INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
HARLOW AND CONTACT COMFORT:

● The importance of touch and comfort in the development among mammals.

Having close friends and staying in contact with family members is associated
with health benefits!

● Such as protecting against heart disease, infection, diabetes and cancer, and
with living longer and more actively
● The connection between physical health and mental health is that the brain
produces Oxcytocin (the cuddle hormone) when we are arround our loved ones.
● Oxytocin combats Cortisol hormones (the stress hormone) which can improve
our physical health.
● More Cortisol or Stress can cause heart disease, infection, diabetes and cancer
● It is said that Oxcytocin is present in mother’s breast milk and that is why some
babies cry when they are not with their mothers.

Children who are socially excluded from activities by their peers are more likely
than other children to suffer academically

● As well as socially in school, even several years later.

● This is because Children would not be used to socializing and expressing their
feelings when they are not around other children and socialize.
● Think having a college friend group while studying: You are able to destress with
them and also be comforted with knowing that there are people with you.

Experiencing a social rejection or loss is so painful that it produces activity in the

same parts of the brain as when we feel physical pain

● Being treated well and fairly by other people, on the other hand, activates parts of
the brain associated with physical rewards such as desirable food and drink
● Think times that you may have felt heartbroken. It is said that social rejection can
cause the same pain to us physically and emotionally.

As many doctors can tell you, there is something very real about a broken heart

● For example, a person is more than twice as likely than usual to suffer a heart
attack within the month following the death of a loved one
● There are some couples that if one dies, in a span of a month the other follows
suit with either a heart attack or a sudden death.
 ○ This is due to this and that they heartbreak was so painful it also killed
them metaphorically and literally.
● Loosing a loved one is like loosing something in your life.
○ The social connection and relationship can bring dread and pain towards
you.

HARLOW AND CONTACT COMFORT

The infant's need for physical closeness and touching is referred to as contact
comfort. Contact comfort is believed to be the foundation for attachment. The
Harlows' studies confirmed that babies have social as well as physical needs. Both
monkeys and human babies need a secure base that allows them to feel safe. x

Harlow's work showed that infants also turned to inanimate surrogate mothers for
comfort when they were faced with new and scary situations. x

BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL OF HEALTH AND DISEASE

● First developed by cardiologist Dr. George Engel

● Suggests that biological, psychological and social factors are all interlinked and
important with regard to promoting health or causing disease

SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
FACTORS

● Cultural Traditions ● Beliefs ● Physical Health

● Social Support ● Personality ● Disabilities
(church, family), Sense ● Self-esteem ● Genetic
of Community ● Coping Skills Predisposition
● Education/School ● Emotions ● Neurochemistry
Stressors ● Social Skills ● Immune Response
● Socio-economic Status
● Social Deprivation
● Social Disadvantage

● EXAMPLE: You managed to get Covid-19

○ Social: The person could have a different socio-economic status and
would be less likely to be that well informed about Covid-19, hence whyt
they may be unable to follow guidelines and contract the virus.
○ Psychological: The person would have very pessimistic and have a bad
outlook in life that they may contract the virus and unable to recover
because they don’t see themselves getting better.
 ○ Biological: The person may have very low immune response due to lack
of sleep, exercise, or nutrients and that is why they managed to contract
the virus.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR & TECHNOLOGY

● Due to the pandemic, we have moved all our socialization and meet ups into the
digital space.
○ With apps like Facebook Messenger: Viber: Yahoo Messenger, Skype,
Tinder, and etc.

COLLECTIVE AMONG ASIANS

● Social rules focus on promoting selflessness and putting the community needs
ahead of individual needs
● People are encouraged to do what’s best for society
● Working as a group and supporting others is essential
● Families and communities have a central role

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

● 1943 paper titled “A Theory of Human Motivation”

● American psychologist Abraham Maslow theorized that human decision-making
is undergirded by a hierarchy of psychological needs
● A theory of motivation which states that five categories of human needs dictate
an individual’s behavior

NEED MEANING

Self-actualization Achieving one’s full potential, including creative activities

Esteem Needs Prestige and feeling of accomplishment

Belongingness and Love Intimate relationships, friends

Needs

Safety Needs Security, safety

Physiological Needs Food, water, warmth, rest

● Self-fulfillment Needs
○ Self-Actualization
● Psychological Needs
○ Esteem Needs
○ Belongingness and Love Needs
● Basic Needs
○ Safety Needs
○ Physiological Needs

LOVE AND BELONGING NEEDS

● Relate to human interaction and are the last of the so-called lower needs
● Among these needs are friendships and family bonds — both with biological
family (parents, siblings, children) and chosen family (spouses and partners)
● Physical and emotional intimacy ranging from sexual relationships to intimate
emotional bonds are important to achieving a feeling of elevated kinship
● Membership in social groups contributes to meeting this need, from belonging to
a team of coworkers to forging an identity in a union, club, or group of
hobbyists

WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY?

● Scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context
● Scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one
another
● Scientific study of how people affect and are affected by others
● The Power of Situation VS What’s within the individual (personality traits,
motivations/drives, memories, needs, etc.)
● Social Thinking
○ How we perceive ourselves and others
○ What we believe
○ Judgements we make
○ Our attitudes
● Social Influence
○ Culture
○ Pressures to conform
○ Persuasion
○ Groups of People
● Social Relations
○ Prejudice
○ Aggression
○ Attraction and intimacy
 ○ Helping

ABC

● Affect - how people feel about themselves (self-esteem), feel about others
(prejudice), or how they feel about various issues (attitudes)
● Behavior - what people do, their actions (joining groups, helping, hurting, loving
behaviors)
● Cognition - what people think about

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY’S PLACE IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

● Anthropology - study of human culture

○ Human culture consists of the shared values, beliefs, and practices of a
group of people
● Sociology - the study of human societies and the groups that form those
societies
○ Sociologists start with large units such as religion, government,
organizations, but social psychologists tend to start from the
individual
● Political Science - the study of political organizations and institutions
○ Social Psychologists study political behavior (voting, party identification,
political advertising, etc.)
● History - the study of past events
● Economics - the study of the production, distribution and consumption of goods
and services
 Research methods in socpsy
Scientific Method
● Formulate testable questions
● Develop a hypothesis
○ Hypothesis – tentative statement about the relationship between the
variables.
○ Variables – factors that can vary in ways that can be measured, observed
and verified.
● Test the hypothesis
● Design study to collect data
○ Experimental
○ Descriptive
● Analyze data to arrive at a conclusions
○ Use of statistical procedures
● Report results
○ Publication
○ Replication

NON- EXPERIMENTAL/ descriptive APPROACHES

● Involves a close examination of the experiences and meaning-making
activities
Phenome ● Rather than looking at behaviors and events that are external to us, it
nology begins with our own experience as a source of data.
● Qualitative data from research participants using techniques such as
interview, diaries, or focus group.
● Asking open-ended questions allowing the experiences of respondents to
emerge.
● involve a close examination of the experiences and meaning-making
activities
● DATA ANALYSIS – RECORDING, TRANSCRIBING, CODING, LOOKING
FOR THEMES
● Themes are recurring patterns of meaning (ideas, thoughts, feelings)
throughout the text. hemes are likely to identify both something that matters
to the participants (i.e. an object of concern, topic of some import) and also
convey something of the meaning of that thing, for the participants

Example 1:
E.g. in a study of the experiences of young people learning to drive, we might find
themes like 'Driving as a rite of passage' (where one key psychosocial
understanding of the meaning of learning to drive, is that it marks a cultural
threshold between adolescence and adulthood).
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Example 2:
Becoming and Being HIV-positive: The Subjective Experience of Young
Filipino Gay Men Living with HIV
BY: NICO CANOY AND M.A. OFRENEO

This research examined the lived experiences of young Filipino gay men living with
HIV. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was utilized as the lens to explore
patterns of meaning-making within a year after HIV diagnosis. Using data from a
focus group discussion (FGD), data analysis produced a synthesis of seven
individual cases. Following Smith’s (2007) recommendation in using FGDs, a rich
and detailed exploration of one case was used as an illustration. Overall results
showed superordinate themes centering on young gay men’s (1) experiences of
HIV testing and the process of othering in the workplace, (2) experiences of
emotional struggles and the process of disclosure in the family, and (3)
experiences of coming to terms with their HIV status and the process of
reconstructing the self. Theoretical and practical reflections of lived experiences
embedded in contexts and across time are discussed. A call for a
phenomenologically-guided intervention for HIV is needed towards the sensitive
and humane treatment of young gay men living with HIV

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PHENOMENOLOGICAL

STUDIES
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
● Data rich ● Findings are difficult to generalize.
● Help understand ● Data is often difficult in access, analysis
people’s meanings and summarization.
● In-depth and wholistic ● Subjectivity of the data leads --- low validity
understanding of and reliability.
individual phenomena
● Contribute to the
development of new
theories.

OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
> The act of recognizing and noting facts or occurrences.
● DIRECT OBSERVATION – observe behavior “present” while it occurs.
● 2 Types:
1. Observation Without Intervention ( Naturalistic)
2. Observation With Intervention
a. Participant Observation
b. Structured Observation
c. Field Experiment
 ● INTERVENTION – refers to change or create a context for observation.
● NATURAL OBSERVATION
○ This is a type of field research, where you gather data about a
behaviour or phenomenon in its natural environment without
intervening.
○ This method often involves recording, counting, describing and
categorizing actions and events. Naturalistic observation can include
both qualitative and quantitative elements, but to find correlation, you
focus on data that can be analyzed quantitatively (e.g. frequencies,
durations, scales and amounts).
○ Eliminates researcher influence and respondent inaccuracy that
might affect the variables
○ Can be time-consuming and unpredictable
○ During the naturalistic observation, the observer remains
unobstrusive so that the behaviors observed are not altered by the
presence of the observer.
○ Controlled Observation
○ Controlled observations (structured observation) are likely to be
carried out in a psychology laboratory.
○ The researcher decides where the observation will take place, at
what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and uses a
standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each
independent variable group.
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Example 3:
AINSWORTH’S STRANGE SITUATION
Mary Ainsworth used a behavior schedule to study how infants responded to brief
periods of separation from their mothers. During the Strange Situation procedure
infant's interaction behaviors directed toward the mother were measured, e.g.
● Proximity and contacting seeking
● Contact maintaining
● Avoidance of proximity and contact
● Resistance to contact and comforting
● The observer noted down the behavior displayed during 15-second intervals
and scored the behavior for intensity on a scale of 1 to 7.
In this procedure of the Strange Situation the child is observed playing for 21
minutes while caregivers and strangers enter and leave the room, recreating the
flow of the familiar and unfamiliar presence in most children's lives. The situation
varies in stressfulness and the child's responses are observed. The child
experiences the following situations:
1. Parent and infant are introduced to the experimental room.
2. Parent and infant are alone. Parent does not participate while infant
explores.
3. Stranger enters, converses with parent, then approaches infant. Parent
leaves conspicuously.
4. First separation episode: Stranger's behavior is geared to that of infant.
5. First reunion episode: Parent greets and comforts infant, then leaves again.
6. Second separation episode: Infant is alone.
7. Continuation of second separation episode: Stranger enters and gears
 behavior to that of infant.
8. Second reunion episode: Parent enters, greets infant, and picks up infant;
stranger leaves conspicuously.
9. Four aspects of the child's behavior are observed:
10. The amount of exploration (e.g. playing with new toys) the child engages in
throughout.
11. The child's reactions to the departure of its caregiver.
12. The stranger anxiety (when the baby is alone with the stranger).
13. The child's reunion behavior with its caregiver.
14. On the basis of their behaviours, the children were categorized into three
groups, with a fourth added later. Each of these groups reflects a different
kind of attachment relationship with the caregiver.
15. Four patterns of attachment

Example 2: Yerkes-Dodson Law: Inverted U Hypothesis

Example 3: Robert Zanjonc’s Activation Theory

● Is one that is designed to determine the degree of relationship between two

or more variables such as traits, behaviors or events.
Correlatio ● Does not try to control variables or randomly assign participants to groups.
nal The researcher merely OBSERVES whether variables go together normally.
Studies SO, IT DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION.
● It does not allow the researcher to conclude that the CHANGES in one
variable causes the changes in the other variable.
● 3 Possible Explanations:
1. X could cause Y (Education Money)
2. Y could cause X (Money - Education)
3. some other variables (Z) could cause X & Y

Example:
The Ice Cream correlation

Background: It was recently reported that the rise in ice cream sales correlated
with an increase in homicides. Unless ice cream trucks are murdering people, then
this correlation is just a coincidence.

Research question:Are more crimes committed when it is hot out and less when
it is cold? Let’s look at what the data show.

Result and Conclusion:

● Evidence links people’s inclination to head outside in warm weather with a
heightened possibility of criminal activity, and some researchers (but not all)
believe that hot temperatures can heighten irritability and aggressive
behavior.
● The weather doesn’t cause crime, of course. It is people’s actions that lead
to violence. Are there other reasons for this increase? There could be more
 police on patrol in the summer to catch the criminals. Another reason for the
increase could just be that there are more chances with the population
increasing outdoors. However, many of these studies were done with
climate change in mind. With the temperature of the planet expected to rise
over the coming decades, will crime also rise? While many countries have
air-conditioning, third world ones don’t have this advantage. An increase in
temperature can also be linked to famine. Will these areas experience more
wars as their environments heat up? Only time will tell.
The results suggest that human geography plays a large role in mitigating the
negative effects of extreme heat on crime ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CORRELATIONAL

STUDIES
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
● Allows researchers to ● Poor survey construction and
collect a large amount administration can undermine
of data in a relatively well-designed studies.
short period. ● The answer choices provided in a survey
● Surveys can be may not be an accurate reflection of how
created quickly and the participants actually feel.
administered easily. ● While random sampling is generally used
● Surveys are less to select participants, response rates can
expensive than many bias the results of a survey.
other data collection ● The social desirability bias can lead people
techniques. to respond in a way that makes them look
● Surveys can be used to better than they really are. For example, a
collect information on a respondent might report that they engage
broad range of things, in more healthy behaviors than they do in
including personal real life.
facts, attitudes, past
behaviors, and
opinions. Sensitive
information can be
gathered as well

● Relationships between pairs of scores from each subject are known as

simple correlations. The PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT (r) is the most commonly used procedure
for calculating simple correlations.

DIRECTION OF CORRELATION
● POSITIVE (Direct Relationship) - Ex. College Exam score & GPA, Height
and weight, education and income
● NEGATIVE (Inverse Relationship)
 ● ZERO (No Correlation)

FORM (SHAPE) OF A RELATIONSHIP

● LINEAR : A straight relationship is called linear, because it approximates a
straight line.
● CURVILINEAR CORRELATION – one variable increases as the other
increases until the relationship between X and Y that begins as positive
becomes negative.

Social researchers seek to establish a straight-line correlation whether positive or negative.

It is important to note that not all rel between x and y can form a straight line.

DEGREE (STRENGTH) OF A RELATIONSHIP

● Correlation coefficient measures the degree (strength) of the relationship
between two variables. The measures we discuss only measure the
strength of the linear relationship between two variables. Numerically
express both the strength and direction of a straight-line correlation.
-1.00 -- Perfect Negative Correlation
-0.60 – Strong Negative Correlation
-0.30 – Moderate Negative Correlation
-0.10 – Weak Negative Correlation
.00 – No Correlation
+0.10 – Weak Positive Correlation
+0.30 – Moderate Positive Correlation
+0.60 – Strong Positive Correlation
+1.00 – Perfect Positive Correlation
Process:
● The traits or behaviors of interest and measured first.
● Numbers are recorded.
● The correlation or degree of relationship is determined through statistical
procedures.
● Scatterplot – visual representation of the data. researcher’s first step
toward analyzing correlational data.
● Regression Line / Line of Best Fit – the line drawn on the scatterplots
The degree of association, the closer to 1.00 in either direction, the greater the
strength of the correlation. The strength of a correlation is independent of its
direction.. +80 and -0.80 have equal strength

Where and why we use correlation?

Prediction: Correlations can be used to help make predictions. If two variables

have been known in the past to correlate, then we can assume they will continue
to correlate in the future. We can use the value of one variable that is known now
to predict the value that the other variable will take on in the future. For example,
we require high school students to take the SAT exam because we know that in
the past SAT scores correlated well with the GPA scores that the students get
when they are in college. Thus, we predict high SAT scores will lead to high GPA
scores, and conversely.
Validity: Suppose we have developed a new test of intelligence. We can determine
if it is really measuring intelligence by correlating the new test's scores with, for
example, the scores that the same people get on standardized IQ tests, or their
scores on problem solving ability tests, or their performance on learning tasks, etc.
This is a process for validating the new test of intelligence. The process is based
on correlation.

