Microirrgation Manual - DR - Brian Boman - Florida University - 2017

Soils, Water, and Micro-Irrigation Systems
Soils, Water, and Micro-Irrigation

Systems
By
Prof. Anwar M. Battikhi Prof. Brian J. Boman
Faculty of Agriculture College of Engineering
University of Jordan University of Florida
Amman – Jordan Fort Pierce –Florida - USA
2015
1
Table of Content
Description Page No.

Table of Content 2
Abbreviations 8
Chapter 1 Introduction 12
Chapter 2 Soil Water Relations 14 Figure 1
A. Soil Water Properties 15
1. Sandy Soils 15
2. Loamy Soils 16
3. Clayey Soils 16 Figure 2
B. Soil Water Measurement 18
1. Laboratory Methods 18
a. Soil Moisture by Weight (Gravimetric
18
Method)
b. Soil Moisture by Volume (Volumetric
19
Method)
c. Depth of Water in Soils 19
d. Bulk Density 19
e. Particle Density 19
f. Total Porosity 19
2. Field Methods 20
a. Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR) 20 Figure 3
C. Total soil Water Potential 21
1. Definition 21 Figure 4
2. Field Measurement 22
a. Tensiometer, Ex 1 22 Figure 5 + 6
2
b. Ceramic Plate 25 Figure 7

c. Soil Moisture 27
d. Soil Water Movement 27
1.Sandy Soils 27
2. Loamy Soils 27
3. Clayey Soils 27 Figure 8
e. Wetting Front in the Presence of Hardpan
28 Figure 9
Layer
f. Wetting Front in the Presence of Sand or
29 Figure 10
Gravel Layer
g. Infiltration Rate 30 Figure 11
h. Rate of Advance of Wetting Front
32 Figure 12
Horizontally
i. Rate Advance of Wetting Front Vertically 33 Figure 13
Chapter 3 Plant Water Relations 34
A. Potential Evapotranspiration (ETo) 34
1. Crop Coefficient (Kc) 34
2. Crop Coefficient, Kc, Values for
Different Crops at Different Regions 36 Figure 14
(FAO)
3. Crop Water Requirement (ETc), Using 41 Figure 15+16

Modified Penman Monteith, Ex 2 +17
4. Pan Evaporation, Equation, Ex 3 43 Figure 18
5. Soil Water Budget Equation 45
6. The Hydrologic Cycle 46 Figure 19
B. Water Sources 47
C. Water Quality Parameters 48
3
1. Water Quality Parameters 50

a. Electrical Conductivity 50
b. Alkalinity 50
c. pH 50
d. Hardness 51
e. Total Solids 51
2. Primary Constituent Ions 52
a. Calcium (Ca) 52
b. Magnesium (Mg) 52
c. Sodium (Na) 52
d. Potassium (K) 52
e. Iron 53
f. Manganese (Mn) 53
g. Bicarbonate (HCO3) 53
h. Carbonate (CO3) 54
i. Chloride (Cl) 54
j. Sulfate/ Sulfide 54
k. Nitrogen (N) 54
l. Boron (B) 55
m. Phosphorus 55
n. Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) 55
3. Soil Analyses and Interpretation 57
4. Characteristics of Nutrients in Soil 58
a. Nitrogen (N) 58
b. Phosphorus (P) 58
c. Potassium (K) 59
4
d. Calcium and Magnesium (Ca, Mg) 59

e. Sulfur (S) 59
f. Copper, Iron, Manganese, and Zinc 60
(Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn)
g. Boron (B) 60
h. Molybdenum (Mo) 60 Figure 20
5. Fertigation Calculation 62
a. Fertilizer (Closed Tank) 62
b. Venturi Type 62
c. Piston Pump 63
d. Solubility 63
e. Acidity 64
f. Quantity, Ex 4, 5, 6 64
D. Soil Salinity and leaching requirement 68
1. Salinity 68
2. Leaching requirement (LR) 68
E. Deficit irrigation (D) 69
F. Effective rainfall (ER) 70
G. Mulch 71
H. System Efficiency (Eff) 71
I. Intercropping (IC) 71
J. Total irrigation water requirement (Ex.7) 71
Chapter 4 System Operations 73
A. System Components 73
B. System Testing 73
C. Basic System Operation 74
5
D. Irrigation Scheduling 75 Figure 21

Chapter 5 Hydraulic Principles 77
A. Hydraulic Principles, Ex 8 77 Figure 22
1. Velocity 77
2. Flow 78 Figure 23+24
3. Friction Loss 80 Figure 25
4. Pressure Versus Flow 83 Figure 26
5. Water Hammer 85
B. Head Losses in Lateral Lines, Ex 9, 10, 11 85 Figure 27
Chapter 6 Pumps and Power Units 92
A. Pumps 92 Figure 28+29
1. Pump Suction 93 Figure 30+31
B. Power requirements 96 Figure 32
1. Efficiency 98
2. Power needed, Ex 12 99
3. Electric motors 100
4. Internal combustion engines, Ex 13 102
5. Energy costs, Ex 14, 15, 16 105 Figure 33
Chapter 7 Irrigation System Maintenance 110
A. Irrigation system maintenance 110

1. Pumps 110
2. Power units 110
a. Electric motor routine maintenance 110
b. Lubrication 111
6
c. Heat, noise, and vibration 111

d. Winding insulation 111
3. Diesel engines 111
4. Filters 111
5. Chemical injection equipment 112
6. Automatic valves 112
7. Pressure gauges and flow meters 113
8. Line flushing 114
B. Water treatment to prevent emitter
clogging 115
C. Chlorination 116
1. Chlorine injection rate calculation 117
Index 119
7
Abbreviations
Soil Water Relations:
θw: Soil Moisture Content by Weight (Gravimetric Method) (%)

θv: Soil Moisture Content by Volume (%)
θd: Depth of water in soils (cm/cm)
ρb : Bulk Density (gm/cm3)

ρp :Particle Density (gm/cm3)
f :Total Porosity percentage (%)
TDR: Time Domain Reflectometer for measuring soil moisture content by
volume
ψt : The state of water in the soil expressed as energy (bar)
ψm : Matric Potential (bar)
ψπ : Osmotic Potential (bar)
ψg : Elevation or gravitational Potential (bar)
I: Infiltration depth (cm)
S: Sorptivity (cm min -1/2)
t: time (min)
A: a constant that depends on soil hydraulic conductivity, (cm/min)
i: infiltration rate (cm/min)
x: distance traveled (cm)
y : vertical distance advance (cm)
Plant Water Relations:
ETo: Potential Evapotranspiration (mm)
ETc: crop Evapotranspiration (mm)
Kc: Crop Coefficient
Ep : Evaporation from a class A pan (mm)
Kp : Pan evaporation factor
8
Ev: Evaporation (mm)
Tp: Transpiration (mm)
R: Rainfall (mm)
I: Irrigation (mm)
DP: Deep percolation (mm)
+DS: Depletion or increase in soil moisture at the end of the season (mm)
+RO: Run off in or out of the area under study (mm)
CA: Capillary rise from groundwater (mm)
EC: Electric Conductivity (μS/cm)
TDS: Total Solids (mg/Mg)
SAR: Sodium Adsorption Ratio
Rate: fertilizer injection rate (L/h)
pH: -log H+
A: area to be irrigated (ha)
P: fertilizer fraction, percent of fertilizer per liter of fluid injected (%)
H: fertilizer injection time (hr)
W: weight of fertilizer solution (kg/L)
Fp: amount of fertilizer to be applied per pant (kg/plant)
NP: number of plants per hectare
LR: Leaching Requirement, (amount/100)
AW: water to be applied (mm) or (m)
ECe: the soil salinity (dS/m)
ECw: The water salinity (dS/m)
9
D: Deficit Irrigation (mm) or (m)
ER: Effective Rainfall (mm) or (m)
M: Mulch (mm) or (m)
Eff: System Efficiency (mm) or (m)
IC: Intercropping (mm) or (m)
TIR: Total irrigation water requirement (mm) or (m)
Hydraulic Principles:
Ht: elevation (m)
P: pressure (bar) or (atmos)
V: Velocity (m/sec)
Ht: elevation (m)
Q: flow rate (L/min) or (m3/sec)
D: inside diameter of pipe or hose (cm) or (mm)
A: cross-sectional area of flow (m2) (A = π * D2/4, π = 3.1416)
Pumps and Power Units:
TDH: total dynamic head (m)
Hs: static head (m)
Hf: friction head (m)
Hp: pressure head (m) or (atmos) (1 atmos = 10.3 m water)
Pw: energy required by pump (kW)
Ps: shaft energy (kW)
Effp: pump efficiency (%)
Effd: drive efficiency (%)
10
Ew: water energy (kWh)
h: hours of operation (hr)
C: Hourly pumping cost (in $ or JD)
co: Cost of electricity (in $ or JD) per kwh
11
Chapter 1 : Introduction
Microirrigation systems (Drip and Microsprayer) have been adopted by

many countries throughout the developed world. They are found to be the
most efficient systems in terms of water use, especially when black plastic
mulch is used with them.
Although the capital cost is high at the beginning of their use, but
throughout the life of the system they become feasible, since labor use is
minimized quite significantly, compared to the other conventional methods
of irrigation, such as surface and macrosprinkler methods.
Microirrigation methods are basically: The drip (also known as trickle),

which are mainly used on vegetables, and sometimes on fruit trees in
orchards; and the microsprayers (also known as microsprinklers), mostly
used on fruit trees.
These systems are of excellent water distribution uniformity, where one can
avoid none targeted areas, run off, deep percolation and wind drift, and also
can avoid foliage wetting. These systems provides automated delivery of
water and chemicals, spoon feeds nutrients via fertigation, and requires less
cost on energy.
Microirrigation systems are unique in that they supply water to the plant
when needed, by the amount of water that the soil can store, at the root zone
only and at different stages, due to the gradual growth of roots. Thus the
wetted zone increases with depth as time passes, before the next irrigation.
This water stored, does not cover the whole soil surface, but part of it that
surrounds the roots of the plant. This water since it is minimal in amount,
doesn’t increase salinity around the roots, but keeps it, if found in soil, at
the wetting front away from its roots.
Moreover, microirrigation system doesn’t require land leveling; it can be

used on hilly areas. It also can be used to supplement any deficit caused by
lower rainfall than average amounts, needed by the plant when it grows.
Tickle irrigation was found to reduce water irrigation amounts by 40-50%.

Low pressure is needed at the dripper (1 bar) and at the microsprinkler
nozzle (1.5 bars). However to run a drip irrigation with pressure
commentating dripper, three bar is preferable.
12
Placement of water and fertilizers are at the location where they are mostly
required, results in less insects and diseases (no water on leaves), less
operation costs, and absence of weeds.
Water that is filtered is applied at low rate, for larger periods of time, more
frequently, at low pressures, directly to the soil, near the plant, through
environmentally healthy devices, with fertigation, all automated.
On the other hand, the fine opening in the dripper may be clogged by fine
soil particles or algae or calcium carbonate deposition, thus affecting
moisture flow and distribution in the soil.
Rodents and the animals may damage the system. Also, it is not suitable for
all crops, like field crops and fodder.
Soil is composed of three components: 50% solid including 2 to 5% organic

matter, 25% liquid phase and about 25% as a gas in the pore spaces. The
proportion of these constitutes changes with the season and according to
irrigation scheduling, the presence of cracks prevailing in clay soils when it
dries which reducing water and increasing soil gas especially when
montmorilonite dominates the clay minerals in the soil.
Drip irrigation saves water by reducing amounts of irrigated water and thus
reducing evaporation, through using plastic mulch, which reduces weeds,
thus reducing loss of water and run off, and can be controlled and run by
automated electric systems thus reducing labor.
This book is written in a simple language using simple terms, because it is

directed to farmers, who usually are not engineers or agronomists who are
familiar with advanced science and terminology.
13
Chapter 2 : Soil Water Relations
Soils, during very long periods of time, form through the effects of climate
and living agents (man, animals, vegetation, and microorganisms), on
disintegrated rocks (called parent materials). The resulting soil is a dynamic
system that keeps changing with time, as affected by relief. The soil
constituents are solid minerals that contain compounds of different
combinations in chemistry and in sizes. In chemistry, these compounds may
be minerals like quartz, limestone, muscovite, biotite, montmorilonite, illite
or hydrous mica, or many others. The constituents may be of different
combinations of sizes namely: sand, silt, and clay. We do analyze these
constituents in the laboratory to determine the percent content of each size.
Afterwards, we determine the textural class of the soil we are working with
by using a pre-Prepared textural triangle chart. If we want to group the 12
textural classes that are given in the triangle, we will have three major
types, namely: the sandy; the loamy; and the clayey soils (Figure 1).
The second soil constituent is water (about 25% by volume). The third soil
constituent is air (about 25% by volume).
14
Figure 1. Soil Textural Classes
A. Soil Water Properties
Soil differs from place to place. For our purposes we want to describe three
types of soils, namely: Sandy; Loamy; and Clayey. These types differ in
their interaction with water.
The differences of interest to us are mainly, their water holding capacity

and their ability to transmit water horizontally and vertically. Oxygen
movement and heat movement are also of importance.
1. Sandy Soils
These soils hold less water than the loamy and clayey soils. They need to be
irrigated more often (every day) due to the vertical movement of water
down in the soil is much faster than the movement in the horizontal
direction and therefore they will cause more Diameter
Sand: 0.02-0.2mm
Silt: 0.002-0.02mm
15
Clay :< 0.002mm
water losses because of deep percolation. They store less irrigation amount,
(Figure 2). They would also cause less horizontal movement than vertical
which requires closer spacing between drippers (30-50cm). They also
require less distance between dripper lines or laterals (1.0 meter). Drippers
needed are those with discharge 8-16 liters per hour, for vegetables. As for
trees, we use one macro sprinkler or two, according to the age of the tree
(30-100 liters per hour). Oxygen movement into the soil from the
atmosphere is good because of the abundance of macro pores, but heat
movement is slow because of the macro pores heat conductivity is low for
coarse particles.
2. Loamy Soils
Loamy soils are the best for cultivation, due to balanced pore size
distribution in these soils (about 50% large pores or macro pores, about
50% small pores or microspores). They have a medium horizontal and
vertical wetness zones (between sandy and clayey soils). They hold the
water to provide the plant with its need for moisture for a longer period
when compared to the sandy soils (2 to 4 days for drip irrigation) (Table 1).
At the same time they have enough large macro pores from which water
drains down, to provide space for oxygen necessary for the roots to respire.
We use 4-8 liters /hour drippers and are placed 2 meters between lines and
60 centimeters between drippers, for vegetables. For trees we add a micro
sprayer or two depending on the age of the tree. Oxygen and heat
movement down the soil is good because of the balanced percentage for
micro to macro pores.
3. Clayey Soils
These soils have mostly clay particles (size diameter<0.002mm) as their

main constituents, of which they are mostly clay minerals. These are known
to cause the soil have more small pores than large ones.
16
Table 1. Available depth of soil moisture in different soil textural classes.
Soil texture mm/cm mm/meter

