First Comic Book?”, Book Riot, July 23, 2020.
Tom Gauld’s Goliath 109
11. See Christina Meyer, Producing Mass Entertainment: The Serial Life of the
Yellow Kid (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2019).
12. James D. Martin, The Book of Judges (New York: Cambridge University Press,
1975), 157.
13. Ibid., 152.
14. John Gray, Joshua, Judges, Ruth (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1986), 220.
15. Christopher Wood, Heroes Masked and Mythic: Echoes of Ancient Archetypes
in Comic Book Characters (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2021).
16. Stan Lee and Don Heck, Avengers, no. 10 (New York: Marvel Comics, 1964).
17. Stan Lee and Don Heck, Avengers, no. 28 (New York: Marvel Comics, 1966).
18. Roy Thomas and Gene Colan, Avengers, no. 63 (New York: Marvel
Comics, 1969).
19. Tony Isabella and George Tuska, Luke Cage, Power Man, no. 24 (New York:
Marvel Comics, 1975).
20. Tony Isabella and George Tuska, Black Goliath, nos. 1–5 (New York: Marvel
Comics, 1976).
21. Isabella and Tuska, Black Goliath no. 1, 26.
22. Joseph J. Darowski, ed., The Ages of the Incredible Hulk: Essays on the Green
Goliath in Changing Times (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2015).
23. Lou Mougin, Secondary Superheroes of Golden Age Comics (Jefferson, NC:
McFarland, 2020), 41–44.
24. Don Wrytzen, Rock on the Head, Singcord, 1974, LP.
25. See Ruth B. Bottigheimer, The Bible for Children in the Age of Guttenberg to
the Present (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996).
26. Penny Schine Gold, Making the Bible Modern: Children’s Bibles and
Jewish Education in Twentieth-Century America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press, 2004), 1.
27. Ruth B. Bottigheimer, “Catechistical, Devotional and Biblical Writing,” in
International Companion Encyclopedia of Children’s Literature, ed. Peter Hunt (New
York: Routledge, 2004), 300.
28. Gold, Making the Bible Modern, 9.
29. Ibid., 38.
30. Ibid., 81.
31. Basil Wolverton, The Bible Story, vol. 4 (Pasadena, CA: Worldwide Church of
God, 1985), 137.
32. Gold, Making the Bible Modern, 120.
33. Mendel Silber, The Scripture Stories Retold for Young Israel, rev. ed. (New
York: Behrman’s Jewish Book House, 1918), 160.
34. Ibid., 160–61.
35. Gold, Making the Bible Modern, 160.
36. R. Crumb, The Book of Genesis Illustrated (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009).
37. Gold, Making the Bible Modern, 160–66. The seven books Gold examines are:
Addie Richman Altman’s The Jewish Child’s Bible Stories (1915), Adele Bildersee’s
Out of the House of Bondage (1925), Edith Lindeman Calisch’s Bible Tales for
the Very Young (1930–1934), Lenore Cohen’s Bible Tales for Very Young Children
110 Chapter 5
Conclusion
Other Goliaths
to related themes, such as bullies and underdogs. These include The Bedlam
in Goliath (2008) by the progressive rock band Mars Volta;14 Goliath (2013)
by the heavy metal band Butcher Babies;15 Goliath (2014) by the alternative
rock band Steve Taylor & The Perfect Foil;16 Goliath (2017) by the Danish
experimental/art rock band Kellermensch;17 among others.
Art Clokey’s clay-animated children’s program Davey and Goliath (1961–
1964; 1971–1973), produced by the Lutheran Church in America, follows a
young boy, Davey Hansen, and his dog, Goliath. Davey was conceived as an
ordinary boy living a typical suburban life with his talking canine companion
(only heard by Davey and the viewers). Episodes mostly aim at character
building, with Davey getting into tight spots and seeking guidance from his
parents, teachers, and local religious leaders. The central message is that faith
in God is key to overcoming life’s challenges.18 Although the title signals its
biblical grounding, the titular characters are dear companions and the dog is
not abnormally large. Along with the show’s theocentric moralizing, many
episodes feature theme music from “A Mighty Fortress Is Our God” (“Ein
feste Burg ist unser Gott”), one of the best-known hymns of Martin Luther,
and display the Luther rose in the opening and/or closing.