Reliability: Correlations can be used to determine the reliability of some

measurement process. For example, we could administer our new IQ test on two
different occasions to the same group of people and see what the correlation is. If
the correlation is high, the test is reliable. If it is low, it is not.

Theory Verification: Many Psychological theories make specific predictions about

the relationship between two variables. For example, it is predicted that parents
and children's intelligences are positively related. We can test this prediction by
administering IQ tests to the parents and their children, and measuring the
correlation between the two scores.
 ● Designed to investigate opinions, behaviors or characteristics of a particular
group.
SURVEY ● Usually in self-report form/survey questionnaire or an interview
TECHNIQ ● Techniques of interviews and questionnaires are used in field settings.
UE ● Can be used to investigate the characteristics, behaviors or opinions of
group or person.
● Example: demography, experiences, opinions and hypothetical scenarios

SURVEY TECHNIQUES
● Mail — An example might include an alumni survey distributed via direct
mail by your alma mater.
● Telephone — An example of a telephone survey would be a market
research call about your experiences with a certain consumer product.
● Online — Online surveys might focus on your experience with a particular
retailer, product, or website.
● At home interviews — Government aided interviews

Instrument > a carefully pre tested questionnaire. Easier to administer, more

economical and ensuring the anonymity of respondents.

Sampling > should be representative of the population being studied.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE SURVEY

TECHNIQUE
ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
● It allows us to gather ● Does not guarantee that the respondents
data about will be honest because of Social
experiences, feelings, Desirability (- tendency of participants to
thoughts and motives put them in a positive light)
that are hard to
observe directly.

LONGITU LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

● It is a type of correlational research that involves looking at variables over
DINAL an extended period of time. This type of study can take place over a period
STUDIES of weeks, months, or even years. In some cases, longitudinal studies can
last several decades
● Involves study, over time, of a group of people, or of samples from the same
population, using records, interviews, or both. Studies which extend over a
long period, which are prospective.
● because changes in each individual’s responses are assessed, it’s easier to
investigate reasons for attitude or behavior changes.
● the best survey design when a researcher wishes to assess the effect of
some naturally occurring event
● Ways of gathering Data:
 ○ Questionnaire
○ Interview

Why would researchers want to conduct studies that take a very long time to
complete?
● A longitudinal study can be used to discover relationships between
variables that are not related to various background variables. This
observational research technique involves studying the same group of
individuals over an extended period.
● Data is first collected at the outset of the study, and may then be repeatedly
gathered throughout the length of the study. Doing this also allows
researchers to observe how variables may change over time.
● For example, imagine that a group of researchers is interested in studying
how exercise during middle age might impact cognitive health as people
age. The researchers hypothesize that people who are more physically fit in
their 40s and 50s will be less likely to experience cognitive declines in their
70s and 80s.

The longitudinal method has been used to investigate criminal careers,

especially the incidence and prevalence of official delinquency at different ages,
the peak age for convictions, the relationship between juvenile delinquency and
adult crime, and offense specialization.

Types of Longitudinal Research

There are three major types of longitudinal studies:
1. Panel study: Involves sampling a cross-section of individuals.
2. Cohort study: Involves selecting a group based on a specific event such as
birth, geographic location, or historical experience.
3. Retrospective study: Involves looking to the past by looking at historical
information such as medical records.

CROSS CROSS SECTIONAL STUDIES

● A cross-sectional study involves looking at data from a population at one
SECTION specific point in time. The participants in this type of study are selected
AL based on particular variables of interest.
STUDIES ● This study type is also known as cross-sectional analysis, transverse study,
or prevalence study.
● The study takes place at a single point in time
● It allows researchers to look at numerous characteristics at once (age,
income, gender, etc.).
● It's often used to look at the prevailing characteristics in a given population
● It can provide information about what is happening in a current population
 Cross-sectional studies are observational in nature and are known as
descriptive research, not causal or relational, meaning that you can't use them to
determine the cause of something, such as a disease. Researchers record the
information that is present in a population, but they do not manipulate variables.

This type of research can be used to describe characteristics that exist in a

community, but not to determine cause-and-effect relationships between
different variables. This method is often used to make inferences about possible
relationships or to gather preliminary data to support further research and
experimentation.

EXPERIM EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

● Experiments are an excellent data collection strategy for social workers
ENTAL wishing to observe the effects of a clinical intervention or social welfare
METHOD program. Understanding what experiments are and how they are conducted
is useful for all social scientists, whether they plan to use this methodology
or simply understand findings of experimental studies. An experiment is a
method of data collection designed to test hypotheses under controlled
conditions. Students in my research methods classes often use the term
experiment to describe all kinds of research projects, but in social scientific
research, the term has a unique meaning and should not be used to
describe all research methodologies.

● Experiments have a long and important history in social science.

Behaviorists such as John Watson, B. F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, and Albert
Bandura used experimental designs to demonstrate the various types of
conditioning. Using strictly controlled environments, behaviorists were able
to isolate a single stimulus as the cause of measurable differences in
behavior or physiological responses. The foundations of social learning
theory and behavior modification are found in experimental research
projects. Moreover, behaviorist experiments brought psychology and social
science away from the abstract world of Freudian analysis and towards
empirical inquiry, grounded in real-world observations and
objectively-defined variables. Experiments are used at all levels of social
work inquiry, including agency-based experiments that test therapeutic
interventions and policy experiments that test new programs.

Experimental designs in psychology

● A true experiment attempts to isolate cause and effect and to eliminate
alternative explanations of observed relationships between variables.
● In a true experiment, an independent variable is manipulated and all other
salient variables are controlled inc. random allocation of participants to
conditions.
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Example 1:

The marshmallow test is one of the most famous pieces of social-science

research: Put a marshmallow in front of a child, tell her that she can have a second
one if she can go 15 minutes without eating the first one, and then leave the room.
Whether she’s patient enough to double her payout is supposedly indicative of a
willpower that will pay dividends down the line, at school and eventually at work.

The Stanford marshmallow experiment was a study on delayed gratification in

1972 led by psychologist Walter Mischel, a professor at Stanford University.[1] In
this study, a child was offered a choice between one small but immediate reward,
or two small rewards if they waited for a period of time. During this time, the
researcher left the room for about 15 minutes and then returned. The reward was
either a marshmallow or pretzel stick, depending on the child's preference. In
follow-up studies, the researchers found that children who were able to wait longer
for the preferred rewards tended to have better life outcomes, as measured by
SAT scores,[2] educational attainment,[3] body mass index (BMI),[4] and other life
measures

This first experiment took place at Stanford University in 1970. The participants
were 32 children. The children were led into a room, empty of distractions, where a
treat of their choice (either two animal cookies or five pretzel sticks) were placed
on a table.[1] The researchers let the children know they could eat the treat, but if
they waited 15 minutes without giving in to the temptation, they would be rewarded
with a second treat.[1] Mischel and Ebbesen observed, "(some children) covered
their eyes with their hands, rested their heads on their arms, and found other
similar techniques for averting their eyes from the reward objects. Many seemed to
try to reduce the frustration of delay of reward by generating their own diversions:
they talked to themselves, sang, invented games with their hands and feet, and
even tried to fall asleep while waiting - as one successfully did."

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EXPERIMENTS:
● Direct way to test a hypothesis about a cause-effect relationship between
factors
● Factors are called Variables
○ Independent Variable
○ Dependent Variable
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Example 2:
Social Stairs: Taking the Piano Staircase towards Long-Term Behavioral
Change
The theory was that people would take the stairs more often instead of the
escalator or elevator by making the staircase “fun.” The hypothesis propositioned
that by making a staircase more fun to do, people would stop using easier ways of
transportation, such as escalators. By promoting the use of stairs, we could
eventually improve the health of others by promoting an active lifestyle and a good
well-being.