Coarse sand and gravel 0.2-0.6 20-60
Sand 0.4-0.9 40-90
Loamy sand 0.6-1.2 60-120
Sandy sand 1.1-1.5 110-150
Fine sandy loam 1.4-1.8 140-180
Loam and silt loam 1.7-2.3 170-230
Clay loam 1.4-2.1 140-210
Silty clay loam 1.4-2.1 140-210
Silty clay and clay 1.3-1.8 130-180
Basically small pores have more attraction to water and therefore less water
holding capacity than loams (Figure 2) which is not good because, plants
cannot achieve high work to take this water and use it for its growth
reactions and constituents. And provide less large pores than the sandy soil,
and therefore less oxygen for its roots to respire. These soils need larger
intervals between irrigations, may be, 4-6 days. Besides, horizontal flow
distance under the dripper is more than the vertical flow one. They need to
have 2 or more meters between drip lines and 60 cm between drippers.
Drippers to be used are of discharge rate 2-4 liters/hour but a longer period
or irrigation in order to insure more vertical wetting. All of the above are
for vegetables. If micro sprinklers are to be used for trees, then 2-3 would
be put around the tree based on the age. Heat motion down the soil is good.
Whereas, oxygen movement downward is slow because of the dense B
horizon of high micro pores percentage.
17
Figure 2. Soil moisture distribution and availability in different

textural classes
B. Soil Water Measurement
1. Laboratory Methods:
a. Soil Moisture Content by Weight (Gravimetric Method)(θw)
Determination of soil moisture % by weight, θw

1. Put 100gms of soil on an Aluminum foil.
2. Weigh them.
3. Put the Aluminum foil open in the oven for 24 hrs at 105 oC.
4. Cool them with Aluminum foil closed.
5. Reweigh.
Θw ={[Mass of water (gm)] / [Mass of oven dry soil (gm)]} *100
( ( ) ( )
Soil Moisture % by weight, θw = ∗ 100
( )
18
b. Soil Moisture Content by Volume (θv)
θ v = θv * ρ b
Or,
θv = {[Volume of water (cm3)] / [Volume of soil (cm3)]} *100
c. Depth of water in soils (θd)
θd={Depth of water (cm)/depth of soil (cm)}(cm/cm)

Or
θd = θv/100
d. Bulk Density(ρb )
ρb = [θv/θw] (gm/cm3,)
ρb = [Oven dry bulk soil mass (gm)] /[Bulk volume of soil(cm3)].
e. Particle Density (ρp)
Particle density is the mass of solid soil particles excluding pores with
water and air, divided by its volume. And it is usually equal to 2.65
gm/cm3.
f. Total Porosity, %f
%f = [1 – (ρb/ ρp] * 100
2. Field Measurements:
19
a. Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR) for measuring soil moisture content

by volume %, θv.
An instrument used to measure θv based on the electromagnetic constant of

water, which is the dielectric constant, ε. It is equal to 80for water,
compared to most other soil properties components, which are very low
(Figure 3) and much less than 80.
- TDR is of low cost, non-destructive. It depends on moisture content in

soils, θv.
- It operates at a temperature range of -40 to +55 C.
- It can also measure bulk density and electrical conductivity.
- It is accurate and precise.
- It is supported by a data logger.
- It uses probes to measure soil moisture even at high water movement
under sandy soils.
Figure 3.Time Domain Reflectometer
C. Total Soil Water Potential ( ψt )
1. Definitions
20
Total water potential, also known as energy or work needed to take a unit of
water from point to another point. It represents the state of water in the soil
expressed as energy (ψ t) with which it is held rather than as percentage (θw
or θv or θd). This is use d because expressing water in soil % by weight or %
by volume is not enough to tell us about its availability and movement to
plants, since plants’ roots have to do work to be able to suck water out of
the pores in the soil so as to take it up the plants to do what is needed to be
done in terms of chemical and micro-biological reaction besides stomata
and go back to the atmosphere through the process known as transpiration.
So when water is expressed as potential, it will give us a better idea on how
much available water is in the soil. Clayey soils store more water because it
has more micro pores, whereas sandy soils although they transfer water and
oxygen more quickly than clayey soils because of the more macrospores
they have, but they contain less storage microspores. The best soils are the
loamy one. They have almost equal volume of micro pores and macro
pores. They store more water, and they have more available water to plants,
and they pass more oxygen into and outside the soil. They pass out the
carbon dioxide, and replace it by oxygen from the atmosphere and are taken
by the plants in the process of root respiration.
This explains the necessity of having water expressed in bars and not in %.
Field capacity is moisture content at 1/10 bar in sandy soil, and 1/3 bar for
loam and clay, whereas 15 bars is for permanent wilting point. For
irrigation by large or macro- irrigation systems like surface irrigation, we
irrigate when tension or potential is at 1/3 -1/2 available water. For drip we
irrigate when potential is at 30-60 centibars or micro sprayer when potential
is at 1.5 bars maximum (Figure 4).
21
Figure 4. Available water depletion for different soil textural

classes.
Saturated percentage: The point at which all micro pores and macro
pores are filled with water (zero bars tension).
Available moisture content to plants is those that are held between

(1/3 – 15 bars) that is between field capacity and permanent wilting
point.
Available water depletion for different textural classes is shown in

Figure 4.
2. Field Measurement
a.Tensiometer
22
It is a Pyrex pipe with a cap and gauge at the top and a porous cup at the
bottom. It is filled with de-aerated water and kept soaked with water in a
barrel. It is kept open for air bubbles to go out (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Tensiometer Components
Next day, it is filled with water to the top and closed by the cap. On the
gauge it is adjusted to read zero. Then it is taken to the field and inserted
were a plant or a tree is located, then after twenty four hours a reading is
taken. Let us say the gauge reads 50 centibars, we read the curve prepared
for the calibration of the tensiometer or the soil moist characteristics curve
to find (θv), the soil moisture that corresponds to 50 centibars, and calculate
the amount of water needed to be applied for the field under study, or the
field to be irrigated. The reading on the tensiometer should not exceed 75-
80 centibars because air bubbles start going into the pipe and mix with the
water, giving wrong readings.
Example 1. Calculate the Irrigation water requirements for a farm using

tensiometer and soil moisture characteristic curve readings (Figure 6).
23
Figure 6. Soil Moisture characteristic curve for tensiometer readings
Figure 6 shows the irrigation schedule for a field where irrigation is needed
under drip system throughout the season every time the tensiometer shows a
matric potential of 50 centibars potential. The amount needed to be used
can be obtained from a pre-determined soil moisture characteristic curve for
a soil for the area to be planted. This curve is drawn for moisture content by
volume, θv at different potentials (ψ, centibars) as shown in Figure 6.
The crop planted is citrus with the root zone of 1 meter depth.
Given:
Area: 10,000 m2
Crop: Citrus , 5 years old
Location: South Lebanon
Curve and tensiometer readings = θv = 36% at saturation = 0 cb
=30% at irrigation = 50 cb (Figure 6)
Depth of root zone = 1 m
Irrigation efficiency = 90%
Irrigation interval = every 3 days; June 1 – Sept. 15
24
There is no salinity in water or soil, no mulch used, no deficit irrigation, no

effective rainfall, and no vegetables or crops between trees (i.e., no
intercropping).
Solution
A: % water to be added per irrigation = θv = 36-30= 6%
B: Vol. of soil to irrigate = 10,000m2 * 1 m = 10,000 m3
C: Volume of water needed for irrigation = 10,000 * 6% = 600 m3
D: Total volume needed per period 1/6-15/9 = 600 *36 = 21600 m3
Considering 90% efficiency
E: 600m3/0.9 = 667m3/ irrigation * 36 = 24000 m3 per season.
b. Ceramic plate in the laboratory:
It is a porous plate on which saturated soil samples are placed. The plate
then is placed in a pressure chamber and shut very tightly. The chamber is
then subjected to 0.1 bar pressure. Water that is held at 0.1 bar pressure and
less is going to come out of the soil sample. When water stops coming out
we measure the sample weight and we put it back in the chamber. We
repeat this process for pressures: 0.3; 0.5; 0.7;1.0; 3.0; 5.0; 7.0; 10.0; 13.0;
and 15.0 bars pressure values. Then we calculate the % moisture content by
volume under each pressure (potential) value. Then we draw the soil
moisture characteristic curve (Figure 7).
25
Figure 7. Soil moisture characteristic curve
c. Soil Moisture
26
This curve is used to determine how much water is needed for irrigation to
bring the soil from the potential the soil is at the time of reading to zero
potential, i.e., at saturation.
d. Soil Water Movement
Water movement is affected by soil texture depending on pore size

distribution as shown below.
1. Sandy soils
Whereas in sandy soils macropores are more than micropores and

gravitational potential is high so it moves down vertically faster and farther
than other soils.
2. Loamy soils
Whereas it moves horizontally and vertically nearly at the same rate in

loamy soils because the micropores / macropores ratio is almost equal to 1
and therefore the potential is equal in all directions.
3. Clayey soil
Water spreads on the surface of clayey soils more than on other soils
because of the lower infiltration in clayey soils. So the vertical movement in
those soils will eventually be smaller compared to other types of soils. All
of the above is due to the abundance of micropores in clayey soils (Figure
8).
27
Figures 8. Advance on wetting fronts in 3 different soil textural classes.
e. Wetting Front in the Presence of Hardpan layer
When a layer of hardpan or hard clay is found at 20-30-40 cm soil

(loam), it affects water flow and creates a water layer above the hardpan.
We should be careful when install a drainage system (it should be always
below water table) and should plant a crop which will have roots that do not
reach the water table, because the plant will wilt and die (Figure 9).
28
Figure 9. Wetting front in the presence of hardpan layer
f. Wetting Front in the Presence of Sand or Gravel Layer
This is the best soil ever. But, it must have a soil depth that would be
of root zone enough for a crop to live, to respire, to be supported, and to be
above the water table which rarely exists in these soils (Figure 10).
29
Figure 10. Wetting front in the presence of sand or gravel layer
g. Infiltration rate (i)
The rate at which water goes vertically into the surface of the soil.
It starts to be high at the beginning because the soil pores are empty and
decreases during the first few hours until it reaches a constant value after 1-
5 hours depending on the texture of the soils then it levels down to become
constant. This constant value is called "basic infiltration rate". This last
value should not be exceeded when the soil is irrigated otherwise surface
water runoff takes place (Figure 11 a and b).
I = St½ + At………….. (1)
Where: I is infiltration depth (cm)
S is Sorptivity (cm min -1/2)
t is time (min)
A is a constant that depends on soil hydraulic
30
conductivity, (cm/min)
i = dI/dt = ½St-½+A……… (2)
Where i is infiltration rate (cm/min)
Figure 11. a) Double ring infiltrometer, b) Infiltration rate curve
h. Rate of advance of wetting front horizontally
It is the rate of advance of the wet front horizontally which is needed to

determine the distance between drippers which differs for different soil
31
textural classes. Since, water moves faster horizontally in clayey soils than
in sandy soils (Figure 12).
x= At ½
Where x is distance traveled
t is time
A is a constant
dx/dt =½At - ½
Figure 12. Horizontal rate of advance
j. Rate of advance of wetting front vertically
It is the rate of vertical advance of wetting front which is needed to be

known when designing drip irrigation system. Vertically, water moves
faster in sandy soils than is clayey soil. Since we don't want water to go
deep in soils below the root zone of the crop used, we have to determine the
depth to which water reaches at after a certain time for irrigation (Figure
13).
y = Ct
Where y is vertical distance advance
C is a constant
t is time
and Vertical rate of advance, dy/dt = C
32
Figure 13. Vertical rate of advance of wetting front
33
Chapter 3: Plant water relations
A. Potential Evapotranspiration (ETo)
Water in soils is partly absorbed by plant roots and partly lost by deep
percolation into the soil below the root zone. The part absorbed by roots
goes inside the plant system and ends up at the plant leaves and evaporates
from the stomata. This part is called transpiration water. The part
evaporated by the effect of sun energy from the surface of the soil is called
evaporated water or evaporation. Both parts (transpiration and evaporation)
are called, potential evapotranspiration, (ETo), for grass. From other plants
it is called crop Evapotranspiration, ETc.
ETo is determined by many ways in the field. Of these methods are the
depletion method or the lysimeter, as well as by the analytical or empirical
equations. There are many equations used for this purpose. Some are used
all over the world and modified by many persons or agencies like the
modified Penman Monteith which was modified by FAO and which is
acceptable to most scientists and agencies and is still used. Some of them
require much less data (climatic data such as, solar, daytime hours, etc…,
and crop and soil data), because developing countries did not and some still
not collecting enough such data.
1. Crop Coefficient (Kc)
Kc is a factor used to multiply by ETo and obtain crop water requirement,

ETc. This factor is unique for each crop at a certain climatic zone for a
specific stage of growth. It was determined in the field for each plant and
location and season by using lysimeters which were constructed to weigh
and measure water drained after irrigation and subtract it from water
applied and compare the result with that obtained by planting a reference
crop (grass or alfalfa) to determine Kc for each day. Later on we use Kc to
multiply by ETo (as determined by FAO modified Penman Monteith
equation and calculated by the Departments of Meteorology or the Ministry
of Water and Irrigation) for different crops in the area to get ETc (Figures
15, 16 are examples of Kc for beans in a region studied by FAO and citrus
in Italy, respectively).
34
Figure 15. Kc value for beans in Italy (Mediterranean)
Figure 16. Kc value for citrus in southern Italy
35
2. Figure14. Crop coefficient values, Kc, for different crops, in different regions (FAO).
36
Figure 14. (cont.)
Group Region Crop

Kc ini Kc mid Kc end Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
Calif., USA Cantaloupe 0.50 0.85 0.60
Calif., USA Cantaloupe 0.50 0.85 0.60
Arid Region Cucumber 0.50 1.00 0.90

c. Vegetables - Cucumber Family (Cucurbitaceae)
(Machine
Arid Region Cucumber 0.50 1.00 0.90
(Machine
Mediterranean Pumpkin, Winter 0.50 1.00 0.80
squash
Europe Pumpkin, Winter 0.50 1.00 0.80
squash
Medit.; Arid Reg. Squash, Zucchini 0.50 0.95 0.75
Medit.; Europe Squash, Zucchini 0.50 0.95 0.75
Mediterranean Sweet melons 0.50 1.05 0.75
Calif., USA Sweet melons 0.50 1.05 0.75
Calif. Desert, Sweet melons 0.50 1.05 0.75

USA
Arid Region Sweet melons 0.50 1.05 0.75
Italy Water melons 0.40 1.00 0.70
Near East Water melons 0.40 1.00 0.70

(desert)
Mediterranean Beets, table 0.50 1.05 0.95
Mediterranean & Beets, table 0.50 1.05 0.95

Arid
Tropical regions Cassava: year 1 0.30 0.80 0.30
Cassava: year 2 0.30 1.10 0.50
(Semi) Arid Potato 0.50 1.15 0.75

Climate
Continental Potato 0.50 1.15 0.75
Climate
Europe Potato 0.50 1.15 0.75
Idaho, USA Potato 0.50 1.15 0.75

d. Roots and Tubers
Calif. Desert, Potato 0.50 1.15 0.75

USA
Mediterranean Sweet potato 0.50 1.15 0.65
Tropical regions Sweet potato 0.50 1.15 0.65
Calif., USA Sugarbeet 0.35 1.20 0.71
Calif., USA Sugarbeet 0.35 1.20 0.71
Calif. Desert, Sugarbeet 0.35 1.20 0.71

USA
Idaho, USA Sugarbeet 0.35 1.20 0.71
Mediterranean Sugarbeet 0.35 1.20 0.71
Mediterranean Sugarbeet 0.35 1.20 0.71
Arid Regions Sugarbeet 0.35 1.20 0.71
37
Figure 14. (cont.)