Goliath II, a 1960 Disney animated short directed by Wolfgang Reitherman
with narration by Sterling Holloway (later the voice of Winnie the Pooh
and Kaa in The Jungle Book), follows a mouse-sized elephant boy whose
father, Goliath I, is the biggest elephant in all the jungle.19 The diminutive
protagonist gets lost one day while the herd is marching through the jungle.
Goliath II’s mother finds him trapped in a hole burrowed by a small animal.
Raja, a villainous tiger, has also tracked down the tiny elephant. Just as Raja
is about to grab hold of Goliath II, his mother sucks him out with her trunk.
The mother scolds her son for wandering off and places him in a nest high up
in a tree. Angered by the punishment, Goliath II sneaks away, vowing never
to return. But when Raja finds him, he cries out and his mother comes to the
rescue. The next morning, Goliath II’s mother spanks him with a branch and
the herd deems him a scoundrel, a rogue, and a traitorous deserter. Worse
still, Goliath I, his mighty father, is deeply disappointed. The elephants again
march proudly through the jungle, but this time they scatter in terror at the
sight of a mouse. The only one who is not afraid is Goliath II, who is roughly
the same size as the snarky rodent. The two get into a fight, Goliath II wins,
and he is celebrated as a courageous hero. The cartoon ends with Goliath II
sitting atop his father’s head in a place of honor.
Goliath II is notable for being Disney’s first cartoon to use the faster
and less costly Xerox technology to transfer animation drawings to cels. It
also appropriates the David and Goliath template in an unusual way. Here,
Goliath II plays the role of a young and unlikely hero who bravely faces an
Conclusion 117
intimidating foe while the other elephants cower in fear. The irony, of course,
is that the David-like hero is named for the biblical giant, while the role of
the haughty giant is played by a minuscule mouse. The mouse is not killed—
this is a G-rated “funny animal” film—but the ending is the same: Goliath II
defeats the enemy in single combat and, as a result, is elevated to “the very
highest position in the elephant herd.”
Another “in name only” iteration of David and Goliath is a three-issue
Image Comics series from 2003 by writer Jay Ju and penciler Leonel
Castellani.20 In this story, set in 1940s New York, Goliath is an overgrown,
ancient, mythical lion with wings and breath of fire. Nazi agents seek to har-
ness the powers of the beast, who is controlled by David, a ten-year-old boy
who keeps Goliath as a pet. While departing greatly from the biblical account,
the comic’s Goliath is nevertheless a brute force tamed by young David—
albeit in a relationship more in line with Davey and Goliath than with the
duelers of 1 Samuel 17.
“Goliath,” a short story by Neil Gaiman and illustrated by Bill Sienkiewicz
and Gregory Ruth, appeared in The Matrix Comics Series 121 (and was later
included in Gaiman’s short story anthology, Fragile Things22). The titular
hero is a genetically engineered, seven-foot-tall man sent to destroy an
organic alien ship orbiting the moon. Gaiman not only makes the enlarged
warrior a protagonist, but also has him pondering the nature of reality as
he bounces between our world and the “real” world, in the Matrix mold.
According to Prince of Stories: The Many Worlds of Neil Gaiman, the author
was initially asked to write the story in 1999 for the website of The Matrix
movie. The story went “live” about a week before the movie’s release.23
A very different Goliath is the lead character in Gargoyles (1994–
1997), a Disney-produced animated television series. The show centers
on tenth-century Scottish gargoyles who are reanimated in modern-day
Manhattan to serve as its nighttime protectors. Goliath received his name
in Scotland some time prior to his thousand-year sleep. Like many other
Goliaths, the name merely refers to his massive size; he is an intelligent hero
with a firm sense of morality.