The concept was for each stair in the subway staircase to produce various sounds
when pressure was applied to their surfaces, as a piano would if it was being
played. The randomized controlled experiment took place at the Odenplan subway
station in Stockholm, Sweden, next to an escalator. A group of randomized
unsuspected subway commuters were tallied as they were given the choice to take
plain steps or an escalator. In the second trail, another group of randomized
commuters were give the same option, but with musical stairs. This left people with
the choice to either participate in the giant musical steps or to use the escalator.
In the concluding video you can see that more commuters became interested in
the musical staircase. The resulting video showed that the interactive staircase
persuaded 66% more people than normal chose to use the staircase instead of the
escalator.

although there could have been a third variable involved, such as more active
people commuting on one day instead of the other, or the role of chance coming
into play, the statistics are strong and would be very interesting to see in a more
controlled experiment.
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DEFINITIONS:
● Hypothesis - tentative statement about the relationship between variables
● Variables - factors that can vary in ways that can be observed, measured,
and verified
● Operational definition - Precise description of how the variables will be
manipulated and measured

EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES
● Independent Variable (IV - Exogenous)
○ Predictor variable
○ Hypothesized to cause an effect on another variable
○ the variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher
○ the presumed “cause”
○ the antecedent
○ Hypothesized Explanattion
● Dependent Variable (DV - Endogenous)
○ Outcome Variable
○ The measured facts
○ Hypothesized to be affected
○ the response that is measured
 ○ the presumed “effect”
○ the consequent
○ Behavior being studied
● Extraneous Variable
○ undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the
variables that an experimenter is examining
○ these are variables the influence the outcome of an experiment
○ these variables are undesirable because they add error to an
experiment

Comparison GROUPS
● CONTROL GROUP (CG)
○ does not received the treatment. Not exposed to the intervention.
○ No treatment group.
○ It provides a baseline against some variable of interest.
● EXPERIMENTAL GROUP (EG)
● receives the treatment. Exposed to the intervention.
● Treatment group.

A control group is a group separated from the rest of the experiment where the
independent variable being tested cannot influence the results. > This isolates the
independent variable's effects on the experiment and can help rule out alternate
explanations of the experimental results.

An experimental group is the group in a scientific experiment where the

experimental procedure is performed. > This group is exposed to the independent
variable being tested and the changes observed and recorded.

Null and alternative hypothesis

● NULL HYPOTHESIS – (Hο) > A statement of no difference. that the
performance of EG is similar with the other groups.
○ Ho
○ equal (=)
○ Ho = Ha; There is no significant difference between the groups
being studied. ( No relationship bet variables; no cause and effect
● ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS (H1) (Ha) > A statement that the results of
experiment from groups are not equal
○ Ho ≠ Ha; Ho less than (<) Ha;
○ Ho more than (>) Ha; There is a significant difference between the
two groups. (There is a relationship bet variables, there is cause and
effect)

Converting research questions to hypothesis is a simple task. Take the questions

and make it a positive statement that says a relationship exists (correlation
studies) or a difference exists between the groups (experiment study) and you
have the alternative hypothesis. Write the statement such that a relationship does
 not exist or a difference does not exist and you have the null hypothesis. You can
reverse the process if you have a hypothesis and wish to write a research
question.
Tne interpretation is called the null hypothesis (often symbolized H0 and read as
“H-naught”). This is the idea that there is no relationship in the population and that
the relationship in the sample reflects only sampling error. Informally, the null
hypothesis is that the sample relationship “occurred by chance.” The other
interpretation is called the alternative hypothesis (often symbolized as H1). This
is the idea that there is a relationship in the population and that the relationship in
the sample reflects this relationship in the population.
Assume for the moment that the null hypothesis is true.. the sample relationship
would be extremely unlikely, then reject the null hypothesis in favour of the
alternative hypothesis. If it would not be extremely unlikely, then retain the null
hypothesis.

LIMITATIONS
● Often criticized for having little to do with actual behavior because of strict
laboratory conditions.
● Ethical considerations in creating some more “real life” situations

ETHICAL GUIDELINES
● Informed consent and voluntary participation
● Students as participants
● Use of deception
● Confidentiality of records
● Information about the study and debriefing

Research Methods: How We Do Social Psychology

Forming and Testing Hypotheses

● Theory (falsifiable)
○ Integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events: see
Kerlinger:
○ http://home.ubalt.edu/tmitch/632/kerlinder%20definitions.htm
● Hypotheses
○ Testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between
events
● What’s the difference between a “fact” and a “theory?
Correlation Research: Detecting Natural Associations

● Location
○ Laboratory (Controlled situation)
○ Field (Everyday situations)
● Method
○ Correlational
■ Naturally occurring relationships among variables
○ Experimental
■ Seeks clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or
more variables while controlling others

Correlation and causation

● Allows us to predict but not tell whether changing one variable will cause
changes in another
○ Self esteem <-> high achievement (which causes which?)
■ Does IQ and family status play a role?
■ Bachman & O’Malley, (1977)
■ What happened in the study with 715 Minnesota kids?

Correlation Research: Detecting Natural Associations

● Survey research
○ Random sample (from a population)
○ Unrepresentative samples
○ Order of questions
○ Response options
■ What % of energy from nuclear power?
● One v. three options – “what happened”
○ Wording of questions
■ “Welfare” v. “assistance to the poor”
○ Framing – e.g. “forbid” v. “not allow”

Experimental Research: Searching for Cause and Effect

● Random assignment: The great equalizer

○ Process of assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such
that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition
○ Eliminates extraneous factors

Experimental Research: Searching for Cause and Effect

● Control: Manipulating variables

○ Independent variable
 ■ Experimental factor that a researcher manipulates
● Corr or causation
● Prejudice to obese persons (Snyder & Haugen, ‘94)
● TV violence (Boyatzis et al. ‘95)
● Dependent variable
○ Variable being measured; depends on manipulations of the independent
variable
■ Can you manipulate or just measure? See: Table 1.1 p 25

Ethics of Experimentation

● Mundane realism
● Experimental realism
● Deception
● Demand characteristics
● Informed consent
● Debriefing
CHAPTER 2: Social Cognition
{ Social Cognition }
● Also known as Social Thinking
● is the study of how people understand and make sense of others and
themselves. Ex. Attitudes, groups, prejudice and stereotyping

3 APPROACHES:

1. PERSON PERCEPTION
➔ considers the way we assess and combine traits of another to form an
over-all impression.
➔ Person perception refers to a general tendency to form impressions of
other people. Some forms of person perception occur indirectly and
require inferring information about a person based on observations of
behaviors or based on second-hand information.
➔ Other forms of person perception occur more directly and require little
more than seeing another person. Both of these types of person
perception provide a foundation from which subsequent judgments are
formed and subsequent interactions are shaped. Consider how often you
make this kind of judgment every day. When you meet with a new
co-worker, you immediately begin to develop an initial impression of this
person. When you visit the grocery store after work, you might draw
conclusions about the cashier who checks you out, even though you know
very little about them.
2. ATTRIBUTION
➔ seeks to understand the causes of behavior
➔ Attribution theory is concerned with how ordinary people explain the
causes of behavior and events. For example, is someone angry because
they are bad-tempered or because something bad happened?
3. SCHEMA
➔ considers how we organize info and store it in memory in order to
understand behavior
➔ Schema theory states that all knowledge is organized into units. ...
According to this theory, schemata represent knowledge about concepts:
objects and the relationships they have with other objects, situations,
events, sequences of events, actions, and sequences of actions.
{ The Self Concept }
➔ The self is peculiarly difficult to define. Everyone seems to know what it is and to
use the term frequently but hardly anyone can say exactly what it is.
➔ Everyone has a separate body and selves begin with bodies so there is no way
for a human being to be completely without self
➔ THE SELF
◆ Selfhood is almost unthinkable outside a social context, and selves are
vital for making interpersonal relationships and interactions possible.
Selves are handles and tools for relating to others (Baumeister, 1998)