Group Region Crop
Calif., Beans (green) 0.50 1.05 0.90
Mediterranean
Calif., Egypt, Beans (green) 0.50 1.05 0.90
Lebanon
Continental Beans (dry) 0.40 1.15 0.35
Climates
Pakistan, Calif. Beans (dry) 0.40 1.15 0.35
Idaho, USA Beans (dry) 0.40 1.15 0.35
Europe Faba bean, 0.50 1.15 0.30

broad bean - dry
e. Legumes (Leguminosae)
Europe Faba bean, 0.50 1.15 1.10

broad bean -
Mediterranean Green gram, 0.40 1.05 0.60
cowpeas
West Africa Groundnut 0.40 1.15 0.35
High Latitudes Groundnut 0.40 1.15 0.35
Mediterranean Groundnut 0.40 1.15 0.35
Europe Lentil 0.40 1.10 0.30
Arid Region Lentil 0.40 1.10 0.30
Tropics Soybeans 0.40 1.15 0.50
Central USA Soybeans 0.40 1.15 0.50
Japan Soybeans 0.40 1.15 0.50
California Artichoke 0.50 1.00 0.95

Vegetables
f. Perennial
(cut in May) Artichoke 0.50 1.00 0.95
Warm Winter Asparagus 0.50 0.96 0.30
Mediterranean Asparagus 0.50 0.96 0.30
Egypt; Pakistan; Cotton 0.35 1.20 0.50

Calif.
Calif. Desert, Cotton 0.35 1.20 0.50
USA
g. Fibre Crops
Yemen Cotton 0.35 1.20 0.50
Texas Cotton 0.35 1.20 0.50
Europe Flax 0.35 1.10 0.25
Arizona Flax 0.35 1.10 0.25
38
Figure 14. (cont.)
Group Region Crop

(Semi) Arid Castor beans 0.35 1.15 0.55
Climates
Indonesia Castor beans 0.35 1.15 0.55
California, USA Safflower 0.35 1.10 0.35

h. Oil Crops
High Latitudes Safflower 0.35 1.10 0.35
Arid Region Safflower 0.35 1.10 0.35
China Sesame 0.35 1.10 0.25
Medit.; California Sunflower 0.35 1.10 0.35
Central India Barley/Oats/Whe 0.30 1.15 0.25

at
35-45 °L Barley/Oats/Whe 0.30 1.15 0.25
at
East Africa Barley/Oats/Whe 0.30 1.15 0.25
at
Barley/Oats/Whe 0.30 1.15 0.25
at
Barley/Oats/Whe 0.30 1.15 0.25
at
Calif. Desert, Barley/Oats/Whe 0.30 1.15 0.25
USA at
East Africa (alt.) Maize (grain) 0.30 1.20 0.60
Arid Climate Maize (grain) 0.30 1.20 0.60
Nigeria (humid) Maize (grain) 0.30 1.20 0.60
India (dry, cool) Maize (grain) 0.30 1.20 0.60

i. Cereals
Spain (spr, Maize (grain) 0.30 1.20 0.60

sum.); Calif.
Idaho, USA Maize (grain) 0.30 1.20 0.60
Philippines Maize (sweet) 0.30 1.20 0.60
Mediterranean Maize (sweet) 0.30 1.20 0.60
Arid Climate Maize (sweet) 0.30 1.20 0.60
Idaho, USA Maize (sweet) 0.30 1.20 0.60
Calif. Desert, Maize (sweet) 0.30 1.20 0.60

USA
Pakistan Millet 0.30 1.00 0.30
Central USA Millet 0.30 1.00 0.30
Tropics; Rice 1.05 1.20 0.75

Mediterranean
Tropics Rice 1.05 1.20 0.75
39
Figure 14. (cont.)
Group Region Crop

Calif. Desert, Bermuda for 0.35 0.90 0.65
USA seed
j. F orages
Calif. Desert, Sudan, 1st 0.50 0.90 0.85

USA cutting cycle
Calif. Desert, Sudan, other 0.50 1.15 1.10
USA cutting cycles
Mediterranean Banana, 1st yr 0.50 1.10 1.00
and T rees
l. T ropic al
F ruits
Mediterranean Banana, 2nd yr 1.00 1.20 1.10
Low Latitudes Grapes 0.30 0.85 0.45

m . G rapes and B erries
Calif., USA Grapes 0.30 0.85 0.45
High Latitudes Grapes 0.30 0.85 0.45
Mid Latitudes Grapes 0.30 0.85 0.45

(wine)
Idaho, USA Hops 0.30 1.05 0.85
Mediterranean Citrus 0.65 0.60 0.65

n. F ruit Trees
Mediterranean Olives 0.65 0.70 0.70
Mediterranean Pistachios 0.40 1.10 0.45
Utah, USA Walnuts 0.50 1.10 0.65
40
3. Crop Water Requirement, ETc, using modified Penman Monteith

equation.
ETo values depend upon net radiation from the sun, maximum and minimum
temperature, daylight sunshine hours, wind, humidity, and crop (Figure 15).
In certain equations some of the above factors are used, others use all the
factors. This depends on availability of data. Therefore radiation,
temperature, wind, relative humidity, and other climatic factors affect ETo
values. The used equations are called potential or reference
evapotranspiration.
Example 2. Determine ETc for Scheduling Irrigation, using FAO

Modified Penman Monteith Equation
For our purposes we cannot generalize and impose any equation but we will
use in our examples data obtained by Penman Monteith equations. And we
will use some pan evaporation equations because it is the simplest, and
proved to give acceptable results.
Assume a tomato crop will be planted in the Jazira Project –Sudan. ETo is
6.0 mm/day, on March. On April, it is 7.6 mm/day, on May it is 7.9 mm/day,
and on June it is 8.2 mm/day. Kc values are 0.7, 1.0, 1.2 and 1.0, respectively
and season stages lengths are 25, 20, 40, and 20 days (Figure 17).
Planting takes place on March 5th, and harvest take place on June 20th.
41
Figure 17. Kc values as a curve for tomato in Sudan
Given the following Kc, ETo during the season, calculate ETc, Total water
requirement, No of irrigations and irrigation water requirement for the
month of May for 10 hectares farm planted with tomatoes.
Mar Mar Mar April April April May May May Jan Jan
Kc 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.0
ETo (mm) 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.8 7.6 7.8 7.9 7.9 7.9 8.1 8.2
No of 5 10 11 10 10 10 10 10 11 10 10
days(days)
ETc (mm) 4.2 4.2 4.3 6.8 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.5 9.4 8.1 8.2
Total (mm) 21 42 47 68 94 94 94 95 95 81 82
Total for May = 94+95+95 = 284 mm
Total year = 814 mm
If it is going to be irrigated with a drip system, and assuming there is no

effective rainfall, or deficit irrigation, or salinity problems, and no mulch,
42
and assuming an efficiency of 90%. We have to irrigate twice a week, i.e.,

15 irrigations per month.
284mm / (0.9 * 15) = 21 mm per irrigation
Irrigate per irrigation = 21mm / 1000 mm per meter * 10 hectares * 10000

m2 / hectare = 2100 m3 per irrigation for the month of May.
4. Pan Evaporation Equation
The first method we explained so far is the most accurate and suitable. Many
meteorological stations, all over the developing countries, do not have
ability to measure the ETo data required by FAO modified Penman Monteith
equation.
We find the class A pan evaporation method (Figure 18) to determine pan
evaporation depth is the easiest and most convenient to the farmer. It is
simply the pan evaporation factor, Ep multiplied by Kp coefficient (It ranges
between 0.7 and 0.8). 0.7 for humid areas and 0.8 for dry areas and we have
the following equations to use.
ET o = E p * K p
Ep = Evaporation from a class A pan
K p = 0.7-0.8
ET c= E p * K p * K c
Where:
ETo = Potential evapotranspiration
K p = Pan evaporation factor
K c = Crop coefficient factor
43
Ep can be obtained daily or every 10 days from Meteorological Station. We

just measure evaporation using a scale in a pan of certain dimensions and
special pointed nail which we move up and down carefully using a needle on
its top. It is important to have this pan inside a field planted with grass and
measure daily depth of water in mm. The obtained value is Ep.
Figure 18. class A pan, in a Weather Station
Example 3. Determination of ETc for Green Pepper using Pan

Evaporation Data
In an arid area with no data available other than class A pan evaporation
(Ep), calculate ETc for green pepper given the following data for Ep (mm):
Region/ Month May June July August Sept. Total

Chestnut Hill 116 124 164 149 89 638
(central)
44
K p ranges between 0.7 in the humid areas to 0.8 in the arid and semi arid
areas.
Since we are talking about arid areas then:
ET o = K p*E p
ETo = 0.8 * Ep
ETc= ETo* Kc
Parameter/Month May June July August Sept

ETo (cm) Chestnut Hill 93 99 131 119 71
If Kc for pepper 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.70
ETc (mm) 55.5 69.3 104.8 95.2 49.7
Total = 375 mm for Chestnut Hill
Which is equal to 3750 m3 / hectare
We can also use this value to determine the initial Kc value for certain crops
in the calculation of ETo in Penman Monteith equation.
5. Soil Water Budget Equation
This is a general equation that is used to determine evapotranspiration

amount for a certain region or basin. It takes into consideration the total
amount of water that comes into the basin and the total amount leaving the
region or basin. These include the following:
(Crop Evaporation)
ETc = irrigation plus rainfall plus surface in flow from other region or run on
(in), minus outflow from the basin or run off (out), minus deep percolation
into the groundwater, minus the outflow from the groundwater as springs on
to reservoir or oceans, plus water stored in soils through the season, minus
water depleted from soils that was originally available in the soil. Capillary
rise from water table should be added if the table is close to the surface.
This method is difficult to apply by farmers because it requires continuous
hydrological data in order to decide on ETo and eventually determine
irrigation amounts every day or every other day. It is the role of the Ministry
45
of Water and Irrigation or any other official water or climate organization, to

collect such data and provide the ETo value to the farmer.
The soil water budget equation is

ETc = Ev + Tp = R + I – DP + RO + DS+CA
Where:
ETc: Crop Evapotranspiration (mm)
E v: Evaporation (mm)
Tp: Transpiration (mm)
R: Rainfall (mm)
I: Irrigation (mm)
DP: Deep percolation (mm)
+DS: Depletion or increase in soil moisture at the end of the season
(mm)
+RO: Run off in or out of the area under study (mm)
CA: Capillary rise from groundwater (mm)
As mentioned previously ETo can be determined by soil water budget

equation. It can also be determined by different equations developed by
different scientists and available in the literature.
When a plant does not receive water from a certain soil the required amounts
(ETc ) + …. , it will wilt and then die if we do not irrigate it as quickly as
possible.
There are critical periods for crops when they should not be subject to
drought or water deficit. These periods are: seedling emergence,
transplanting; flowering, fruit set, and fruit growth.
6. The Hydrologic Cycle
The hydrologic cycle describes the water cycle from clouds into rainfall
down into earth and oceans, seas, rivers and streams, partly into
groundwater. We collect some of the surface water for drinking and
46
irrigation, and industrial use and recreation and pump a good amount from
the groundwater especially in regions where surface water is scarce.
Part of it goes back to the sea and to the ocean and part of it goes to the
atmosphere by evapotranspiration process, and then back to earth as rainfall,
or as snow in the highlands (Figure 19).
Figure 19. Hydrologic cycle (source: Michigan Environmental Education

Curriculum)
B. Water Sources
Water sources are important to know and analyze before deciding on
microirrigation system application to a certain field or area. Sources include
surface water and groundwater. This water is stored in ponds, reservoirs or
47
dams. Some of it is treated wastewater. They are transported from distance

away to the farm via canals, ditches, rivers, streams, pipes, etc.
Treated wastewater might affect the drippers by calcification and clogging or

by importing or transporting bacteria and algae which always cause
problems. So treatment by filters, chlorine and flushing is needed for
pressurized systems of microirrigation.
C. Water Quality Parameters
A basic knowledge of water quality is very useful to microirrigation system

management and is an important consideration in the design and operation of
the system. Therefore, the ability to read and understand a water quality
analysis report is important to the irrigation system manager. A careful
analysis of the source water is prudent as a preliminary step to designing the
microirrigation system. A microirrigation system requires good quality water
free of all but the finest suspended solids and relatively free of dissolved
solids, such as iron, which may precipitate out and cause emitter plugging
problems. Neglecting to analyze the quality of source water and provide
adequate treatment is one of the most common reasons for the failure of
microirrigation systems to function properly.
Obtaining and interpreting a water quality analysis
It is important that a representative water sample be taken. If the source is a

well, the sample should be collected after the pump has run for at least 30
minutes. When collecting samples from a surface water source, the samples
should be taken near the intake and 10-20cm below the water surface. Where
surface water sources are subject to seasonal variations in quality, these
sources should be sampled and analyzed at various times throughout the
irrigation season.
Glass or plastic containers are preferable for sample collection. For most
analyses, the samples should be at least a 1.0 liter. The containers should be
thoroughly cleaned and rinsed before use to avoid contamination of the
water sample. Sample bottles should be filled completely to the top (with all
air removed), carefully labeled, and tightly sealed. Samples should be sent
immediately to a laboratory for water testing. For a microirrigation
48
suitability analysis, the following tests should be requested from the

laboratory: electrical conductivity (EC) or total dissolved solids (TDS), pH,
calcium, iron, alkalinity, and chloride. If filtration information is needed, the
quantity and size of suspended solids should also be requested. Other
parameters that are sometimes required to properly access suitability of the
irrigation water are sodium, boron, potassium, manganese, nitrate, and
sulfides (hydrogen sulfide must be measured at the well-head).
Surface water to be used for microirrigation should be carefully examined to

assess any potential clogging problems. Irrigation water can carry inorganic
particles such as sand, silt and clay as well as organic particles like algae and
weed seeds. These particles can block emitter flow passages or settle out in
the lateral lines or filters. High loads of suspended particles in the irrigation
water may require pre-filtration treatment. A settling pond may be used for
this purpose where sand and silt size particles are separated by
sedimentation.
Bacteria carried with irrigation water can grow within the system producing
a mass of slime and may cause iron and sulfur to precipitate out of the water.
The slime may bind fine silt and clay particles in aggregates large enough to
cause emitter clogging. Algae may also grow within the system and cause
clogging problems when washed in the laterals and emitters.
Chemical constituents such as calcium, bicarbonate, iron, manganese, and

sulfide commonly found in well water may precipitate and clog emitters.
Bicarbonate is common in surface and groundwater. At pH of 7.5 or higher
and bicarbonate concentration of 2 milliequivalent per liter (meq/l), the
bicarbonate is susceptible to precipitation as calcium carbonate (lime) if
comparable levels of calcium are naturally present in the water or if
compounds containing calcium are injected in the system. The usual
treatment of lime precipitation is to acidify the water to lower the pH below
7.0.
Iron and manganese are often present in groundwater in soluble forms and
they may precipitate out of the water due to changes in temperature or
pressure, in response to a rise in pH, or through the action of bacteria. The
result is a massive sludge or slime capable of incapacitating the entire
49
irrigation system. Iron precipitate is of rusty reddish color while manganese

precipitate is dark brown or black. These elements may create emitter
clogging problems at concentrations as low as 0.1 ppm. At high
concentrations of iron and manganese chemical precipitation can be
mitigated by water aeration, settling the precipitates in a pond and then clear
water is pumped through the system filter. At low concentrations, iron and
manganese may be maintained in a soluble state by injecting acid, e.g.
hydrochloric acid, in the system to lower the pH of irrigation water. Cost
effectiveness may determine which method to be used.
1. Water Quality Parameters
a. Electrical Conductivity
Conductivity is a measure of the ability of water to pass an electrical current.