The game realm is crowded with the Goliath name, where it is applied
to both heroes and foes, usually means “big,” can describe inanimate
objects, and occasionally has no obvious connection to the term. The fantasy
role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons includes a race of tall, reclusive
mountain dwellers called Goliaths, whose “bodies look as if they are carved
from mountain stone and give them great physical power.”24 In the military
science fiction video game Halo, Goliaths are super-heavy infantry units
comprised of Lekgolo colonies: worm-like creatures that join together for
specific purposes. Other examples include: Goliath Games, a toy and board
game company for young children and families; a bundle of chess programs
118 Chapter 6
smaller than the sun, and I am bigger than the ocean, but it does not matter,
because there is no one else like me. So, why does it matter to you if you are
big or small?”29 After reflecting on the moon’s wisdom, Goliath returns home
with an understanding that he is special in his uniqueness as all people are, no
matter their size. The lesson is not necessarily profound or original. However,
as one children’s book reviewer weary of “be yourself” books writes:
NOTES
30. “My Short Read of the Week: Goliath, The Boy Who Was Different,”
Childtasticbooks, https://childtasticbooks.wordpress.com/2019/03/21/
my-short-read-of-the-week-goliath-the-boy-who-was-different/.
31. Mordecai Richler, “He Who Laughs Last,” New York Times, September 23, 1984.
Appendix
Using and Reusing David and Goliath
Goliath: The U.S. War against Nicaragua.4 Rod Gragg’s study of the cap-
ture of the Confederacy’s largest coastal fortification is called Confederate
Goliath: The Battle of Fort Fisher.5 Robert W. Dickey’s Goliath of Panama
profiles the life of soldier and canal builder William Luther Sibert.6 Bismarck:
The Chase and Sinking of Hitler’s Goliath is G. H. Bennett’s account of how
the Royal Navy located, pursued, and attacked the Nazis’ most formidable
battleship.7
Political analysis is awash with the metaphor, including Giuseppe Antonio
Borgese’s Goliath: The March of Fascism,8 published in 1937, and journal-
ist David Harris’s Goliath, a Vietnam War–era rebuke of American power.9
These are joined by: Kathleen Bruhn’s Taking on Goliath: The Emergence
of a New Left Party and the Struggle for Democracy in Mexico;10 Michael
Mandelbaum’s The Case for Goliath: How America Acts as the World’s
Government in the Twenty-First Century;11 Glenn Reynolds’s An Army of
Davids: How Markets and Technology Empower Ordinary People to Beat Big
Media, Big Government, and Other Goliaths;12 Harold Ford Jr.’s More Davids
Than Goliaths: A Political Education;13 Jeffrey Record’s Beating Goliath:
Why Insurgencies Win;14 Max Blumenthal’s Goliath: Life and Loathing in
Greater Israel;15 Shraga Simmons’s David & Goliath: The Explosive Inside
Story of Media Bias in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict;16 Joshua Muravchik’s
Making David into Goliath: How the World Turned Against Israel;17 A. K.
Bhattacharya’s Rise of Goliath: Twelve Disruptions that Changed India;18 and
Sean McFate’s Goliath: Why the West Doesn’t Win Wars. And What We Need
to Do About It;19 among others.
Books on cybersecurity and the Internet age include Nicco Mele’s The End
of Big: How the Internet Makes David the New Goliath20 and Bruce Schneier’s
Data and Goliath: The Hidden Battles to Collect Your Data and Control Your
World.21 Education advocates on the left and right have used the metaphor,
including Diane Ravitch’s Slaying Goliath: The Passionate Resistance to
Privatization and the Fight to Save America’s Public Schools22 and Rebecca
Friedrichs’s Standing Up to Goliath: Battling State and National Teachers’
Unions for the Heart and Soul of Our Kids and Country.23 Business and law
books further the trend: Michael Louis Minns’s How to Survive the IRS:
My Battles Against Goliath;24 Howard M. Guttman’s When Goliaths Clash:
Managing Executive Conflict to Build a More Dynamic Organization;25
Vince Megna’s Bring on Goliath: Lemon Law Justice in America;26 James
DeFilippis’s Unmaking Goliath: Community Control in the Face of Global
Capital;27 Willem Meiners’s How to Upset a Goliath Book Biz: The Inside
Story of an Underdog with a Bite;28 Kip Petroff’s Battling Goliath: Inside
a $22 Billion Legal Scandal;29 Jim Dotson’s Taking on Goliath: Dotson
vs. Pfizer—A Collision of Personal and Corporate Values;30 Jeffrey Alan
Appendix 125
Winning the Battle Against Your Giants;55 Clemon Hodge’s Goodbye Goliath:
One Man’s Journey to Sobriety;56 Pearl Heart’s I Beat Goliath: My Life’s
Journey;57 to name a handful.