MAIN PARTS OF THE SELF

➔ SELF CONCEPT/ KNOWLEDGE
◆ Human beings have self-awareness that enables them to develop sets of
beliefs about themselves.
◆ An important part of self-knowledge consists of representations of
personal characteristics, such as one's physical attributes (e.g., ‘I am tall’),
abilities and skills (e.g., ‘I can play guitar’), social roles (e.g., ‘I am a
father’), personality traits (e.g., ‘I am a shy person’), and preferences (e.g.,
‘I like red wine’). This collection of information about the self constitutes
the self-concept, a complex knowledge structure stored in long-term
memory that includes abstract, summary representations of our own
personal characteristics (Markus & Wurf, 1987).
◆ Self-knowledge is sometimes referred to as self-concept. This feature
allows for people to gather information and beliefs about themselves. A
person's self-awareness, self-esteem, and self-deception all fall under the
self-knowledge part of self. We learn about ourselves through our
looking-glass selves, introspection, social comparisons, and
self-perception
➔ PUBLIC/ INTERPERSONAL SELF
◆ it is the self that helps the person connect socially to other people. The
façade/ persona/ mask that you show to other people.
◆ INTERPERSONAL SELF- the self in its relation to and interaction with
others. We develop as interpersonal selves, not only by experiencing
ourselves in our interaction with and emotional response to others, but
also by experiencing and internalizing the other’s perspective on ourselves
◆ Interpersonal self can also be referred to as your public self. This
feature allows for social connection to others. With the interpersonal self, a
person is able to display themselves to the others around them.
Interpersonal self is apparent in situations of self-presentation, being a
group member or partner in a relationship, a person's social roles, and
their reputation. For example, a person might show confidence and
determination in their work atmosphere, whereas they show more of their
emotional and nurturing side in their romantic relationship
 ● Social roles are defined as the parts that a person plays in
different situations and with other people. Our roles change in order
to fit the "expected" behaviors in various scenarios. For example, a
person may be a mother, a doctor, a wife, and daughter. Their
behavior would most likely change in their transition from being a
doctor to coming home to their daughter Social norms constitute
the "unwritten rules" that we have about how to act in certain
scenarios and with various people in our lives. For example, when
a person is in a classroom, they are more likely to be quiet and
attentive; whereas at a party, they are more likely to be socially
engaged and standing. Norms act as guidelines that shape our
behavior. Without them, there would not be any order, as well as
lack of understanding in situations in society
➔ AGENT/ EXECUTIVE SELF
◆ the self that gets things done. It enables the self to make choices and
exert control (self control & control others). Decision maker
◆ Agent Self - The agent self is known as the executive function that allows
for actions. This is how we, as individuals, make choices and utilize our
control in situations and actions. The agent self resides over everything
that involves decision making, self-control, taking charge in situations, and
actively responding. A person might desire to eat unhealthy foods,
however it is their agent self that allows that person to choose to avoid
eating them and make a healthier food choice
◆ Agent Self - The agent self is known as the executive function that allows
for actions. This is how we, as individuals, make choices and utilize our
control in situations and actions. The agent self resides over everything
that involves decision making, self-control, taking charge in situations, and
actively responding. A person might desire to eat unhealthy foods,
however it is their agent self that allows that person to choose to avoid
eating them and make a healthier food choice

{ SELF CONCEPT }
➔ The beliefs and feelings that we have about ourselves is to a large extent a
product of our social interactions

Some theories of Self Concept

➔ SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST THEORY OF THE SELF

◆ sense of self emerges from social interaction as the person who has the
ability to think symbolically reflects about himself in terms of how he thinks
other people see him.
➔ LOOKING-GLASS SELF by Charles Horton Cooley
◆ indicates that our SC reflects how we think other people perceive us.
{ SELF SCHEMA & SELF IDENTITY }

➔ SELF SCHEMA
◆ is the organized body of information that relates to a person’s self. It is
based on prior experience and they guide people’s understanding. It is
more specific and relate to a particular personality dimension.
● Ex. The male adult schema on MASCULINITY.
➔ SELF IDENTITY
◆ reflects the traits of the person and the group categories to which a
person belongs. Two categories:
➔ PERSONAL IDENTITY
◆ traits and behaviors that describe themselves. Ex. I am jolly. I love biking.
➔ SOCIAL IDENTITY
◆ roles or group membership categories to which a person belongs. Ex. I am
part of the LGBT community.

Carl Roger’s Conception of the Self

Real self is the person you actually are. Your actual self, your true self. t is how we
think, how we feel, look, and act. Ex. You are an average student in class and you
accept that

Ideal Self is an idealized version of yourself created out of what you have learned
from your life experiences, the demands of society, and what you admire in your role
models. It is how we want to be. It is an idealized image that we have developed over
time, based on what we have learned and experienced.

For example, your parents are medical doctors, you need to be smart and have a
high-paying job.
- Rogers focused on the idea that we need to achieve consistency between
these two selves called CONGRUENCE

For example, your parents are medical doctors who are respected and admired in the
community, and experience tells you that in order to be happy, you need to be smart
and have a high-paying job. Your Ideal Self might be someone who excels in science
subjects, spends a lot of time studying, and does not get queasy at the sight of blood.
If your Real Self is far from this idealized image, then you might feel dissatisfied with
your life and consider yourself a failure.

SELF
Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and the real self.
➔ The ideal self is the person that you would like to be;
➔ the real self is the person you actually are.

Rogers focused on the idea that we need to achieve consistency between these two
selves. We experience congruence when our thoughts about our real self and ideal
self are very similar— when our self-concept is accurate. High congruence leads to a
greater sense of self-worth and a healthy, productive life

Unconditional Positive Regard

➔ In the development of the self-concept, Rogers elevated the importance of
unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love. People raised in an
environment of unconditional positive regard, in which no preconceived
conditions of worth are present, have the opportunity to fully actualize. When
people are raised in an environment of conditional positive regard, in which
worth and love are only given under certain conditions, they must match or
achieve those conditions in order to receive the love or positive regard they
yearn for. Their ideal self is thereby determined by others based on these
conditions, and they are forced to develop outside of their own true actualizing
tendency; this contributes to incongruence and a greater gap between the real
self and the ideal self.

{ CULTURE AND INTERDEPENDENCE }

➔ SELF-CONSTRUAL > which means a way of thinking about the self -- the extent
to which the self is defined independently of others or interdependently with
others. Derived from perceived cultural differences.
◆ INDEPENDENT SELF CONSTRUAL
● emphasizes what makes the self different and set it apart from
others. Separateness from others, the attention to one’s self and
primacy of one’s goals over those in groups. Mostly observed in
individualist culture. Ex. North Americans & Europeans
◆ INTERDEPENDENT SELF-CONSTRUAL
 ● emphasizes what connects the self to others.Define themselves in
terms of close rel. Mostly observed in collectivist culture. Ex.
Japanese, Chinese, Koreans & Filipinos.

{ SOCIAL ROLES }
➔ Social Roles > Are the different roles a person plays. It answers the question
“What are selves for?”
➔ Expected of persons who occupy a certain social position or belong to a
particular social category;
◆ Social roles are the part people play as members of a social group.
With each social role you adopt, your behavior changes to fit the
expectations both you and others have of that role. Think of how many
roles you play in a single day, e.g. son, daughter, sister, brother, students,
worker, friend etc.
➔ People are not designed to live by themselves. The need other people to accept
them to have a job, friends, lovers and family
➔ The self is a tool people use to accomplish these goals. By learning how to act
properly, how to conform to social rules & norms & how to fulfill SOCIAL ROLES
people can improve their chances for social acceptance.
◆ Ex. I am a student, a member of an organization, a friend, a bf /gf, a son
or daughter, etc.
➔ SOCIAL NORMS
◆ are the unwritten rules of beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors that are
considered acceptable in a particular social group or culture. Norms
provide us with an expected idea of how to behave, and function to
 provide order and predictability in society. For example, we expect
students to arrive to a lesson on time and complete their work

{ SELF AWARENESS }
➔ Self Awareness – consists of attention directed at the self. It also involves
evaluating the self.
➔ Back then, they provided procedures to increase self-awareness such as having
people seated in front of the mirror or telling people that they are being
videotaped.

2 MAIN KINDS of SELF -AWARENESS:

➔ PRIVATE SELF-AWARENESS > refers to attending to your inner states including

emotions, thoughts, desires and traits.
◆ This type happens when people become aware of some aspects of
themselves, but only in a private way. For example, seeing your face in the
mirror is a type of private self-awareness. Feeling your stomach lurch
when you realize you forgot to study for an important test or feeling your
heart flutter when you see someone you are attracted to are also
examples of private self-awareness.
◆ Ex. I am nervous & jittery every time we date.
➔ PUBLIC SELF- AWARENESS > refers to attending to how you are perceived by others.
Looks outward to understand the self.
◆ This type emerges when people are aware of how they appear to others. Public
self-awareness often emerges in situations when people are at the center of
attention, such as when giving a presentation or talking to a group of friends. This
type of self-awareness often compels people to adhere to social norms. When
we are aware that we are being watched and evaluated, we often try to behave in
ways that are socially acceptable and desirable.
◆ Public self-awareness can also lead to evaluation anxiety in which people
become distressed, anxious, or worried about how they are perceived by others.
◆ Ex. Wearing a dress to a dinner date means that she wants to be taken seriously
in a relationship.

{ SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS }
➔ Self-Consciousness – People can become overly self-aware and veer into what
is known as self-consciousness.
◆ Ex.Have you ever felt like everyone was watching you, judging your
actions, and waiting to see what you will do next? This heightened state of
self-awareness can leave you feeling awkward and nervous in some
instances.
➔ IMAGINARY AUDIENCE - the belief of an adolescent that others are constantly
focusing attention on him or her, scrutinizing behaviors, appearance, and the like.
The adolescent feels as though he or she is continually the central topic of
 interest to a group of spectators (i.e., an audience) when in fact this is not the
case

SELF REGULATION
➔ SELF REGULATION – the process by which the self controls and changes itself.
People deliberately try to alter their responses such as trying to get out of a bad
mood or thinking focused on their problem rather than day dreaming.
➔ Understood in this way self awareness is part of the mechanism by which people
can bring themselves into the line with what other people are doing

Self-regulation theory (SRT)

➔ It simply outlines the process and components involved when we decide what to
think, feel, say, and do. It is particularly salient in the context of making a healthy
choice when we have a strong desire to do the opposite (e.g., refraining from
eating an entire pizza just because it tastes good).

According to modern SRT expert Roy Baumeister, there are four components
involved (2007):

1. Standards of desirable behavior;

2. Motivation to meet standards;
3. Monitoring of situations and thoughts that precede breaking standards;
4. Willpower allowing one’s internal strength to control urges.

STANDARDS
➔ STANDARDS > are ideas (concepts) of how things might possibly be. Standards
include ideals, norms, expectations, moral principles , laws
◆ Self awareness might be unpleasant because people compare
themselves to high standards such as good behavior or fashion model
looks.
◆ When people are aware that they fall short of standards, the bad feeling
leads to: CHANGE OR ESCAPE.
◆ When people think they can reach the standards- HE/SHE CHANGES
◆ When people does not feel he is making progress to reach the standards,
HE/ SHE ESCAPES
● Ex. Alcohol reduces self-awareness giving the recipients
momentary relief from bad feelings.
 Where SELF-KNOWLEDGE comes from?
Looking Outside: ➔ It was coined by Charles Horton Cooley to refer to the idea that
The Looking-Glass people learn about themselves from other people.
Self
3 COMPONENTS:
a. You imagine how you appear to others.
b. You imagine how others will judge you.
c. You develop an emotional response (pride or shame) as a result
of imagining how others will judge you.

GENERALIZED OTHER > coined by George Herbert Mead who said

that self-knowledge comes from feedback from other people.
Essentially other people tell us who and what we are.

JOHARI’S A Johari window is a

WINDOW MODEL psychological tool created by
two American psychologists,
Joseph Luft and Harry
Ingham in 1955.
The model is used to help
individuals better understand
themselves and how they
are perceived by others.
➔ Arena/ Open: I know,
you know
➔ Blind Spot: I do not
know, you know
➔ Façade: I know, you
don’t know
➔ Unknown: Both don’t know

4 AREAS:
1. ARENA OR OPEN
➔ I know, You know” This quadrant represents the actions,
behaviors and information that are known to the individual
and those around them. This may consist of public
information.
2. HIDDEN/ FAÇADE
➔ items that are known to you but not to others. This may
consist of private information, which the individual
chooses to keep hidden. Feelings, ambitions, dreams and
opinions may be withheld from the group by the individual
out of fear of negative reaction.
3. BLIND SPOT
 ➔ things that you are not aware of but other people can see
or understand. It includes include hidden strengths or
areas for improvement.
4. UNKNOWN
➔ things that both you and others aren’t aware of. his
includes subconscious information that no one is aware
of such as early childhood memories, undiscovered
talents, etc.

Looking Inside: ➔ Refers to the process by which a person examine the contents
INSTROSPECTION of his or her mind and mental states. It is a process of looking
Looking Inside: inward.
INSTROSPECTION
Privileged access – refers to the power of introspection that is I have
a privileged access to my own thoughts and emotions.

Ways to Introspect:
1. Meditate or Just sit in silence
2. Journal (Diary) – writing your thoughts.
3. Take a walk to nature
4. Track your feelings
5. Analyze past events
6. Seek a professional

Looking at others: ➔ This is concept proposed by a world renowned social

SELF psychologist, Leon Festinger (1954)
COMPARISON ➔ People have the need to evaluate their own behavior , abilities,
expertise and opinions--- leading to a desire for SOCIAL
COMPARISON.

SOCIAL REALITY – refers to understanding that is derived from how

other people act, think & feel. Ex. The college student who wishes to
know how well she plays tennis, will compare her abilities with those
tennis varsity players.

UPWARD SOCIAL COMPARISON – comparing oneself to someone

who is better or superior.

DOWNWARD SOCIAL COMPARISON – comparing onself to someone

who is worse or inferior
{ SELF-ESTEEM }
➔ It is used to describe a person's overall subjective sense of personal worth or
value. In other words, self-esteem may be defined as how much you appreciate
and like yourself regardless of the circumstances
◆ Esteem – from the Latin Aestimare – to value / determine the value of /
appraise.
◆ Self-esteem is used to describe a person's overall subjective sense of
personal worth or value. In other words, self-esteem may be defined as
how much you appreciate and like yourself regardless of the
circumstances. Your self-esteem is defined by many factors including:
● Self-confidence
● Feeling of security
● Identity
● Sense of belonging
● Feeling of competence
➔ It refers to how favorably someone evaluates himself or herself.

DEFINITIONS:

◆ High Self Esteem

➔ hold favorable self views which means they consider themselves as
competent, likable, attractive and morally good people. (Ex. “ I am great!”)
➔ They think they have good traits and they are willing to take chances and
try new things.
◆ Low Self Esteem
➔ hold unfavorable views of the self which means they regard themselves as
incompetent, ugly, unlikable and morally wicked. Ex. “I am just so-so.”
➔ When you have low or negative self-esteem, you put little value on your
opinions and ideas. You focus on your perceived weaknesses and faults
and give scant credit to your skills and assets. You believe that others are
more capable or successful.
➔ You might have difficulty accepting positive feedback. You might fear
failure, which can hold you back from succeeding at work or school.
◆ *Healthy self-esteem.
➔ When you have healthy self-esteem it means you have a balanced,
accurate view of yourself. For instance, you have a good opinion of your
abilities but recognize your flaws *

Characteristics of ➔ Less confident that they can achieve goals.

People With Low ➔ Their ideas about themselves are conflicted and
Self -Esteem uncertain, a pattern called “Self-Concept Confusion.”
◆ “ I do not know. I am not sure.” – UNCERTAIN
◆ “I am calm and nervous.” –CONTRADICTORY
 ➔ They focus on self-protection instead of self
enhancement.
◆ SELF –PROTECTION – means trying to avoid loss
of esteem. They go through life looking to avoid
failure, embarrassment, rejection and misfortunes.
➔ More prone to emotional highs and lows. Events affect
them strongly and are vulnerable to mood swings and
overreactions.

BENEFITS OF Two MAIN BENEFITS:

HIGH SELF a. High self-esteem fosters confidence that you can do the
ESTEEM right thing and should act on your best judgment.
➔ People with high self-esteem are more willing than
other people to speak up in groups or committees.
They are more willing to approach people and
strike up new friendships.
b. High self esteem makes one feels good. When life dumps
misfortunes, you can bounce back better if you have high
self-esteem.
{Most broadly, people with high self-esteem are happier than
people with low self-esteem.}

SOCIOMETER THEORY
➔ The desire to maintain self esteem is not only feel good about the self but it
serves good interpersonal relations.
➔ In this view , self esteem is essentially a measure of how much you appeal to
others and how much you are by others.
➔ Increases in self esteem accepted m come from increases in social acceptance
whereas rejection threatens or lower one’s self-esteem.

SOCIOMETER

➔ is a measure of how desirable one would be to other people (partner, employer/

boss, colleague). Mark Leary is the author of the sociometer theory in which he
compared self esteem to the gas gauge.
 Self-esteem > is a measure of social acceptability.
Why do we care
about
Mark Leary, the author of sociometer theory, compares
self-esteem? self-esteem to the gas gauge on a car. A gas gauge may seem
trivial because it doesn’t make the cacr go forward. But the gas
gauge tells you about something that is important-- namely,
whether there is enough fuel in the car. Just as drivers act out of
concern to keep their gas gauge above zero, so people seem
constantly to act so as to preserve their self-esteem.