Conductivity in water is affected by the presence of inorganic dissolved
solids such as chloride, nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate anions (ions that carry
a negative charge) or sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron, and aluminum
cations (ions that carry a positive charge). The unit of measurement is deci-
Siemens per meter (dS/m), generally in the range of 0.1 to 5.0 for waters
used for irrigation. Conductivity is also often reported in units 1000 times
larger micro Siemens per centimeter (μS / cm) (Table 2).
b. Alkalinity
Alkalinity is primarily determined by the presence of bicarbonates (HCO3-),

carbonates (CO3-), and hydroxides (OH-) in water. Alkalinity is a measure of
the capacity of water to neutralize acids. Total alkalinity is measured by
measuring the amount of acid (e.g. muriatic acid) needed to bring the sample
to a pH of 4.2. The result is reported as milligrams per liter of calcium
carbonate (mg/L of CaCO3). At the pH of most irrigation water, alkalinity is
primarily a measure of bicarbonate in the water. Alkalinity expressed as
mg/L of CaCO3 can be converted to an equivalent concentration of HCO3-
by multiplying by 0.82.
c. pH
50
The term pH is used to indicate the alkalinity or acidity of a substance as

ranked on a scale from 1.0 to 14.0. Acidity increases as the pH value gets
lower. The pH of water affects many chemical and biological processes in
the water. Below 7.0, the water is acidic (there are more hydrogen ions than
hydroxide ions). When the pH is above 7.0, the water is alkaline, or basic
(there are more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions). The pH should be
measured within 2 hours of the sample collection as pH value decreases due
to carbon dioxide from the air dissolving in the water.
The pH of the source water may determine whether or not various dissolved
solids present in the water, such as iron or calcium carbonate, will precipitate
out to cause emitter clogging. The water pH may help or hinder the action of
chlorine used for control of biological growth, may affect soil pH, and may
cause fertilizers to precipitate out of solution and cause clogging problems
(Table 2).
d. Hardness
Hardness in water is caused primarily by calcium and magnesium, although

iron and manganese also contribute to the actual hardness. Hardness may be
divided into two types: carbonate and non-carbonate. Carbonate hardness is
the portion of calcium and magnesium that can combine with bicarbonate to
form calcium and magnesium carbonate. If the hardness exceeds the
alkalinity (expressed as mg/L CaCO3), the excess is termed non-carbonate
hardness. The carbonate hardness is an indicator of the potential for calcium
carbonate precipitation and scale formation. Total hardness (carbonate and
non-carbonate) is customarily expressed as equivalent calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) (Table 2).
e. Total Solids
Total solids are total dissolved solids (TDS) plus suspended and settle able
solids in water. Dissolved solids consist of calcium, chlorides, nitrate,
phosphorus, iron, sulfur, other ions, and particles that will pass through a
filter with pores of approximately 2 microns in size. Suspended solids
51
include silt and clay particles, plankton, algae, fine organic debris, and other
particulate matter. These are particles that will not pass through a 2 micron
filter. Total solids can be determined by evaporating all the water from a
water sample of known weight and then weighing the salt remaining (Table
2).
2. Primary Constituent Ions

a. Calcium (Ca)
Calcium is found to some extent in all natural waters. Calcium combines

with carbonate to form calcium carbonate scale, which can plug
microirrigation system emitters. Calcium concentration is sometimes
expressed as calcium hardness. To determine calcium concentration (mg/L),
multiply calcium hardness by 0.4.
b. Magnesium (Mg)
Magnesium is also usually found in measurable amounts. Magnesium

behaves much like calcium, but precipitates at higher pH levels and is not
typically a problem in microirrigation systems. To determine the magnesium
concentration (mg/L), multiply Mg hardness by 0.24. Often laboratories will
not separate calcium and magnesium but will report simply Ca + Mg in
meq/L (as Hardness).
c. Sodium (Na)
Sodium salts are all very soluble and as a result are found in most natural
waters. High sodium in the irrigation water can impact both the soil and the
plant. A soil with a large amount of sodium associated with a clay fraction
has poor physical properties for plant growth and water infiltration. At high
concentrations, Na can also be toxic to many plants. Sodium does not cause
problems with the irrigation system (Table 2).
d. Potassium (K)
52
Potassium is usually found in lesser amounts in natural waters. It behaves

much like sodium in the water, but it is a major plant nutrient.
e. Iron
Iron in groundwater is normally present in the ferrous form (Fe++) which is a

soluble state. It is easily oxidized to insoluble ferric iron (Fe +++) upon
exposure to air. The ferrous form can persist in water void of dissolved
oxygen and usually originates from groundwater wells. Iron in the soluble
(ferrous) form may create emitter clogging problems at concentrations as
low as 0.3 mg/L. Dissolved iron may precipitate out of the water due to
changes in temperature or pressure, in response to a rise in pH, exposure to
air, or through the action of bacteria. The presence of iron bacteria often
results in the formation of an ochre sludge or slime mass capable of plugging
the entire microirrigation system (Table 2).
f. Manganese (Mn)
Manganese occurs in groundwater but is less common than iron, and it is

generally in smaller amounts. Like iron, manganese in solution may
precipitate out as a result of chemical or biological activity, forming a
sediment which will clog emitters and other system components. The color
of the deposits ranges from dark brown, if there is a mixture of iron, to black
if the manganese oxide is pure (Table 2).
g. Bicarbonate (HCO3)
Bicarbonate is common in natural waters. Sodium and potassium

bicarbonates can exist as solid salts while calcium and magnesium
bicarbonates exist only in solution. Large amounts of bicarbonate ions in
irrigation water will precipitate calcium when the soil dries and leave
sodium in its place. The result will be the development of sodic soil.
53
h. Carbonate (CO3)
Carbonate is found in some waters at high pH (>8.0). At normal pH levels

alkalinity is primarily in the form of bicarbonate. Since calcium and
magnesium carbonates are relatively insoluble, high carbonate waters mean
that the cations associated with them are likely to be sodium with possibly a
small amount of potassium. Upon drying in the soil, the carbonate ion will
remove calcium and magnesium from the clay in a process similar to that of
bicarbonate, and alkali (sodic) soil will develop.
i. Chloride (Cl)
Chloride is found in most natural waters. In high concentrations it is toxic to

some plants. All common chlorides are soluble and contribute to salinity of
soils. The chloride content should be determined to properly evaluate
irrigation waters if TDS is greater than 1000 mg/L(Table 2) .
j. Sulfate/Sulfide
Sulfate (SO4) is abundant in nature. Sodium, magnesium, and potassium

sulfates are readily soluble in water. The presence of soluble calcium will
limit sulfate solubility.
Groundwater that contains dissolved hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S) is easily

recognized by its rotten-egg odor. As little as 0.5 ppm is noticeable. If the
irrigation water contains more than 0.1 ppm of total sulfides, sulfur bacteria
may grow within the irrigation system, forming masses of slime which may
clog filters and plug emitters.
k. Nitrogen (N)
Nitrogen is one of the most abundant elements. Inorganic nitrogen may exist
in the free state as a gas (N2), or as nitrate (NO3-), nitrite (NO2-), or ammonia
(NH3+). Organic nitrogen is found in proteins and is continually recycled by
54
plants and animals. Nitrates have no effect on the physical properties of soil
except to contribute slightly to its salinity, and nitrate is not harmful to the
irrigation system.
l. Boron (B)
Boron occurs in natural waters. A small amount of boron is essential for

plant growth, but a concentration slightly above the optimum is toxic to
plants. Some plants are more sensitive to a boron excess than others (Table
2).
m. Phosphorus
Phosphates exist in three forms: orthophosphate, metaphosphate (or

polyphosphate) and organically bound phosphate. Each compound contains
phosphorous in a different chemical formula. Orthophosphates are produced
by natural processes. Poly-forms are used for treating boiler waters and in
detergents. In water solutions, they change into the ortho-form. Both organic
and inorganic phosphorus can either be dissolved in the water or suspended
or attached to particles in the water.
n. Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
SAR is the ratio of the concentration of sodium ions with the concentration
of calcium and magnesium ions and is helpful in assessing the degree to
which detrimental sodium will replace beneficial calcium on soil clay
particles. The “adjusted SAR” (adj. RNa) includes the role bicarbonates play
in stripping the soil of beneficial calcium. To properly estimate permeability
hazard, the inter-relationship between adj. RNa and ECw should be
considered (Table 2).
55
Table 2. Guidelines for interpretation of water analysis results.
Degree of Problem
Water Quality Parameter
Slight Moderate Severe
Salinity
EC ( dS/m) < 0.7 0.7 - 3.0 > 3.0
TDS (ppm) < 500 500 - 2000 >2000
Toxicity
Sodium (SAR) < 10 10 - 18 > 18
Chloride (ppm) <140 140 - 350 > 350
Boron (ppm) < 0.5 0.5 - 2.0 > 2.0
Emitter Plugging
Iron (ppm) < 0.2 0.2 – 1.5 > 1.5
Manganese (ppm) < 0.1 0.1 - 1.5 > 1.5
pH < 7.0 7.0 – 8.0 > 8.0
Hydrogen Sulfide (ppm) <0.5 .5 – 2.0 > 0.2
Suspended Solids (ppm) <50 50 - 100 >100
Hardness (CaCO3) <100 100 - 200 >200
Alkalinity <150 150 - 300 >300
Sulfides (ppm) <0.1 0.1-0.2 >0.2
Bacteria (#/mL) <10,000 10,000 - 50,000 >50,000
HCO3 > 2 meq/L and pH > 7.5 may cause CaCO3 precipitation, necessitating
56
continual acid injection.
> 0.1 ppm sulfides may encourage the growth of sulfur bacteria within the
irrigation system forming masses of slime which may clog filters and emitters.
Chlorination may need to be done continuously.
High concentrations of sulfides can cause Fe Mn precipitation of insoluble

compounds. Frequent acidification and chlorination is advisable.
Chlorination of water containing Mn may result in precipitates that form

downstream from the filter and cause emitter clogging.
Fertilizer containing Ca should not be used with water with more than 2 meq/L
HCO3 if the pH of the water is more than 7.5 as CaCO3 may precipitate and cause
emitter clogging.
Fertilizers containing sulfate should not be injected in irrigation water with > 20
meq/liter of Ca as calcium sulfate may precipitate.
Some phosphate fertilizers may precipitate if the Ca concentration in the irrigation

water exceeds 2 meq/L.
3. Soil Analyses and Interpretation
Drip irrigation lets farmers make applications of nutrients and soil

amendments much more frequently than with conventional practices. Soil
tests and soil solution tests can be a great aid in optimizing production, but
they are different tests and their interpretations are different. The following
guidelines will help ensure success:
 Use a reputable lab and/or reputable field quick-tests.

 Be careful to interpret results using the correct units. Various
laboratories express results in different units and forms that influence
the interpretation.
 Consult with laboratory personnel regarding exact sampling
procedures for soil tests and/or manufacturer recommendations for
field soil solution testing. The results will only be as good as the
sampling technique.
57
 Keep in mind that the results of soil solution tests are typically
interpreted differently than soil tests. They are highly dependent upon
the crop, soil type and percentage of the soil wetted by the irrigation
method. For this reason, soil solution tests are typically used to detect
sufficiency levels of nutrients, and are often used in conjunction with
plant tissue analyses. Soil solution testing is generally more suited for
monitoring nutritional trends rather than determining absolute
sufficiency levels.
4. Characteristics of Nutrients in Soil
a. Nitrogen (N)
 Ninety five percent of the natural N that resides in the soil is

associated with organic matter. Soil humus contains about 5% N. The
N release from organic matter depends on how much is there and how
fast the material decomposes. This release rate is fast enough to
support plant growth in a natural landscape, but is too slow for
intensive agricultural production on sandy soils.
 Biological ammonification converts organic N to mineral N
(ammonium, NH4+). Ammonium is also a component of some mineral
N fertilizers. Nitrification, which also depends on microbial activity,
converts NH4+to nitrate (NO3-) in days to weeks. Thus, soil solution N
is dominated by negatively-charged nitrate. There is no mechanism to
hold nitrate in the soil, so it leaches easily.
 Most of the N lost from soils is a result of N loading of the soil from
fertilizer or animal waste application, followed by N leaching from the
soil with excessive rainfall or irrigation.
b. Phosphorus (P)
 P occurs naturally in some soils as calcium phosphate minerals. These

minerals can also slowly form following P fertilizer application. Soil
phosphates are relatively insoluble, which can affect its availability
for plants.
 If a soil has the capacity to adsorb, or “fix” P, then added P will
accumulate in the root zone. Phosphorus fixation occurs when soluble
P forms nearly insoluble compounds with Fe or aluminum (Al) at low
58
soil pH or Ca at high soil pH . The best P availability in these soils

occurs around pH 6.5.
 Sandy soils may or may not have the capacity to hold applied P
fertilizer depending on the type of sand present. Sand coated with Fe
or Al compounds can fix P in the root zone, while non-coated sand
cannot. If a soil is dominated by non-coated sand, P may leach.
 Adsorbed P can be transported via surface runoff (erosion) while
soluble P can be transported via leaching. Phosphorus loss from the
soil results from long-term loading of the soil with P from animal
wastes or fertilizers, followed by erosion of soil and organic matter
particles or leaching, depending on the soil.
c. Potassium (K)
 The ionic form of K can be held by the soil cation exchange complex,
which delays leaching. However, in sandy soil with low cation
exchange capacity in the root zone, K+ leaches almost as readily as
NO3-.
 K is not fixed in sandy soils and does not form insoluble compounds,
so it is easily lost from the root zone.
d. Calcium and Magnesium (Ca, Mg)
 Ca and Mg exist as solid compounds in the soil (mostly in

combination with carbonate or phosphate) and in ionic forms held by
the cation exchange complex.
 Solid forms of Ca and Mg are sparingly soluble and can reside in the
soil for many years if the pH is not too acidic. Dissolution is more
rapid at low pH, which is the basis of the liming reaction.
 Because they are divalent cations, Ca and Mg dominate on the cation
exchange complex, limiting their mobility in soil.
e. Sulfur (S)
 Ninety percent of the S that occurs naturally in soils is associated with

organic matter. Soil humus contains about 0.5% S. Like N release, S
release depends on organic matter quantity and decomposition rate.
59
Organic S release combined with S from other sources (like rain or

irrigation water) usually provides this nutrient to plants at a sufficient
rate even in intensive agricultural production.
 The plant-available form of sulfur (sulfate) is a negative ion, which
makes it prone to leaching. Sulfate can be adsorbed by soils but
adsorption usually occurs much deeper in the soil profile than the
majority of plant roots.
 Calcium sulfate (gypsum) is a sparingly-soluble compound that is
applied as a long-term source of available Ca, but it also supplies S to
plants.
f. Copper, Iron, Manganese, and Zinc (Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn)
 These micronutrients form compounds that are only slightly soluble in

soils, thus they are not mobile nutrients. Solubility increases somewhat as
pH decreases (Fig. 20), so it is important to not over-lime a soil. When
the pH is alkaline, some plants suffer micronutrient deficiencies due to
almost total insolubility.
 If applied to the soil as soluble fertilizer, these micronutrients will
precipitate near the soil surface.
g. Boron (B)
 The plant-available form of B is negatively charged (borate), so it can

easily leach from sandy soil.
 Applications of B fertilizer need to be closely monitored since there is
only a narrow range between deficiency and toxicity.
h. Molybdenum (Mo)
Mo is the only micronutrient that increases in solubility as soil pH increases.