Goliath’s name is used in numerous fiction genres. The name appears
either as a synonym for “huge,” a reference to the giant himself, or short-
hand for a battle against powerful enemies. Science fiction and fantasy titles
include William F. Temple’s 1962 The Automated Goliath,58 two steampunk
novels—Scott Westerfeld’s Goliath59 and Ishbelle Bee’s The Singular and
Extraordinary Tale of Mirror and Goliath: The Peculiar Adventures of John
Loveheart, Esq., Volume I60—and three space-and-alien sagas—Adam J.
Whitlatch’s War of the Worlds: Goliath (a novelization of the animated film),61
C. P. James’s Goliath: Only Vengeance Remains,62 and J. G. Ogden’s Goliath
Emerges.63 Suzanne Leonhard’s The Goliath Code presents a post-apocalyptic
survival story.64 Larry Niven and Matthew Joseph Harrington’s The Goliath
Stone tells of an asteroid on a collision course with Earth.65
Five twenty-first-century thrillers share the title Goliath: Steve Alten’s
novel involving a stingray-shaped, football field–length nuclear submarine;66
Van Pornaras’s book about a man on the run who knows who “really” shot
Kennedy and orchestrated 9/11;67 Ernest A. Briginshaw’s story of a manic
man who thinks he is the Bible character;68 Shawn Corridan and Gary Waid’s
novel about a gigantic oil tanker burning in the north Pacific Rim;69 and
Richard Turner’s story about a British airship that mysteriously disappears.70
Mickey Spillane and Max Allan Collins’s mystery The Goliath Bone takes a
more literal turn, centering on a preserved femur that may have belonged to
the ancient giant.71 Other recent fiction works include S. M. Atwood’s Goliath
Fell,72 Michael Hyde’s Surfing Goliath,73 Paul Round’s Goliath’s Eye,74 Brad
Smith’s The Goliath Run,75 and Steven Thompson’s David’s Goliath: If You
Found a Book That Told the Story of Your Life, Would You Read On?76
A host of academic papers also borrow the David and Goliath metaphor,
illustrating how the two names, placed side by side, can apply to virtually any
“little versus big” scenario: Haridimos Tsoukas’s “David and Goliath in the
Risk Society: Making Sense of the Conflict between Shell and Greenpeace
in the North Sea”;77 L. E. Beutler’s “David and Goliath: When Empirical
and Clinical Standards of Practice Meet”;78 Fleur L. Strand’s “David
and Goliath: The Slingshot That Started the Neuropeptide Revolution”;79
Wilfred Amaldoss and Sanjay Jain’s “David vs. Goliath: An Analysis of
Asymmetric Mixed-Strategy Games and Experimental Evidence”;80 Andrea
Hemetsberger’s “When David Becomes Goliath: Ideological Discourse in
New Online Consumer Movements”;81 S. C. Voelpel, R. A. Eckhoff, and
J. Förster’s “David against Goliath? Group Size and Bystander Effects in
Virtual Knowledge Sharing”;82 Jennifer M. Brinkerhoff’s “David and Goliath:
Appendix 127
NOTES
40. Barbara Wolcott, David, Goliath and the Beach Cleaning Machine: How a
Small California Town Fought an Oil Giant and Won (Sterling, VA: Capital, 2003).
41. Chris Spealler, Speal: A David and Goliath Story (Cheltenham, UK: Icon, 2018).
42. Max Lucado, Facing Your Giants: God Still Does the Impossible (Nashville:
Thomas Nelson, 2006), 2–3.
43. Ibid., 6.
44. Rob Marshall, Taking on Goliath: How to Unleash the David in All of Us (New
York: Morgan James, 2006).
45. Barbara J. Yoder, Taking on Goliath: How to Stand Against the Spiritual
Enemies in Your Life and Win (Lake Mary, FL: Charisma, 2008).
46. Steven A. Cramer, Conquering Your Own Goliaths (Springville, UT: Cedar
Fort, 2011).
47. Joseph Haulbrook, A Sling and a Stone: Courageously Overcoming Goliath
from the Inside Out (Scott’s Valley, CA: CreateSpace, 2012).
48. J. P. Jones, Facing Goliath: How a Man Overcomes His Giants to Follow Christ
(Ada, MI: Baker, 2013).