REALITY AND ILLUSION

➔ This focuses on self-esteem which entails how well a person thinks or feels
about the self whether it’s accurate or inaccurate.

POSITIVE ILLUSIONS THAT CHARACTERIZE NORMAL PEOPLE

1. People overestimate their good qualities and underestimate their faults. Normal
people think they are smarter, more attractive, more virtuous, etc than they
actually are.
2. People overestimate their perceived control over events. They think that they are
largely in control of events.
3. People are unrealistically optimistic.

SELF SERVING BIAS > a pattern in which people claim credit for success but deny
blame for failure.

● Ex. Getting a good grade on a test. - Im really smart at this. Getting a bad grade
on a test- I am unlucky because it’s Friday the 13th. The teacher is not good.

➔ Focusing mainly on the benefits of high self esteem might

Is High Self create the impression that high self esteem is always a
Esteem Always good thing.
Good?
NARCISSISM – a trait that is linked to high self esteem but it
captures the worst and negative aspects of high self esteem.
➔ Narcissists think very well of themselves and as a
result take advantage of others. They tend to be more
aggressive and violent than other people.
 ➔ Narcissists make poor relationship partners. They
approach relationships with the attitude, “What’s in it for
me.” They adopt game playing that helps people maintain
power and autonomy. They are prone to infidelity.
➔ They often act superior because it is a disguise that
conceals insecurity and low self-esteem.
➔ All narcissists have high self esteem but not all people
with high self esteem are narcissists.
Narcissus –a young man in Greek Mythology who fell in love with
his own reflection in the water. As reflected in the painting,
narcissists are in love with themselves.

“SELFIE GENERATION” OR GENERATION ME”

➔ In today’s era, the levels of narcissism have been increasing over time. This
self-centered generation (often called millennials) has been dubbed “SELFIE
GENERATION” OR GENERATION ME”
➔ Millennials (people born after 1980) are described as self-absorbed and
narcissistic. They are engaged in self-promotion and craved for admiration.

SELFIE – A photograph that one has taken of onseself using smart phone or webcam
and uploaded to a social media website.

CLINICAL VS. SUBCLINICAL NARCISSISM

➔ Most people have a degree of subclinical narcissism with regard to self-love and
yearning for admiration, and most research related to selfies looks at this
subclinical narcissism. It seems reasonable that individuals with a bent toward
narcissism would be naturally drawn to the large, public social networking stage
from which to self-promote.
➔ However, this should be distinguished from clinical narcissism (known as
Narcissistic Personality Disorder) which is present in less than 1% of the general
population and is described as a pervasive pattern of inflated grandiosity, lack of
empathy and persistent need for admiration.

SELF-EFFICACY vs SELF-CONFIDENCE vs SELF-ESTEEM

SELF-EFFICACY SELF -CONFIDENCE SELF- ESTEEM

This term, as defined In contrast, according to Dr. The term most often
by Albert Bandura, a Bandura, self-confidence is more confused with
Canadian-American of a general view of how likely self-confidence is the
psychologist, refers to you are to accomplish a goal, one perhaps least
your belief in your especially based on your past similar to it.
ability to accomplish experience. When you practice Self-esteem refers to
 specific tasks. If you playing piano, you increase your a belief in your overall
believe you’re capable confidence in your ability to play the worth. Broad
of cooking dinner or piano. This can also apply to how statements like “I’m a
completing a project, likely you believe you are to be good person” fall into
this is reflective of high accepted in a social group. If you’ve this category.
self-efficacy. People been made fun of for your Self-esteem is one of
with low self-efficacy underwater basket-weaving hobby, the levels of Maslow’s
often put less effort into you might be less confident sharing hierarchy of needs,
a task if they don’t it with others next time. and improvements to
believe they’ll succeed Self-confidence and self-efficacy self-confidence can
at it, increasing the are both rooted in experience, but contribute to your
likelihood of failure. self-confidence reflects a broader broader self-esteem.
view of yourself, rather than your
confidence in specific tasks.

HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR SELF-ESTEEM

Steps you can take to increase your feelings of self-worth. Avoid falling into the
compare-and-despair rabbit hole.

1. Be mindful.
➔ Become aware of your negative self-talk or self criticism. Don’t believe
everything you think. Thoughts are just that — thoughts.”
2. Change the story
➔ Start affirming yourself. Make sure the statements / mantras ( sound, word
or sentence used in repetition) you say about yourself are positive and
uplifting ones Ex. I am beautiful. I am whole, healthy and strong. I choose
to radiate happiness and love. I treat myself with love and respect. I
accept myself for who I am.
3. Avoid falling into the compare-and-despair rabbit hole.
➔ Practice acceptance and stop comparing yourself to others.
4. Channel your inner rock star
➔ Recognize what your strengths are and the feelings of confidence they
engender, especially in times of doubt.
5. Exercise
➔ There is a positive correlation between exercise and self esteem.
6. Volunteer & Help the less fortunate
➔ Being of service to others helps take out of your head those negative
thoughts. When you are able to help someone else, it makes you less
focused on your own issues
7. Forgive
➔ Yourself? An ex-partner? A family member? Forgive and let go.
“I emphasize that just because someone else appears happy on social media or even in
person doesn’t mean they are happy. Comparisons only lead to negative self-talk, which
leads to anxiety and stress.” Feelings of low self-worth can negatively affect your mental
health as well as other areas in your life, such as work, relationships, and physical
health.

Albert Einstein said, “Everybody is a genius. But if you judge a fish by its ability to climb
a tree, it will live its whole life believing that it is stupid.” We all have our strengths and
weaknesses. Someone may be a brilliant musician, but a dreadful cook. Neither quality
defines their core worth. Recognize what your strengths are and the feelings of
confidence they engender, especially in times of doubt. It’s easy to make
generalizations when you “mess up” or “fail” at something, but reminding yourself of the
ways you rock offers a more realistic perspective of yourself.

Exercise

➔ Many studies have shown a correlation between exercise and higher

self-esteem, as well as improved mental health. “Exercising creates
empowerment both physical and mental,” says Debbie Mandel, author of
Addicted to Stress, “especially weight lifting where you can calibrate the
accomplishments. Exercise organizes your day around self-care.” She suggests
dropping a task daily from your endless to-do list for the sole purpose of
relaxation or doing something fun, and seeing how that feels. Other forms of
self-care, such as proper nutrition and sufficient sleep, have also been shown to
have positive effects on one’s self-perception.

Forgive

➔ Is there is someone in your life you haven’t forgiven? An ex-partner? A family

member? Yourself? By holding on to feelings of bitterness or resentment, we
keep ourselves stuck in a cycle of negativity. If we haven’t forgiven ourselves,
shame will keep us in this same loop.
➔ “Forgiving self and others has been found to improve self-esteem,” says
Schiraldi, “perhaps because it connects us with our innately loving nature and
promotes an acceptance of people, despite our flaws.”

{ SELF-PRESENTATION }
➔ It refers to how people attempt to present themselves to control or shape how
others (called the audience) view them.

SELF PRESENTATION/ IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

● It is defined as any behavior intended to create, modify, or maintain an
impression of ourselves in the minds of others.
 ● Whenever we are attempting to lead people to think of us in a particular way, we
are engaging in self presentation.
○ Ex. We rehearse what we are going to say in public or we mindlessly
check our hair in the mirror before stepping out the front door.

Why Do People Engage in Self- Presentation?