It is an immobile nutrient within the soil pH range that is favored for most
crops.
In addition to nutrients, soil pH must be monitored because nutrient

availability, solubility of toxic ions, and microbial activity are all influenced
by pH. Figure 20 shows nutrient solubility and thus availability to plants
60
with pH changes (the thicker t bar, the more available the nutrient). If the pH
is low, it may be increased by lime (gypsum) applications. High pH may be
reduced with the pH of acidic soils may be raised with the addition of free
lime. This chart illustrates how toxic elements such as aluminum become
more soluble, and available, at lower pH, and how neutral pH favors
beneficial nutrient availability and microbial activity.
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Calcium and Magnesium
Sulfur
Boron
Copper and Zinc
Molybdenum
Iron and Manganese
Aluminum
Figure 20. Effect of soil pH on nutrient availability as expressed by relative

bar width.
61
5. Fertigation Calculations
With microirrigation, fertilizers can be applied through the system with the
irrigation water directly to the region where most of the plants roots develop.
This process is called Fertigation and it is done with fertilizer injectors
generally installed at the pump station, before the filter. The element most
commonly applied is nitrogen. However, applications of phosphorous and
potassium are common for vegetables.
Several techniques have been developed for applying fertilizers through the
irrigation systems and many types of injectors are available on the market.
The two main techniques are closed tank and injection pumps. Injection
pumps are typically either Venturi type or piston pumps. The closed tanks
are always installed on a bypass line, while the piston pumps can be installed
either in-line or on a bypass line.
a. Fertilizer (closed) Tank
This is a cylindrical, epoxy coated, pressurized metal tank, resistant to the

system’s pressure, and connected as a bypass to the supply pipe of the head
control. It operates by differential pressure created by a partially closed
valve, placed on the pipeline between the inlet and the outlet of the tank. Part
of the flow is diverted to the tank entering at the bottom. It mixes with the
fertilizer solution and the dilution is injected into the system. The dilution
ratio and the rate of injection are not constant. The concentration of fertilizer
is high at the beginning and very low at the end of the operation. However,
this apparatus is still in service in many countries because of its low cost and
easy manufacture.
b. Venturi Type
This is based on the principle of the Venturi tube. A pressure difference is

needed between the inlet and the outlet of the injector. Therefore, it is
installed on a bypass arrangement placed on an open container with the
fertilizer solution. The rate of injection is very sensitive to pressure
variations, and small pressure regulators are sometimes needed for a
constant injection. Friction losses are approximately 1.0 bar. The injectors
62
are made of plastic in sizes up to 50 mm with injection rates of 40–2,000

liters/h. They are relatively cheap compared to other injectors.
c. Piston Pump
This type of injector is powered by the water pressure of the system and can
be installed directly on the supply line and not on a bypass line. The
system’s flow activates the pistons and the injector is operated, injecting the
fertilizer solution from a container, while maintaining a constant rate of
injection. The rate varies from 9 to 2,500 liters/h depending on the pressure
of the system and it can be adjusted by small regulators. The pump is made
of durable plastic material; these injectors are available in various models
and sizes. They are more expensive than the Venturi-type injectors.
The fertilizer solution in liquid form is fed into the system at low rates
repeatedly, on a continuous basis, during irrigation. The flow rate of the
injector should be such that the calculated amount of solution is supplied at a
constant rate during the irrigation cycle, i.e. starting fertigation right after the
system starts operation and finishing a few minutes before the operation
ends. Regarding the choice of the fertilizers, apart from the amount and the
kind, other parameters need to be considered, such as solubility, acidity,
compatibility and cost.
d. Solubility
The fertilizer stock solution should always be dissolved in a separate

container and then poured into the suction tank. The types of fertilizer
should be highly soluble and when dissolved in water must not form scums
or sediments which might cause emitter clogging problems. The solution
should always be agitated, well stirred and any sludge deposited in the
bottom of the tank should be periodically removed. The injector suction pipe
should not rest on the bottom of the tank. Hot water helps dissolve dry
fertilizers. Their degree of solubility varies according to the type and the
country of origin. Potassium nitrate (13-0-46) seems to have a low solubility
63
of approximately 1:8, i.e., 1 kg of dry fertilizer in 8 liters of water. The

solubility of potassium chloride (0-0-62) is 1:3, while ammonium nitrate
(34-0-0) and calcium nitrate (15.5-0-0) have a high solubility of
approximately 1:1. Dry phosphorous fertilizers have a lower solubility than
nitrates at about 1:2.5.
e. Acidity
The acidity produced by the several forms of nitrogen varies from type to
type and is greatly affected by the kind of irrigation water and the type of
soil. At least one check on the soil pH should be carried out at the beginning
of the season and one at the end. Furthermore, a complete ionic analysis of
the water is necessary.
f. Quantity
A simple method for calculating the amount of fertilizer required for

fertigation is to divide the annual application by the number of irrigations.
Various recipes have been developed in different countries based on the
conventional nutrition dosages. The total quantity of fertilizers applied is
also related to the length of the growing season and the irrigation
requirements. As a rule of thumb for average quality water, the maximum
fertilizer concentration, which is added to the irrigation total salinity, should
have an EC of about 0.5 dS/m. For higher concentrations, the salinity level
in the soil root zone must be checked frequently and the application adjusted
according to the soil test results.
Example 4. Fertigation With Vegetables
Crop: Tomatoes;
Concentration of NPK fertilizers: 180-50-250;
64
Type of fertilizers available: Ammonium nitrate (33.5-0-0) NH4NO3;

Di-ammonium phosphate DAP (16-48- 0); (NH4)2HPO4; Potassium chloride
(0-0-60) K2O;
System flow: 23 m3/h;
Irrigation dosage: 18 m3;
Duration of application: 1.5 hours.
Phosphate and potassium are given in oxides, therefore they are

converted into P and K elements by multiplying by 0.4364 and 0.8302
respectively.
Calculation of the amounts of fertilizers needed in grams per m3 of

water:
K = 250 * 100 ÷ (60 * 0.8302) = 0.502 kg K2O
P = 50 * 100 ÷ (48 * 0.4364) = 0.239 kg (NH4)2HPO4
This amount also provides 38 g of N.
N = (180-38) * 100 ÷ 33.5 = 0.424 kg NH4NO3
Thus, for 18 m3 of water, which is the irrigation dosage, the exact

quantities are:
0.502 kg * 18 = 9.036 kg K2O
0.239 kg * 18 = 4.30 kg (NH4)2HPO4
0.424 kg * 18 = 7.63 kg NH4NO3
Water needed for the dilution of the above quantity of fertilizers is

estimated by taking into account the solubility of the fertilizers:
9.036 kg K2O * 3 L = 27.0 L
4.30 kg Ca (H2PO4) * 2.5 L= 10.75 L
7.63 kg NH4NO3 * 1 L = 7.63 L
65
Minimum amount of water needed 45 L
If the fertilizers are diluted in 60 liters of water and the duration of the
irrigation is 1.5 h, the injection rate should be about 40–45 L/h.
The required fertigation injection rate can be calculated from the following
equations for micro-sprinkler systems.
The fertilizer injection rate in liters per hour (L/h) can be calculated from:
Rate = (100 * A * F ) /(P * H * W )
Rate: fertilizer injection rate (L/h)
P: fertilizer fraction, percent of fertilizer per liter of fluid injected (%)
Example 5.
Assume that 8 kg per ha of nitrogen is applied to a 2.5 ha. The fertilizer to be

used is a 10-0-10 solution that weighs 1.26 kg/L. The irrigation cycle is 2.5
hr, and fertilizer injection begins 30 minutes after the system has reached
normal operating pressure. Fertilizer will be injected for 1.5 hr, leaving 30
minutes to flush the fertilizer from the irrigation system.
( ∗ . ∗ / )
Rate = = 106 L/hr
( %∗ . ∗ . / )
66
The required 8 kg/ha of N can be applied by injecting 106 L of 10-0-10

fertilizer per hour for the 1.5 hr injection time. The total volume to be
injected would be 106 L/hr times 1.5 hr = 159 L.
Because water and fertilizers are not applied to the entire soil surface when
microirrigation systems are used for tree crops, fertilizer applications are
often made on the basis of individual plants rather than on a gross area basis.
In this case, the following equation can be used:
Rate = (100 * A * F p * NP) /(P * H * W)
Fp: amount of fertilizer to be applied per pant (kg/plant)
NP: number of plants per hectare
Rate: fertilizer injection rate (L/hr)
P: fertilizer fraction, percent of fertilizer per gallon of fluid injected (%)
Example 6.
Assume that 5 g (0.005 kg) of N (from a 10-0-10 solution weighing

1.3 kg/L) is to be applied to each blueberry bush in a 2-ha block with
5,000 bushels per ha. The irrigation system is operated for a total of 3
hr per irrigation. After a 30 minute startup of the irrigation system,
fertilizer is injected for 2 hr, followed by 30 minutes of irrigation to
flush the fertilizer from the system.
∗ ∗ . ∗ .
Rate =
%∗ ∗ . / )
= 192 L/hr
67
Thus, the required 5 g of N per plant can be applied to 2 ha by

injecting 192 L/hr for the 2 hr of fertilizer injection time. The total
volume to be injected would be 192 L/hr times 2 hr = 384 L.
D. Salinity and Leaching Requirement
1. Salinity
Salty or saline soil impedes infiltration at the surface of the soil.

Beside, saline water, organic matter and soil compaction hinder
infiltration and make things worse especially in clay soils. Total
quantity of magnesium and calcium relation to sodium in water, make
things worse.
All of the above lead to crust formation, which impedes seeding
emergence, excessive weeds, rotting of seeds, and easiness of disease
occurrences.
Many plants are more sensitive to salinity than others.
Symptoms of salinity are leaf edges and tips burning.
Salts also encourage disease like malaria, schistosomiasis and
lymphatic filariasis.
2. Leaching Requirement, (LR)
LR is the extra amount of irrigation water used to control salts at a

certain level. To determine the extra amount of irrigation water need
to be added to overcome the effect of salinity, we need to take into
consideration beside the water salinity the crop water requirement,
ETc, or water to be applied, AW, as well as the soil salinity, ECe*.
The water salinity is expressed by EC w. Both EC w and EC e are

expressed by dS/m. We then determine the leaching requirement as
follows:
LR= EC w/ {(5ECe) – EC w}
Then we calculate AW, as:
AW = ETc/ (1-LR)
68
Where: AW is crop water demand including leaching requirement.
* ECe is obtained using data from table (Example 3) p 26 and Table 4 page
31from Handbook 29 Water Quality for Agriculture FAO, after making
some decisions about the tolerance of the crop and the expected % yield to
be obtained depending on EC w values of water used. Figure 7 page 23 and
Table 4/ page 31(same source)
No leaching may be needed during the first few years. We might measure
the salinity of the water and the soil to find EC w and EC e regularly until we
find that time has come to start leaching, and yield start getting to be reduced
due to high salinity.
Rainfall should be considered when we add irrigation requirements. It might

be sometimes enough for leaching without adding the leaching requirement
amounts to the irrigation water.
Of course, the zone constitutes the root depth has to be considered in the
calculations. That is to say, we have to measure the EC e, separately for each
horizon and apply the total amount according to the root depths at each time
we irrigate.
Of course, the tolerance of each crop to salinity should always be

considered.
E. Deficit Irrigation (D)
The process by which less water is used, to irrigate a crop, than the amount
required as determined by calculating the crop water requirement using the
procedure mentioned so far in the manual. In order to irrigate a larger area
and may be get more yield. In Example 6, suppose we consider the Penman
Monteith equation or the pan evaporation equation and obtained ETc of 4
mm for cantaloupe per irrigation. Assuming the farmer used a drip system at
an efficiency of 90%. And no leaching requirements were needed. The area
of the farm is 10 hectares. If the farmer decided to apply only 80% of the
water requirement as deficit irrigation, then he must apply:
69
Amount of water added = {(4mm/1000 mm)/m} * (100/90) * {(9 hectares *

10000 m2) / hectare} = 320 m3. Whereas, if we do not reduce the irrigation
amount of water that would have been needed is{( 4mm/1000mm)/m} *(
100 / 90) *{( 9 hectares * 10000 m2)/ hectare} = 360 m3.Assume the yield
obtained in the case of no deficit irrigation was 50 tons per hectare and in the
case of deficit irrigation, if he planted 10 hectares, 48 tons per hectare.
The net profit will be higher since the extra product was 3 *10 = 30 tons for
the same amounts of water.
Suppose he needs to apply 90 irrigations per season as follows:
Stage mm Number Total
(mm)
1st 1 20 20
2nd 3 10 30
3rd 3 20 60
4th 5 30 150
5th 4 10 40
Total 320 mm
This procedure “Deficit Irrigation” is used in many parts of the world

nowadays, and proved to be efficient. All what is needed now from the
farmers is to do some tests in his field and determine how much % less water
must be irrigate the plants in order to irrigate a larger piece of land and after
that decides on the best irrigation schedule and amounts to use on his farm,
to get the highest combination of area and yield and eventually the highest
profit.
F. Effective Rainfall (ER)

For the calculation of final irrigation requirement; daily, weekly, or
biweekly, or tri-weekly, or monthly, effective rainfall should be subtracted
from the irrigation amounts calculated to the period after the last irrigation.
This effective amount of each rainfall can be obtained from a table shown in
the FAO Handbooks for each rainfall which should be added then subtracted
from amount to be applied before next irrigation.
70
G. Mulch (M)
When black plastic mulch is used above drip irrigation system or under
microsprinkler, it saves water. By reducing evaporation above drip and by
reducing weed growth that competes with the crop in water consumption
along the sides of the lateral on which the soil is wetted.
Under microsprayers the story is different when trees are irrigated .We might
here use small tractors between the trees to combat weeds, or use
weedicides. Unless, water is abundant, and cost is not high in this case.
Of course the ideal situation is to plant vegetables inside plastic houses
where water is very scarce and production cost is high. Here we increase
production and optimize water productivity per unit of water used.
H. System Efficiency ( Eff )
The microirrigation efficiency is the best irrigation system efficiency among

all known systems efficiencies that exist so far. It reaches 90-95% compared
to 45-50% for surface systems and 70-80% for large sprinkler efficiencies.
Since the drip and microsprayers apply water directly to the location where
the roots are found and water is not allowed to go deep and cause losses by
percolation deep into the soil, before the root zone. Besides, we control the
horizontal flow in such a way where we reduce the area of flow between
lines of laterals on which the drippers or microsprinkler are found.
I. Intercropping( IC )
Intercropping is another method one can use where 2 or more different crops
are planted in a row on the same farm. The farmer can test and decide the
best 2 or more crops that can give him optimum yields and eventually best
income per unit of water.
J. Total irrigation water requirement (TIR)
TIR is the total amount of water to be added for each irrigation considering
all the above mentioned factors, namely: ETo or Ep, Kc or Kp, ETc, LR, DI,
71
mulch area factor (M), effective rainfall( ER) ,intercropping effect (IC), and
overall system efficiency, (Eff).
Example 7. Total irrigation water requirements using limiting factors.
Using all factors that affect irrigation amounts namely: potential

evapotranspiration, ETo; multiplied by crop coefficient Kc; or pan
evaporation, Ep; multiplied by pan coefficient Ep; or Crop evapotranspiration
ETc; leaching requirements LR; deficit irrigation, DI; mulch factor, M;
effective rain fall, ER; intercropping effect, IC; and overall system
Efficiency, Eff. Using Tomato crop in Egypt on 1 hectare (10,000 m2).
Given ETo = 7 mm/day; Kc = 0.9; Etc = 6.3 mm/day; LR = 0.1; DI = 0.1; M