49. Stefan Langer, David Beats Goliath (Bloomington, IN: Balboa, 2013).
50. David Lyons, David’s Goliath: Winning the Battle against All Odds (Abilene,
TX: Leafwood, 2013).
51. Austin O. Romanus, How to Kill a Goliath: David’s Secret Revealed
(Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2014).
52. Art Briles, Beating Goliath: My Story of Football and Faith, with Dan Yaeger
(New York: St. Martin’s, 2014).
53. D. K. Olukoya, Kill Your Goliath by Fire (Lagos: The Battle Cry Christian
Ministries, 2016).
54. Rita Klundt, Goliath’s Mountain (Bloomington, IN: Westbow, 2017).
55. Louie Giglio, Goliath Must Fall: Winning the Battle Against Your Giants (New
York: Thomas Nelson, 2017).
56. Clemon Hodge, Goodbye Goliath: One Man’s Journey to Sobriety (Morrisville,
NC: Lulu, 2018).
57. Pearl Heart, I Beat Goliath: My Life’s Journey (Bloomington, IN:
AuthorHouse, 2019).
58. William F. Temple, The Automated Goliath (New York: Ace, 1962).
59. Scott Westerfeld, Goliath (New York: Simon and Shuster UK, 2011).
60. Ishbelle Bee, The Singular and Extraordinary Tale of Mirror and Goliath:
The Peculiar Adventures of John Loveheart, ESQ. Vol I (Collingwood, VIC:
ReadHowYouWant, 2016).
61. Adam J. Whitlatch, War of the Worlds: Goliath (N.p.: Latchkey, 2018).
62. C. P. James, Goliath: Only Vengeance Remains (N.p.: Independently pub-
lished, 2020).
63. J. G. Ogden, Goliath Emerges (N.p.: Ogden Media, 2020).
64. Suzanne Leonhard, The Goliath Code (N.p.: independently published, 2017).
65. Larry Niven and Matthew Joseph Harrington, The Goliath Stone (New York:
Tor Science Fiction, 2014).
66. Steve Alten, Goliath (New York: Macmillan, 2002).
130 Appendix
67. Van Pornaras, Goliath (Rancho Mirage, CA: We Publish Books, 2004).
68. Ernest A. Briginshaw, Goliath (N.p.: Ernest A. Briginshaw, 2014).
69. Shawn Corridan and Gary Waid, Goliath: A Thriller (Sarasota, FL:
Oceanview, 2016).
70. Richard Turner, Goliath: A Ryan Mitchell Thriller (N.p.: independently pub-
lished, 2020).
71. Mickey Spillane and Max Allan Collins, The Goliath Bone (New York:
Harcourt, 2008).
72. S. M. Atwood, Goliath Fell (Bloomington, IN: Xlibris, 2013).
73. Michael Hyde, Surfing Goliath (Sydney: Hachette Australia, 2012).
74. Paul Round, Goliath’s Eye (Leicester, UK: Troubador, 2016).
75. Brad Smith, The Goliath Run (Winnipeg: At Bay Press, 2020).
76. Steven Thompson, David’s Goliath: If You Found a Book That Told the Story of
Your Life, Would You Read On? (N.p.: independently published, 2017).
77. Haridimos Tsoukas, “David and Goliath in the Risk Society: Making Sense
of the Conflict between Shell and Greenpeace in the North Sea,” Organization 6:3
(1999): 499–528.
78. L. E. Beutler, “David and Goliath: When Empirical and Clinical Standards of
Practice Meet,” American Psychologist 55:9 (2000): 997–1007.
79. Fleur L. Strand, “David and Goliath: The Slingshot That Started the Neuropeptide
Revolution,” European Journal of Pharmacology 405:1–3 (2000): 3–12.
80. Wilfred Amaldoss and Sanjay Jain, “David vs. Goliath: An Analysis of
Asymmetric Mixed-Strategy Games and Experimental Evidence,” Management
Science 48:8 (2002): 955–1101.
81. Andrea Hemetsberger, “When David Becomes Goliath: Ideological Discourse
in New Online Consumer Movements,” NA—Advances in Consumer Research 33
(2006): 494–500.
82. S. C. Voelpel, R. A. Eckhoff, and J. Förster, “David against Goliath? Group
Size and Bystander Effects in Virtual Knowledge Sharing,” Human Relations 61:2
(2008): 271–95.