1. Facilitate ➔ Each person has a role to play, and the interaction proceeds
Social smoothly when these roles are enacted effectively. For
Interaction example, airline pilots are expected to be poised and dignified.
As long as they convince their passengers that they possess
these qualities, their passengers remain calm and behave in
an orderly fashion.
➔ The most basic function of self-presentation is to define the
nature of a social situation (Goffman, 1959). Most social
interactions are very role governed. Each person has a role to
play, and the interaction proceeds smoothly when these roles
are enacted effectively. For example, airline pilots are expected
to be poised and dignified. As long as they convince their
passengers that they possess these qualities, their passengers
remain calm and behave in an orderly fashion. (Imagine, for
example, how unsettling it would be if your airline pilot acted
like the character “Kramer” on the television show Seinfeld!)
This function of self-presentation was first highlighted by Erving
Goffman (1959). Goffman noted that social life is highly
structured. In some cases, this structure is formalized (e.g.,
state dinners at the White House are characterized by strict
rules of protocol), but most often it is informal and tacitly
understood (e.g., norms of politeness and etiquette guide our
social interactions). Among these norms is one that mandates
that people support, rather than undermine, one another’s
public identities. Goffman refers to these efforts as face work.
Each participant in an interaction is obliged to honor and
uphold the other person’s public persona. Toward this end,
people may misrepresent themselves or otherwise refrain from
saying what they really think or feel. For example, people
publicly claim to like the presents they receive, find another
person’s new clothes or hairstyle attractive, or make excuses
for why they cannot get together for some social encounter.
This kind of selfpresentational behavior seems to be primarily
driven by a desire to avoid social conflict and reduce tension
(DePaulo, Kashy, Kirkendol, Wyer, & Epstein, 1996).
2. Gain ➔ People also strive to create impressions of themselves in the
Material minds of others in order to gain material and social rewards (or
and Social avoid material and social punishments). As discussed earlier, it
Rewards is usually in our best interests to have others view us in a
particular way. Employees generally have a material interest in
being perceived as bright, committed, and promising. To the
extent that they are successful in inducing these impressions in
the minds of their employers, they are apt to be promoted and
given raises. Social rewards also depend on our ability to
convince others that we possess particular qualities.
➔ People also strive to create impressions of themselves in the
minds of others in order to gain material and social rewards (or
avoid material and social punishments). As discussed earlier, it
is usually in our best interests to have others view us in a
particular way. Employees generally have a material interest in
being perceived as bright, committed, and promising. To the
extent that they are successful in inducing these impressions in
the minds of their employers, they are apt to be promoted and
given raises. Social rewards also depend on our ability to
convince others that we possess particular qualities. Being
February 19, 2013 at 9:44 PM 452_chapter_07.docx page 4 of
42 liked entails convincing others that we are likable; being a
leader involves convincing others that we are capable of
leading. Jones (1990; see also, Tedeschi & Norman, 1985)
notes that this type of strategic self-presentation represents a
form of social influence in which one person (the selfpresenter)
attempts to gain power over another (the audience). This
approach assumes that we are in a better position to influence
the nature of social interaction in a manner that suits our
purposes if we are able to control how others see us. This
emphasis is apparent in many popular books, that carry titles
like How to Win Friends and Influence People (Carnegie, 1936)
and Winning through Intimidation (Ringer, 1973). To some, the
idea that people actively strive to manipulate how they are
viewed by others conjures up images of duplicity and
Machiavellianism. This need not be the case, however.
Strategic self-presentation does not necessarily mean that we
are trying to deceive others (though sometimes we are). It can
also involve genuine attempts to bring our (selfperceived)
positive qualities to the attention of others. In fact, for reasons
to be discussed later, misrepresentation and lying tend to be
the exception rather than the rule. Most of the time, strategic
self-presentation involves “selective disclosures and
omissions, or matters of emphasis and timing, rather than
blatant deceit or dissimulation” (Jones, 1990, p.175).
3. Self ➔ We try to create impressions of ourselves in the minds of
–Constructi others is to construct a particular identity for ourselves.
on Sometimes, self-construction is initiated in order to create an
identity. This is particularly prevalent during adolescence.
Adolescents routinely try out different identities. They adopt the
dress and mannerisms of various social types (e.g., the
sophisticated; the rebel), and studiously note people’s
reactions to these displays in an attempt to fashion an identity
that fits.
➔ Another reason we try to create impressions of ourselves in the
minds of others is to construct a particular identity for ourselves
(Baumeister, 1982b; Rosenberg, 1979; Schlenker, 1980). This
type of self-presentational behavior serves a more private,
personal function. Convincing others that we possess some
quality or attribute is a means of convincing ourselves.
Sometimes, self-construction is initiated in order to create an
identity. Rosenberg (1979) notes that this is particularly
prevalent during adolescence. Adolescents routinely try out
different identities. They adopt the dress and mannerisms of
various social types (e.g., the sophisticate; the rebel), and
studiously note people’s reactions to these displays in an
attempt to fashion an identity that fits. Other times,
self-construction is undertaken to confirm an already
established self-view. The successful Wall Street banker may
wear suspenders, carry a beeper, and drive a Lexus to signal
to others that he is indeed a man of “wealth and taste.” Swann
(1990) calls this form of self-construction “self-verification,” and
Wicklund and Gollwitzer (1982) refer to such behavior as
“self-symbolizing.” Self-enhancement needs also underlie
self-construction. Most people like to think of themselves as
being competent, likable, talented, and so forth. By convincing
others that they possess these positive attributes, people are
better able to convince themselves. This, in turn, makes people
feel better about themselves. In this sense, we can say that
people seek to create impressions in the minds of others
because it makes them feel good about themselves to do so.
Finally, self-construction can serve a motivational function.
People are expected to be who they claim to be (Goffman,
1959; Schlenker, 1980). When they publicly announce an
intention or otherwise stake a claim to an identity, people
experience additional pressures to make good on their claims.
The reformed alcoholic who proclaims his sobriety is utilizing
this function. By publicly renouncing the use of alcohol, he
increases February 19, 2013 at 9:44 PM 452_chapter_07.docx
page 5 of 42 his commitment to stay sober. We also see this in
the world of sports. Before the 1968 Super Bowl, Joe Namath
 boldly predicted that his New York Jets would beat the
Baltimore Colts (which they did). The great boxer, Muhammad
Ali, also routinely predicted the outcomes of his fights. Under
some circumstances, this kind of public boasting can serve to
make the idea a reality

SELF MONITORING: Keeping Tabs on One’s Behavior

Self Monitoring

➔ It is described as the regulation of one’s behavior to meet the demands of a

situation or the expectations of others. It is related to public self-awareness.
➔ It focuses on how one presents oneself, whereas self-consciousness
emphasizes the object of one’s attention.

High self monitors are social chameleons, changing colors according to the
requirements of the situation. They see themselves as having a “pragmatic self” based
on the given social situation.

Low self monitors are relatively insensitive to the social demands of a situation.
Their behavior is more consistent across situations. They see themselves as having a
“principled self” based on their own philosophy of behavior.

TYPES OF SELF PRESENTATION

1.INGRATIATION ➔ a deliberate effort to make a favorable impression through
flattery by complimenting them ( Ang galing mo naman!)and
opinion conformity by agreeing with their beliefs ( Im also a
pro-Duterte. Can you pass this bill? People ingratiate to make
themselves more likable. Ex. Agreeing with others’ opinions,
doing favors for others and praising your boss to get a raise.
➔ This technique is designed to make a person seem more
competent. Ex. Job interviews, people flaunt their successes and
disregard previous failures during reunions and get togethers with
classmates

2. SELF ➔ This technique is designed to make a person seem more

PROMOTION competent. Ex. Job interviews, people flaunt their successes and
disregard previous failures during reunions and get togethers with
classmates

3. INTIMIDATION ➔ occurs when people communicate an ability and inclination to

provide negative outcomes to others. Ex. A high level employee
 who says to a low level worker that he will be dismissed if he
doesn’t provide a particular favor.

4.EXEMPLIFICATION ➔ a technique in which people attempt to create the impression of

moral superiority and integrity. Ex. A person tries to prove his
sincerity & dedication towards his work in a way that he tries to
portray himself as the superior one.

5. SUPPLICATION ➔ It consists of creating the impression that one is needy, weak and
dependent. Ex. A student may beg a professor for a higher
grade in class because he/she is in probation and will be kicked
out of school if the student don’t get a certain grade.

SELF PRESENTATION and RISKY BEHAVIOR

➔ Self-presentational concerns also lead people to engage in behaviors that
enhance their appearance to others but simultaneously jeopardize their own
physical well-being.
◆ Ex. Smoking is to look cool & adult. Drinking is perceived to be tougher
and more rebellious. Getting a suntan makes a girl look attractive but
exposes the skin to radiation. Driving fast or refusal to wear seatbelts to
project bravery.
➔ The fact that people will take such risks indicates that at some level, gaining
social acceptance and self presentation are much stronger than staying alive and
healthy (self-preservation)
➔ Some people fear that others will think of them badly if they purchase condoms
or if they suggest using condoms so they engage in unprotected sex.