= 0.8; ER = 2.5mm; IC = (one crop) 100%; Eff = 90%;
Total Irrigation requirement, TIR = 3.1 mm
TIR = {ETo * Kc * [1/ (1-LR)] * [(1-DI)] * M * IC * (1/Eff) – ER}
TIR = [7 * 0.9 * {1/(1-0.1)}* (1-0.1) * 0.8* ( 100/100) * (100/90)] – (2.5) =

3.1mm
= 31 m3 / hectare/day.
72
Chapter 4 : System operations
A. System Components
The system consists of a pump, filtration screen filter, and/or sand and
gravel filter, wherever needed depending on the water constituents, a
fertilizer tank, a flow meter, and pressure meters to ensure the proper
required pressure of about 1 bar at the drippers if the system is drip system,
as 1.5-2.0 bars at the microsprinklers nozzles if it is an orchard planted with
trees and micro irrigation using microsprayers.
Of course, pipes for the main lines, sub-main lines, and laterals will be used.
Drippers, or micro-sprinklers, selected pipes- polyethylene or PVC, selected
drippers or /and micro-sprinklers, fill the trenches(for sub surface systems)
and fittings will be selected by the engineer who designs the network, in
agreement with farmers, depending on cost, crop, durability, soil, landscape,
etc (Figure 21).
They should be on the surface or sub surface, depending on soil type,

machinery use, and traffic.
Air valves and control valves must be carefully selected. These control water
flow by releasing air and control and get rid from impurities.
B. System Testing
1. Flush the main, sub-main, laterals

2. Pressurizing the system
3. Repair any leaks
4. Conduct the uniformity tests
5. Get the irrigation schedule from the engineer
6. Get the ETo data for the nearest station to the farm from the
department of meteorology
73
Figure 21. Tickle irrigation system components
C. Basic System Operation
After installing the system, and testing it, flushing it, checking the control
system, and planting the crop it is important to continuously check the pump
74
pressure or /and system outflow of drippers or the micro sprinklers as

follows:
i. The pump pressure and outflow is high and the block

valve output pressure is low, then one should check valve
if it is widely opened or the pump outlet should be
reduced.
ii. If the pump pressure and/or outflow are low, or/and the
block valve outlet pressure are low then one should check
whether the pump valve should be opened wider or the
pump output increased. For filter or/and block valve one
should also check whether the filters are clogged or need
flushing.
iii. If the pump valve pressure or/and filter output pressure
and block valve outlet pressure are low and system flow
meter is high then valve is opened by mistake, or there is
a leak in the system.
iv. If the pump valve pressure or/and filter output pressure
or/and block valve outlet pressure are low then drippers
and/or sprinklers are clogged, or/and a valve needs to be
opened or additional zone valves need to be opened.
v. Maintenance from rodents, birds, machinery, insect,
calcification, treatment by flushing acid, by changing
pipes, pest control, and lens by burying pipes.
D. Irrigation Schedule
It is the most important process in irrigation, which conducted by arithmetic

determination using climatologically data, soil data, water data, nutrients
data, on when to irrigate? How much water and nutrients to apply? How
often to do that?
The Hydrologic cycle given on page (48) explains the cycle of water from
rainfall which falls from the clouds down to earth (soil surface) and into the
75
groundwater resulting in springs, rivers, and /or passing through rivers,

streams, to the ocean, and seas then evaporates to form clouds.
This water when it falls on earth it is fresh. It can be used for drinking and
domestic use, and for irrigation, as well as for industry to cool machines.
Some of it seeps into the ground to feed the groundwater which again is
pumped back to the surface to be used for drinking, agriculture and other
purposes, similarly to the surface water.
It has been known for long that amount taken from wells and groundwater
(discharge) should not exceed the recharge which comes from rainfall and
adjacent hills and mountains that are covered with snow or have high
groundwater levels that produce rivers and springs. Unfortunately in
countries that have limited water resources, have been mining their
groundwater resources i.e., discharge is more than recharge in such a way
that many of the underground aquifers, and ground ponds have depleted
significantly. This depletion causes the increase in water salinity, which
forces many countries to mix the good fresh water resources with the
relatively saline resources and eventually result in bad quality water for
drinking and agriculture. For plants when irrigated with saline water,
additional amount of water is required due to what is known as leaching
requirement. This might reach 20-30% extra water in irrigation requirement,
besides having poor yields of crops and undesirable fruit quality.
76
Chapter 5: Hydraulic Principles

A. Hydraulic Principles
A couple basic hydraulic concepts related to water movement through pipes

are particularly important to the design and proper operation of
microirrigation systems. The relationship between the height of a column of
water and the resulting pressure it exerts is:
Ht = P * 10.2
where,
Ht: elevation in m
P: pressure in bars
The column of water does not have to be vertical. To calculate the static
pressure between two points resulting from an elevation difference, only the
vertical elevation distance between the two points needs to be known.
However, other factors such as friction affect water pressure when water is
flows through a pipe.
Example 8.
Determine the height of water in a column which produces a gauge

pressure of 2.5 bar.
Ht = P * 10.2 = 2.5 (bar) * 10.2 (m/bar) = 25.5 m
1.Velocity (V)
Velocity is the average speed at which water moves through a pipe. Velocity
is usually expressed in units of meters per second (m/sec). Water velocity in
a pipe is greatest in the middle (vmax) of the pipe and smallest near the pipe
walls (Figure 22). Normally only the average velocity of water in the pipe is
needed for calculations.
77
Figure 22. Typical velocity

cross-section profile for a full-
flowing pipe
To avoid excessive pressure losses due to friction and excessive potentially

damaging surge pressures, most irrigation systems are designed to avoid
velocities that exceed 1.5 m/sec.
The velocity of water flowing through a pipe, tube or hose is dependent on

flow rate and cross sectional area. Velocity can be calculated by:
V = Q * 21.22 / D²
Where
V: velocity in meters per second (m/sec)
Q: flow rate in liters per minute (L/min)
D: inside diameter of pipe or hose in millimeters (mm)
2. Flow
The discharge is the volume of water flowing along the pipe each second,
and is measured in volume (typically L or m3) per second. Flow rate can be
calculated from multiplying the velocity times the cross-sectional area of
flow.
Q=A*V
or V= Q/A
where:
Q: flow rate in m3/sec
78
A: cross-sectional area of flow in m2 (A = π * D2/4, π = 3.1416)
V: velocity in m/sec
Consider the case of water flowing in a 100 mm diameter pipe at a velocity

of 1.5 m/s (Figure 23). In one second, the quantity of water moving past
some point in the pipe will be equal to the shaded volume shown. This
volume is numerically equal to the water velocity multiplied by the cross-
sectional area of the pipe:
A = 3.1416 * 0.12/4 = 0.008 m2
Q = 1.5 m/s * 0.008 m2 = 0.012 m3/s.
Figure 23. Discharge for 100 mm pipe with velocity of 1.5 m/s.
If pipe diameters change adjoining pipe sections with no change in flow rate,
the relationship between flow and velocity can be calculated by:
A1 * V1 = A2 * V2
where:
A1: cross-sectional area of flow for first section (m2)
V1: velocity in first section (m/sec)
79
A2: cross-sectional area of flow for second section (m2)
V2 = velocity in second section (m/sec)
If the velocity is the same in both a 50-mm and a 100-mm diameter pipe, the
flow rate with the 100-mm pipe would be four times as large as the flow rate
from the 50-mm diameter pipe. Note that the cross-sectional area is
proportional to the diameter squared: (50 mm)2 = 2,500 mm2, while (100
mm)2 = 10,000 mm2. Therefore, doubling the pipe diameter increases the
carrying capacity of a pipe by a factor of 4 (Figure 24).
Figure 24. Diameter and velocity

relationships for adjoining pipe sections
with a constant flow rate.
3. Friction Loss
As water flows throughout the irrigation system (pipes, valves, filters,

tubing, fittings, etc.), friction and turbulence between the water and the
system components result in loss of pressure. The magnitudes of these losses
are dependent on the volume of water and the size of the components. These
friction losses need to be accounted for in the design of the system to ensure
adequate pressure and water distribution within the system and to achieve an
efficient and economic operation. Friction losses in pipes can be estimated
from tables such as shown in Table 3 (for Class 125 PVC pipe). Friction
losses occurring in fittings, valves, filters, or at changes in pipe size should
also be considered. Values for these losses are obtained from friction loss
tables such as shown in Figure 25.
80
Table 3. Friction Loss for PVC Class 125 IPS Plastic Pipe (1120, 1220) SDR 32.5 C=150.
Hf = Pressure loss (bar) per 100 meter of pipe, V = velocity of water in pipe (meters/second)
SIZE (mm) 25 32 40 50 63 75 110 160
OD/ID/Wall
33/31/1 42/39/1 48/45/1 60/57/2 73/69/2 89/83/3 114/107/4 168/158/5
(mm)
flow V Hf V Hf V Hf V Hf V Hf V Hf V Hf V Hf
(L/sec) (m3/hr) (m/s) (bar) (m/s) (bar) (m/s) (bar) (m/s) (bar) (m/s) (bar) (m/s) (bar) (m/s) (bar) (m/s) (bar)
0.063 0.277 0.08 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.00
0.126 0.454 0.17 0.01 0.10 0.01 0.08 0.00 0.05 0.00
0.189 0.680 0.25 0.03 0.16 0.01 0.11 0.01 0.07 0.00
0.252 0.907 0.34 0.05 0.21 0.02 0.16 0.01 0.10 0.00 0.07 0.00
0.315 1.13 0.42 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.20 0.01 0.13 0.01 0.09 0.00
0.378 1.36 0.51 0.10 0.31 0.03 0.23 0.02 0.15 0.01 0.10 0.00
0.442 1.59 0.59 0.14 0.36 0.04 0.27 0.02 0.17 0.01 0.12 0.00 0.08 0.00
0.505 1.81 0.68 0.18 0.42 0.05 0.31 0.03 0.20 0.01 0.13 0.01 0.09 0.00
0.568 2.04 0.76 0.22 0.47 0.07 0.35 0.03 0.22 0.01 0.15 0.01 0.10 0.00
0.631 2.27 0.85 0.27 0.52 0.08 0.39 0.04 0.25 0.01 0.17 0.01 0.11 0.00
0.694 2.50 0.93 0.32 0.57 0.10 0.43 0.05 0.27 0.02 0.19 0.01 0.13 0.00
0.757 2.72 1.02 0.38 0.62 0.12 0.47 0.06 0.30 0.02 0.20 0.01 0.14 0.00 0.08 0.00
0.883 3.18 1.19 0.50 0.73 0.15 0.55 0.08 0.35 0.03 0.24 0.01 0.16 0.01 0.10 0.00
1.01 3.63 1.36 0.64 0.83 0.19 0.63 0.10 0.40 0.03 0.27 0.01 0.18 0.01 0.11 0.00
1.14 4.08 1.5 0.80 0.93 0.24 0.70 1.12 0.45 0.04 0.31 0.02 0.21 0.01 0.13 0.00
1.26 4.54 1.7 0.97 1.04 0.29 0.78 0.15 0.50 0.05 0.34 0.02 0.23 0.01 0.14 0.00
1.39 4.99 1.9 1.16 1.14 0.35 0.86 0.18 0.55 0.06 0.38 0.02 0.25 0.01 0.15 0.00
1.51 5.44 2.0 1.37 1.24 0.41 0.94 0.21 0.60 0.07 0.41 0.03 0.27 0.01 0.17 0.00
1.64 5.90 2.2 1.58 1.35 0.48 1.02 0.24 0.65 0.08 0.44 0.03 0.30 0.01 0.18 0.01
1.77 6.35 2.4 1.82 1.45 0.55 1.09 0.28 0.70 0.09 0.48 0.04 0.32 0.01 0.20 0.01
1.89 6.80 2.5 2.1 1.6 0.62 1.17 0.31 0.75 0.11 0.51 0.04 0.34 0.02 0.21 0.01
2.21 7.94 3.0 2.7 1.8 0.83 1.37 0.42 0.88 0.14 0.60 0.06 0.40 0.02 0.24 0.01 0.11 0.00
2.52 9.07 3.4 3.5 2.1 1.1 1.6 0.53 1.00 0.18 0.68 0.07 0.46 0.03 0.28 0.01 0.13 0.00
2.84 10.2 3.8 4.4 2.3 1.3 1.8 0.66 1.13 0.22 0.77 0.09 0.52 0.03 0.31 0.01 0.14 0.00
3.15 11.3 4.2 5.3 2.6 1.6 2.0 0.81 1.25 0.27 0.85 0.11 0.58 0.04 0.35 0.01 0.16 0.00
3.47 12.5 4.7 6.3 2.9 1.9 2.1 0.96 1.38 0.33 0.94 0.13 0.63 0.05 0.38 0.01 0.18 0.00
3.79 13.6 5.1 4.4 3.1 2.3 2.3 1.1 1.50 0.38 1.02 0.15 0.69 0.06 0.42 0.02 0.19 0.00
4.10 14.7 5.5 8.6 3.4 2.6 2.5 1.3 1.6 0.44 1.11 0.17 0.75 0.07 0.45 0.02 0.21 0.00
4.42 15.9 5.9 9.9 0.6 3.0 2.7 1.5 1.8 0.51 1.20 0.20 0.81 0.08 0.49 0.02 0.22 0.01
4.73 17.0 3.9 3.4 2.9 1.7 1.9 0.58 1.28 0.23 0.86 0.09 0.52 0.03 0.24 0.01
5.05 18.1 4.2 3.8 3.1 1.9 2.0 0.65 1.37 0.26 0.92 0.10 0.56 0.03 0.26 0.01
5.36 19.3 4.4 4.3 3.3 2.2 2.1 0.73 1.45 0.29 0.98 0.11 0.59 0.03 0.27 0.01
5.68 20.4 4.7 4.8 3.5 2.4 2.3 0.81 1.5 0.32 1.04 0.12 0.63 0.04 0.29 0.01
5.99 21.5 5.0 5.3 3.7 2.6 2.4 0.90 1.6 0.35 1.09 0.14 0.66 0.04 0.31 0.01
6.31 22.7 5.2 5.8 3.9 2.9 2.5 0.99 1.7 0.39 1.15 0.15 0.70 0.04 0.32 0.01
6.94 24.9 5.7 6.9 4.3 3.5 2.8 1.2 1.9 0.46 1.27 0.18 0.77 0.05 0.35 0.01
7.57 27.2 4.7 4.1 3.0 1.4 2.0 0.55 1.38 0.21 0.84 0.06 0.38 0.01
8.20 29.5 5.1 4.7 3.3 1.6 2.2 0.63 1.50 0.24 0.91 0.07 0.42 0.01
8.83 31.8 5.5 5.4 3.5 1.8 2.4 0.72 1.6 0.28 0.98 0.08 0.45 0.01
9.46 34.0 5.9 6.2 3.8 2.1 2.6 0.82 1.7 0.32 1.05 0.09 0.48 0.01
10.1 36.3 4.0 2.4 2.7 0.93 1.8 0.36 1.11 0.10 0.51 0.02
10.7 38.6 4.3 2.6 2.9 1.0 2.0 0.40 1.18 0.12 0.55 0.02
11.4 40.8 4.5 2.9 3.1 1.2 2.1 0.44 1.25 0.13 0.58 0.02
12.0 43.1 4.8 3.2 3.2 1.3 2.2 0.49 1.32 0.15 0.61 0.02
12.6 45.4 5.0 3.6 3.4 1.4 2.3 0.54 1.39 0.16 0.64 0.03
14.2 51.0 5.6 4.4 3.8 1.7 2.6 0.67 1.6 0.20 0.72 0.03
15.8 56.7 4.3 2.1 2.9 0.82 1.7 0.24 0.80 0.04
17.3 62.4 4.7 2.5 3.2 0.97 1.9 0.29 0.88 0.04
18.9 68.0 5.1 3.0 3.5 1.1 2.1 0.34 0.96 0.05
20.5 73.7 5.5 3.4 2.7 1.3 2.3 0.39 1.05 0.06
22.1 79.4 6.0 4.0 4.0 1.5 2.4 0.45 1.13 0.07
23.7 85.1 4.3 1.7 2.6 0.51 1.20 0.08
25.2 90.7 Note: Area of chart below heavy line indicates velocities over 1.5 m/s. 4.6 1.9 2.8 0.57 1.29 0.09
26.8 96.4 Use with caution 4.9 2.2 3.0 0.64 1.37 0.10
28.4 102 5.2 2.4 3.1 0.71 1.45 0.11
30.0 108 Velocity computed as: V = Q / A 5.5 2.7 3.3 0.79 1.5 0.12
31.5 113 Friction pressure loss (Hf in bar/100 m) computed from: 5.8 2.9 3.5 0.87 1.6 0.13
34.7 125 [ Hf = 0.2083 ( 100/C)1.852 * Q1.852 / d4.866 ] * 0.098 3.8 1.0 1.8 0.16
37.8 136 V= velocity (m/sec), A = pipe area (m2), C= 150, Q = flow (m3/sec) 4.2 1.2 1.9 0.19
81
82
Figure 25. Pressure loss in