83. Jennifer M. Brinkerhoff, “David and Goliath: Diaspora Organizations as
Partners in the Development Industry,” Public Administration and Development 31:1
(2011): 37–49.
84. Carla H. Jeffries et al., “The David and Goliath Principle: Cultural, Ideological,
and Attitudinal Underpinnings of the Normative Protection of Low-Status Groups
from Criticism,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 38:8 (2012): 1053–65.
85. Fajar S. A. Prabowo and Raden Aswin Rahadi, “David vs. Goliath: Uncovering
the Future of Traditional Markets in Indonesia,” Mediterranean Journal of Social
Sciences 6:5 (2015): 28–36.
86. Eduardo Silva, “Patagonia, without Dams! Lessons of a David vs. Goliath
Campaign,” The Extractive Industries and Society 3:4 (2016): 947–57.
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Index
149
150 Index
Dagon, 44, 50, 51, 52, 53, 56, 101, 102 Famous Funnies, 97
Dahl, Roald, 17 Fantastic Four, 88
Daigoro vs. Goliath, 115 Feldman, Ruth Tenzer, 49
Dallas, 60–61 Finkelstein, Israel, 7, 55, 56
Index 151
Samson, 57–58, 59, 75, 87, 88, 89, 97, Struycken, Carel, 73
99, 105–106, 114 Sulpicius Severus, 13
Sargon of Akkad, 33 Superman, 87–88, 104, 105–106
Satan, 10, 51, 53, 91, 102 Superman’s Girlfriend Lois Lane, 106
Saul, 13, 21, 22, 27, 28–29, 30, 33–34, Superman’s Pal Jimmy Olsen, 104–106
36, 44, 45, 46, 53, 54, 66, 75, 79, Survivor: David vs. Goliath, 15
91, 92, 93, 95–96, 99, 101, 103– Swan, Curt, 104
104, 105, 108 The Sword of Goliath, 27
Schiller, Friedrich, 56
The Scripture Stories Retold for Young Tales from the Crypt, 97
Israel, 91 Tales from the Great Book, 97–98, 100
Seduction of the Innocent, 96 Tao Te Ching, 41
Selman, Matt, 57 Tapagoz, 13
Senate Subcommittee to Investigate Tarzan, 97
Juvenile Delinquency, 96 Tell es-Safi, 30
Sensation Comics, 95 The Ten Commandments, 97
Septuagint, 28–29, 30, 68 The Terminator, 100, 102
The Seven Basic Plots, 12, 33–34 Thardid Jimbo, 13
Shakespeare, William, 60 Theseus, 12
Sharlin, William, 48 Thor, 88
Shimizu, Yuko, 85 “The Three Little Pigs,” 34
shofar, 30, 45, 106 threes (biblical trope), 34–35
Shoopman, James, 11 Thurse, 13
Sibbecai the Hushathite, 26 Tintin, 85
Sienkiewicz, Bill, 117 Tipping Point, 70
Sihon, 24–25 Titus Andronicus, 60
Silber, Mendel, 91 Tom Corbett, Space Cadet, 97
The Simpsons, 57–59 Töpffer, Rodolphe, 87
Sir Galahad, 11 Torah chant, vii
Six Flags, 118 Twain, Mark, 1–2
Solomon, 44, 58, 59, 104
Sondheim, Stephen, 17 Umaga, 78
Southern Poverty Law Center, 101 “The Under Dog in the Fight,” 10
The Spanish Tragedy, 60
Spartacus, 100 Vorys Mort, 17
Speculum humanae salvationis, 10
Sprecher, Stanley, 67 War of the Worlds: Goliath, 115
Star Trek: The Next Generation, 15–16 “The War Prayer,” 1–2
Star Trek: Voyager, 15 Warhammer 40,000, 117
Star Wars, 12 Weisinger, Mort, 105
Stargate SG-1, 15 Welles, Orson, 99
Steve Taylor & The Perfect Foil, 116 Wells, H. G., 115
Stevens, Dave, 74 Wertham, Fredric, 96
Stewart, R. J., 49 Weston, Jessie L., 11
The Story of David, 52–53 Wheeler, Shannon, 4
Index 155
157