fittings and valves expressed as
an equivalent length (m) of
straight PVC pipe
4. Pressure Versus Flow
As water moves through any pipe, pressure is lost due to turbulence and
friction created by the moving water. The amount of pressure lost in a
horizontal pipe is related to the velocity of the water, the inside diameter of
the pipe, and the length of pipe through which the water flows. When
velocity increases, the pressure loss increases. These relationships are given
for Class 125 PVC pipe in Table 3. For example, in a 50 mm Class 125 PVC
pipe with a flow rate of 2.0 L/sec, the velocity will be 0.6 m/s with a
pressure loss of 0.12 bar per 100 m. When the flow rate is increased to
4.0L/s, the velocity will be 1.6 m/s, and the pressure loss will increase to
0.80 bar per 100 m of pipe.
Increasing the pressure in the system increases the flow rate. In Figure 26,
the flow rate in a 50 mm pipe increases from 10 to 14 L/sec when the
pressure is increased from 2.5 atm to 4.5 atm. Using smaller pipe size does
not increase the flow. Note that the smaller pipe sizes have considerable less
flow at any given pressure. Since decreasing the pipe size does not increase
the pressure at the source, the result of decreased size is reduced flow.
83
Figure 26. The relationships between pressure and flow through unrestricted 30 m
long sections of pipe (with 4 couplings) for 13, 25, and 50 mm Class 315 PVC pipe.
Pressure losses include friction loss in pipe and couplings, velocity head and entrance
losses but do not include exit losses.
Using a smaller pipe size does not increase pressure. In contrast, it will result
in lower pressure since there will be greater pressure loss in the lines. In
Figure 26, a flow of 3.0 L/sec would require about 0.6 atm pressure in a 50
mm pipe. In order to maintain a 3.0 L/sec flow in a 25 mm pipe, over 4.5
atm would be required at the source. Smaller pipes result in greater pressure
loss, not higher pressure.
Because of friction, pressure is lost whenever water passes through pipe as

well as through fittings, such as tees, elbows, constrictions, or valves. The
magnitude of the loss depends both on the type of fitting and on the water
velocity (determined by the flow rate and fitting size). Pressure losses in
major fittings such as large valves, filters, and flow meters, can be obtained
from the manufacturers. To account for minor pressure losses in fittings,
such as tees and elbows. Minor losses are sometimes aggregated into a
84
friction loss safety factor (10 percent is frequently used) over and above the
friction losses in pipelines, filters, valves, and other elements.
5. Water Hammer
Water hammer is a hydraulic phenomenon which is caused by a sudden

change in the velocity of the water. This velocity change results in a large
pressure fluctuation that is often accompanied by loud and explosive like
noise. This release of energy is due to a sudden change in momentum
followed by an exchange between kinetic and pressure energy. The pressure
change associated with water hammer occurs as wave, which is very rapidly
transmitted through the entire hydraulic system. Severe or repeated water
hammer events can lead to pipe failure.
The sudden change in velocity, caused by the rapid closing of a valve, can
produce very high pressures in the piping system. These pressures can be
several times the normal operating pressure and result in burst pipes and
severe damage to the irrigation system. The high pressures resulting from
the water hammer cannot be effectively relieved by a pressure relief valve
due to the high velocity of the pressure wave (pressure wave can travel at
more than 300 m/s in PVC pipe). The best prevention of water hammer is
the installation of valves that cannot be rapidly closed and the selection of
air vents with the appropriate orifice which do not release air too rapidly.
Pipelines are usually designed such that velocities remain below 1.5 m/s in
order to avoid high surge pressures from occurring.
B. Head Losses in Lateral Lines
The goal of uniform irrigation is to ensure (as much as feasible) that each
portion of the field receives the same amount of water (also nutrients and
chemicals). As water flows through the lateral tubing there is friction
between the wall of the tubing and the water particles. This results in a
gradual (but not uniform) reduction in the pressure within the lateral line.
The magnitude of pressure loss in a lateral line depends on flow rate, pipe
85
diameter, roughness coefficient, changes in elevation, and the lateral length.
When a lateral line is placed up-slope, emitter flow rate decreases most
rapidly. This is due to the combined influence of elevation and friction loss.
Where topography allows, running the lateral line down-slope can produce
the most uniform flow since friction loss and elevation factors cancel each
other to some degree.
Friction loss is greatest at the beginning of the lateral. Approximately 50%

of the pressure reduction occurs in the first 25% of the lateral's length. This
occurs because as the flow rate decreases, friction losses decrease more
rapidly. Lateral length may have a large impact on uniform application.
Lateral lengths, which are too long given the pipe diameter and the emitter
flow rate, are the most commonly observed sources of non-uniformity in
microirrigation systems. Flow rates are less uniform, in general, with longer
lateral length.
It is very important to realize the hydraulic limits of irrigation lateral lines to

efficiently deliver water. Figure 27 shows the maximum length of lateral
tubing that is possible while maintaining +/- 5% flow variation on level
ground with a 1.4 bar average pressure. The discharge gradient is calculated
by dividing the emitter flow rate (l/s) by the emitter spacing (m).
86
Figure 27. Lateral length allowable to achieve +/- 5% flow variation for level
ground with 1.5 bar inlet pressure (1.4 bar average pressure) for 13, 19, and 25 mm
lateral tubing.
The maximum number of microsprinkler emitters and maximum lateral

lengths for 19 and 25 mm lateral tubing is given in Tables 4 and 5. Similar
information for drippers with 13, 19, and 25 mm lateral tubing is given in
Tables 6, 7, and 8. All calculations are based on +10% allowable flow
variation on level ground. By knowing the emitter discharge rate, spacing,
and tubing diameter, the maximum number of emitters and the maximum
lateral length can be determined.
Example 9.
Using Figure 27, determine the maximum allowable run length for 19
mm lateral tubing with 40 L/h emitters spaced at 3 m intervals.
Discharge gradient = 40 L/h / 3 m = 13.3 L/h per m
87
From Figure 27, maximum run length would be about 100 m (33
trees).
Table 4. Maximum number of microsprinkler emitters and maximum lateral

lengths for 19 mm lateral tubing diameter (+5% allowable flow variation on
level ground: based on Bowsmith 19 mm-50 tubing, I.D.= 20.8 mm).
Flow Spacing on lateral (meter)
rate 2.3 3.0 3.8 4.6 5.3
(L/h) No. Length No. Length No. Length No. Length No. Length
30 44 103 40 123 37 142 35 160 33 176
38 39 89 35 107 32 123 30 139 28 153
45 34 80 31 95 28 110 27 123 25 136
53 31 72 28 87 26 100 24 112 23 123
61 28 66 26 80 24 91 22 103 21 113
68 26 61 24 74 22 85 20 95 19 105
76 25 57 22 69 20 80 19 89 18 98
88
Table 5. Maximum number of microsprinkler emitters and maximum lateral

lengths for 25 mm lateral tubing diameter (+5% allowable flow variation on
level ground: based on Bow smith 25 mm-50 tubing, I.D.= 26.9 mm).
Flow Spacing on lateral (meter)
Rate 2.3 3.0 3.8 4.6 5.3
30 70 160 63 192 58 222 54 249 51 275
38 60 139 54 167 50 192 47 216 44 238
45 54 124 48 149 44 171 42 192 39 212
53 49 112 44 135 40 155 38 174 36 192
61 45 103 40 124 37 143 35 160 33 177
68 41 96 37 115 34 132 32 149 30 164
76 39 89 35 107 32 124 30 139 28 153
Table 6. Maximum number of drip emitters and maximum lateral lengths

for 13 mm lateral tubing diameter (+5% allowable flow variation on level
ground: based on Bow smith P720P48 (13 mm) tubing, I.D.= 15.9 mm).
Flow Spacing on lateral (cm)
Rate 45 60 75 90 115
2 266 122 240 147 221 169 207 190 196 209
4 171 78 154 94 142 109 133 122 126 135
6 132 61 119 73 110 84 103 94 97 104
8 110 50 99 61 91 70 85 78 81 87
89

ground: based on Bow smith 19 mm -50 tubing, I.D.=20.9 mm).
rate 45 60 75 90 115
2 424 194 383 233 353 269 330 302 312 333
4 293 125 246 150 227 173 212 194 200 214
6 211 97 190 116 175 134 164 150 155 166
8 176 80 158 97 146 111 136 125 129 138

ground: based on Bow smith 25 mm -50 tubing, I.D.= 26.9 mm)
rate 45 60 75 90 115
2 662 303 596 363 549 419 514 471 486 519
4 426 195 383 234 353 269 331 303 312 334
6 328 150 296 180 273 208 255 234 241 258
8 274 125 246 150 227 173 213 195 201 215
Example 10.
Using Tables 1-5, determine the maximum allowable run length for 19
mm lateral tubing with 45 L/h emitters spaced at 3 m intervals.
From Table 1 for 45 L/h and 3.m spacing,
90
Maximum number of emitters: 31
Maximum lateral length: 95 m
Example 11.
Using Tables 1-5, determine the maximum allowable run length for 19
mm lateral tubing with 4.0 L/h drip emitters spaced at 45 cm intervals.
From Table 4 for 4 L/h at 45 cm spacing,
Maximum number of emitters: 293
Maximum lateral length: 125 m
91
Chapter 6: Pumps and Power Units
A. Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump used on

microirrigation systems. An impeller with blades or vanes which spin at high
speed inside the pump casing (Figure 28). Water is drawn into the pump
from the source of supply through a short length of inlet pipe called the
suction pipe. As the impeller spins, water is thrown outwards and is
collected by the pump casing and guided towards the outlet. Most irrigation
pumps have curved vanes so that the water enters and leaves the impeller
smoothly. This means lower energy losses and higher energy use efficiency.
Centrifugal pumps can be classified into two types: volute pumps
(Figure 28), and turbine (diffuser) pumps (Figure 29). The main
difference between them is that the turbine type has diffuser vanes,
which provide diverging passages to direct the water flow.
Centrifugal pumps are often described by the diameter of the
delivery connection pipe. Table 9 is a guide to selecting centrifugal
pump sizes for different flow rates.
Table 9. Guide to selecting centrifugal

pumps.
Pump size (mm) Discharge (L/s)
25 0-5
50 5-15
75 15-25
Figure 28.
100 25-35 Centrifugal
turbine pump with
125 35-50 electric power
unit.
92
Figure 29. Centrifugal volute pump

with electric power unit.
1. Pump Suction
In cases of shallow groundwater or surface water pumping, the pump is

located above the water surface and water has to be sucked up a short length
of pipe into the pump, as shown in Figure 30. The difference in height
between the water surface and the pump is called the suction lift. There is a
limit to how high water can be lifted and it depends on atmospheric pressure.
At sea level this is approximately 10 m head of water. The pump
creates a low pressure in the intake line as the impeller spins, and
the outside pressure of the atmosphere pushes down on the water
surface and forces water up the intake line. As atmospheric
pressure is the driving force, this puts a practical limit on the
height to which water can be lifted in this way. Theoretically, it
should be possible to lift water 10 m. However, because of
friction losses in the pipe and pump, a practical limit is 7 m. Even
at this level many pumps will have difficulty sucking water.
Considerable energy will be needed to suck the water and the

pump operator may have difficulty keeping the pump primed (i.e.,
keeping the pump and suction pipes full of water when starting
the pump). For this reason, pumps should be located so that the
suction lift is less than 7 m if possible. If the depth to the water is
Figure 30.
Submersible pump.
93
greater than 3 m, a small shelf can be excavated and the pump located nearer
to the water surface. For pumps operating at higher altitudes, the
atmospheric pressure may be much lower than 10 m and the suction lift will
need to be reduced to ensure proper pump operation. An alternative is to use
submersible pumps, which are located below the water surface and have no
such problems (Figure 30).
It is very important to match the engine horsepower to the requirements of

the pump. Previously used power units should be carefully checked and
evaluated as to condition, available horsepower, and speed. Using an old
power unit that may not fit the needs of the system often results in more
costly operation than a more expensive new unit designed specifically for
the system.
In order to determine the horsepower requirement for the power unit, the
total dynamic head (TDH), pumping rate, efficiency of the pump, drive
efficiency, and the type of power unit must be known. The components of
TDH are illustrated in Figure 31.
TDH = Hs + Hp + Hf
where
Hs: static head (m)
Hf: friction head (m)
Hp: pressure head (1 atm = 10.3 m water)
94
Figure 31. Total dynamic head is the sum of static head (3) plus friction
head (5) plus pressure head (4).
Total Static Head (3 in Figure 31) is the total vertical distance the pump
must lift the water. When pumping from a well, this would be the
distance from the drawdown water level in the well to pump level (2)
plus the distance the water is lifted from ground level to the discharge
point (1).
Pressure Head (4 in Figure 31) is the pressure required in the system to

operate the emitters. The pressure (in atm) is converted to meters of
head by: atm / 10.33 = Hp (in meters of H2O).
Friction Head (5 in Figure 31) is the head loss due to friction when water
flows through pipes. It can be estimated from the Table 3. Friction
losses occurring in fittings, valves, filters, or at changes in pipe size
should also be considered. Values for these losses are obtained from
friction loss tables' Typical friction losses within drip and
Microsprinkler systems are presented in Table 10.
95
Table 10. Typical friction loss by drip and micro sprinkler systems z.
Drip Microsprinkler
Emitter 4.2 7.0
Hose or Tape 2.1 2.1
Fittings and Valves 1.8 1.8
PVC Main and Sub-mains 2.5 2.5
Filter 3.5 3.5
Control valves 2.1 2.1
Total 16.2 19.0
z
Adapted from: Burt, C.M. and D.J. Howe’s 2011. Low Pressure
Drip/Micro System Design – Analysis of Potential Rebate. Irrig .
Train. & Res.Ctr. Rept. R 11-06, CA Poly. State Univ., USA
B. Power Requirements
Pumps can deliver a wide range of discharges depending on the pressure

required and the speed at which the pump is operated. However, there is a
trade-off between head and discharge. If more discharge is needed the head
drops, and if less discharge is needed, then the head rises. A different set of
curves would be obtained if the pump was running at a different speed. The
faster it runs the greater the head and the discharge.
The work required for a pumping plant to deliver water at the desired rate
and pressure necessary for the system is called water power (Pw) measured
in kWh and is calculated from:
Pw = 9.81 * Q * TDH
where
Q: flow rate (m3/sec)
96
Pw: energy required by pump (kW)
The water power represents the power required to operate the pump if the
pump and drive unit were 100% efficient. The shaft pump power (Ps) is the
actual energy required at the drive unit connection and takes pump and drive
efficiencies into consideration (Figure 32).
Figure 32. Efficiency components of irrigation pumping

plant: 1 = power unit, 2 = transmission, 3 = pump.
Ps =
∗
where
Ps: shaft energy (kW)
Pw: water energy (kW)
Effp: pump efficiency (%)
Effd: drive efficiency (%)
97
1. Efficiency
The efficiency of power units and pumps is very variable. The efficiency
generally increases to some maximum value and then falls again over the
discharge range. The maximum efficiency is usually between 70-80% and
there is only a limited range of discharges and heads over which the pumps
operate at maximum efficiency. Outside this range the pump will be less
efficient and so more power and energy will be needed to operate the
system. Smaller pumps tend to operate at lower efficiencies than larger ones
because they have more friction to overcome relative to their size. Many of
the common causes of low efficiency can be corrected at little cost once the
problem is identified. Unfortunately, it is easy to run an inefficient pumping
system without even realizing it. Any shortfall in output is simply made up
by running the system for longer than would otherwise be necessary.
Figure 32 and Tables 11 and 12 show the main components of a small

pumping system and the poor efficiencies that can commonly occur. The
overall efficiency of the pumping system can be found by multiplying
together the efficiencies of each component. The main reasons for
inefficiency include:
 Inefficiencies of power units as given in Table 11.
 Power unit to pump transmission. If the engine and pump are direct
coupled, the transmission efficiency is 100%. The drive efficiency can be
estimated from Table 12.
The pump efficiency should be obtained from the specifications for the
pump and normally is 70-80% for well-designed systems. However, many
pumps are not run at optimum head and speed, so their efficiency could be
much lower. This is particularly true for small pumps where the friction
losses are a higher proportion of the total power requirement.
98
Table 11. Irrigation pump power units

efficiencies.
Attainable
Equipment Efficiency
(%)
Small gasoline engines (1 kW) 10
Small diesel engines (1.5 - 2 kW) 15-35
Automotive-type engines 20-26
Industrial engines
Diesel 25-37
Natural gas 24-27
Electric motors
Small 75-85
Large 85-92
Note: Aging of engine, poor quality maintenance,
excessive power consumed by cooling fans,
injectors, etc., all bring down efficiency
Table 12. Typical efficiencies of various types

of pump drives
Type of drive Normal efficiency
Direct 100%
Flat-Belt (straight) 85%
Flat-Belt (1/4 to 1/2 turn) 75%
V-Belt 95%
Right Angle Gear Head 85%
2. Power needed
The energy needed to pump water is called water energy (Ew) and is
measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). It is calculated by multiplying the shaft
power by the time of operation.
E w = Ps * h
Pw: shaft power (kW)
H: hours of operation
99
Ew: water energy (kWh)
Example 12.
A drip irrigation system requires 4.0 m3/hr of water with a 5 m suction head,
an elevation difference of +4.0 m from pump to field, and a discharge
pressure of 1.2 atm. What is the power requirement for an electric pump
with straight flat belt drive and pump efficiency of 75%. The pump needs to
run 4 hours per day. (From Table 10, assume Hf = 16.2 m).
Q = 120 m3/h / 3600 seconds/hour = 0.033 m3/s
TDH = Hs + Hp + Hf
Hs = 5 m + 4 m = 9 m
Hp = (1.2 atm * 10.33) = 12.4 m
Hf = 16.2 m
TDH = 9 m + 12.4 m + 16.2 m = 37.6 m
Pw = 9.81 * Q * TDH = 9.81 * 0.033 * 37.6 = 12.2 kW
.
Ps = = = 19.1 KW
∗ . ∗ .
E w = Ps * h = 19.1 kW * 4 h = 76.6 kWh
3. Electric Motors
For routine irrigation, the dependability and long life of electric motors
make them a desirable power source. Single phase motors are often used for
loads up to and including 5.5 kW. However, three phase motors are more
100
efficient. Above 5.5 kW, single phase motors are not well adapted to
irrigation pumps. Electric motors above 3.5 kW will generally have an
efficiency of between 88 and 90%. Most squirrel cage induction motors are
designed to operate satisfactorily under a continuous overload of 10 to 15%.
However, it is not wise to plan on an overload.
If any adequate electric power supply is available, the electric motor may be
the cheaper power source in many cases. Including the cost of the control,
the initial investment will normally be less than that of an internal
combustion engine drive. The cost of electric power for operation and
standby charges may be higher than the fuel cost for an internal combustion
engine, but the maintenance cost must also be considered. For an electric
motor, maintenance is a minimum but it may be considerable for an internal
combustion engine.
Properly installed and protected, electric motors will provide many years of
service. The advantages of electric power include relatively long motor life,
low maintenance costs, dependability, and ease of control and operation. An
electric motor will deliver full power throughout its life and can be operated
from no load to full load without damage. Disadvantages of electric motors
include constant speed, an electric power supply required at each pumping
spot, and normally a yearly minimum power cost.
Overloading an electric motor causes internal temperatures to rise and

drastically shortens expected motor life. Therefore, proper motor sizing is
very important. If the calculated total pump load is close to the selected
motor size, a service factor of 1.15 on the motor is desirable. A 1.15 service
factor means the motor can safely carry a pump load of 115% of the rated
electric motor power. Unless specified otherwise, most electric motors come
with a service factor of 100%.
The operating costs of an electric-powered pump can be estimated from the

following equation or from Figure 33. Both fixed and operating costs should
be considered before a final decision on the most appropriate unit is made.
C= Q * TDH * c
5310 * Effp * Effd
101
Where,
C: Hourly pumping cost (in $)
Q: Discharge (L/sec)
TDH: Total dynamic head (pumping head (m)
C: Cost of electricity in $ per kwh
Effp: Pump efficiency
Effd: Efficiency of electric motor drive unit
Many electric motors can safely be overloaded to a small degree, depending

on the service factor stamped on the motor. However, this is usually limited
to about 10% of the horsepower rating stamped on the motor. If the
permitted overload for an electric motor is exceeded, it also will operate
inefficiently, wear rapidly and fail prematurely. Under-loading electric
motors waste energy. If a 100-kW electric motor were installed where a 50-
kW motor would be adequate (percentage of continuous rated kW = 50%),
about 18% of the electricity used would be wasted. If a 100-kW electric
motor were installed where a 75-kW motor was needed (percentage of
continuous rating = 75%), only about 5% of the electricity used would be
wasted.
4. Internal Combustion Engines
Gasoline, diesel, LP-gas, and electric power units are all used to drive
irrigation pumps. Each has its advantages and disadvantages. Many small
irrigation systems do not have access to electricity and so rely on gasoline
engines or diesel engines to drive the pumps. These engines have a good
weight: power output ratio, and are compact in size and relatively cheap.
Gasoline engines usually have lower initial cost than diesel engines. LP-gas
engines require less maintenance than gasoline and the fuel may cost less.
Diesel engines tend to be heavier and more durable than gasoline engines
102
and are more expensive to buy. However, they are also more efficient to run
and, if operated and maintained properly, they have a longer working life
and are more reliable than gasoline engines. A diesel engine can be up to
four times as heavy as a gasoline engine of equivalent power. If portability is
important, a gasoline powered pump may be the answer.
Example 13.
Estimate the power requirement for a pump with 30 L/s at 40 m of

head for a pump located at 1000 m elevation, 35oC ambient
temperature, with radiator, fan, and standard accessories.
From Table 11, the power unit would require 18 hp at 100%

efficiency. If the pump is 75% efficient, 24 hp would be
required. If the pump efficiency is 60%, the required power
would be: 18 hp / 60% efficiency = 30 hp.
The life expectancy of internal combustion engines is less than that of an

electric motor. An electric motor provides only constant speed operation but
an internal combustion engine provides flexibility of pump performance
through easy speed variation, which may be desirable. It is also necessary in
selecting an engine power unit to make certain that adequate power is
available at the desired speed at which the pump will be operated. A reserve
horsepower allowance must also be made for wear, drive accessories such as
electrical generators, and other factors that reduce the power an engine
produces over time.
The most common fuels for internal combustion engines are gasoline, diesel,
propane, and natural gas. Manufacturers have developed performance curves
for each of their engines showing horsepower ratings at various speeds for
use as a basis in engine selection. These curves are developed in a laboratory
under conditions of 15o C, mean sea level elevation, and with a bare engine
to produce the most power per unit of engine weight. For field use these
curves must be corrected to reflect the power loss caused by the use of
103
accessories, elevation differences, and air temperature.
It is also necessary to further correct the horsepower curve to compensate

for the continuous loading required in irrigation pumping in addition to
corrections for the accessories, temperature, and for continuous operation for
many hours at a time (Table 13). Running an engine under much lighter
loads usually results in poorer fuel economy for the water delivered, since
too much power is used in overcoming engine friction and throttling losses.
Running at maximum engine horsepower invites engine trouble as well as
excessive fuel consumption.
Table 13. Correction factors to de-rate laboratory measured engine

power.
For each 300 m above sea level deduct 3%
For each 5oC above 15oC deduct 1%
For accessories (generator, etc.) deduct 5%
For radiator and fan deduct 5%
For continuous operation deduct 20%
Heat exchangers should meet the size requirements based on engine size and
established by the manufacturer. In some instances, however, heat
exchangers may be used on installations in sheltered areas where air
movement around the unit is very poor and where the source of water is
reasonably warm. This situation will require the use of a larger heat
exchanger than normally recommended. The addition of an auxiliary fan to
move hot air away from the engine may increase fuel consumption slightly,
but will eliminate safety switch shut downs during extremely hot weather.
Diesel power units operate at highest efficiency when fully loaded or loaded
near their maximum continuous horsepower ratings. The efficiency of an
104
irrigation power unit is reduced if the power unit is either too large or too
small for the pump it is powering. When a power unit is overloaded, it will
waste fuel, wear rapidly and fail prematurely. Over-sizing (under-loading)
power units by up to 20% will result in little loss in performance or fuel
waste. When a gasoline engine is loaded at only 50 percent, it typically
wastes about 27% of its fuel compared with a power unit of the proper size.
Diesel engines loaded at only 20% of their continuous horsepower rating
levels waste about 50% of the fuel compared to 60% for gasoline engines at
20% load.
The consequences of overloading a power unit are severe: both inefficient

operation and power unit damage may be expected to occur. An internal
combustion engine should never be operated for long periods of time under a
load that exceeds its continuous horsepower rating for the speed at which it
is being operated. When an internal combustion engine is overloaded, it will
waste fuel, wear rapidly and fail prematurely.
The general relationship between performance rating and percentage of

continuous horsepower rating is not linear. Instead, performance ratings are
high when power units are nearly fully loaded; they decrease slowly for
small under-loads, then decrease more rapidly for severe under-loads. All of
the power units operate at high efficiency (above 95 percent) when loaded at
more than 80% of their continuous horsepower rating. Diesel engines
generally have performance ratings above 90% if they are loaded at more
than 60 percent. The performance of gasoline engines drops most rapidly,
yet is still above 90% when the engines are loaded at 70 percent. Below 60
to 70% of their continuous horsepower rating, performance ratings of all
power units drop 10 to 12% for each 10% drop in loading.
5. Energy Costs
Performance standards (Table 14) are measured in units of metric

horsepower-hours per liter (hpm-hr/L) of fuel for internal combustion
engines and metric horsepower-hours per kilowatt-hour (hpm-hr/kwh) for
electric motors. These standards rate the effectiveness of a typical power unit
105
in converting fuel or electrical power to mechanical power. They are based

on the assumption that the power unit is in good repair and fully loaded.
Table 14. Performance criteria for pumping plants (1 hpm = 0.746 kw).
Energy source Water hpm-hr Water kw-hr Energy
per unit per unit units
1
energy energy1
Diesel 3.26 4.37 Liter
2
Gasoline 2.27 3.04 Liter
LP gas 1.80 2.41 Liter
3
Natural gas 2.4 3.2 m3
4
Electric, Vertical Line Shaft Pump 1.13 1.51 Kwh
Electric, Submersible pump 1.04 1.39 Kwh
1
Based on 75 percent efficiency
2
Includes drive losses and assumes no cooling fan.
3
Assumes natural gas content of 38 MJ /m3
4
Direct connection—no drive.
Example 14.
Estimate the fuel use rate for a system that required 40-hpm diesel
power unit that is fully loaded.
From Table 14, the fuel use rate = 3.26 L/hpm-hr for a diesel
engine.
Fuel use = 40 hp m / 3.3 L/ hp m- hr = 12.1 L/hr.
Example 15.
Estimate the electric power use rate for a 25-hp electric motor that is
fully loaded and uses a direct drive.
From Table 14, the fuel use rate = 1.13 KWH/ hpm -hr for an
106
electric motor with a direct drive
Energy use rate = 25 hpm * 1.13 kwh/ hpm-hr = 28.5 KWH/hr.
The actual cost of operating an irrigation power plant depends on the fuel or
electricity price and will vary by locale. Estimating the operating cost
requires the water power (Pw or hpm) requirements and the total number of
hours pumped during the year. The hours of operation depend on the
pumping rate, acres irrigated, and the amount of water to be added per acre.
Example 16.
A 5-hectare field has a drip system with 1.8 m row spacing with
a tape that has a flow rate of 3 L/hr per m. The system requires
a head (TDH) of 40 m. Average annual irrigation is 500 mm per
hectare per year. Calculate the total energy consumption for
both diesel and electric power units. Both the motor and diesel
engine will use right angle drive with 75% pump efficiency.
Irrigation depth = 500 mm = 0.5 m
Area = 5 ha * 10,000 m2/ha = 50,000 m2
Volume = 0.5 m * 50,000 m2 = 25,000 m3
Length of drip tape = 50,000 m2/1.8 m = 27,778 m
Flow rate = 27,778 m * 3 L/hr/m = 83,334 L/hr = 82.8 m3/hr
= 0.023 m3/sec
Time of operation = 25,000 m3/82.8 m3/hr = 302 hours
Pw = 9.81 * Q * TDH = 9.81 * 0.023 m3/sec * 40 m
= 9.0 kw = 12.1 hpm
107
From Table 12, Effd = 85%
.
Ps = = = 15.1 kw
∗ . ∗ .
From Table 14, a diesel engine requires 4.37 kw-hr/L and the
electric requires 1.51 kw-hr/KWH (with 75% pump efficiency).
Diesel: 15.1 kw = 3.5L/hr
4.37 kw-hr/L
Electric: 15.1 kw = 10 KWH/hr
1.51 kw-hr/KWH
Diesel: 302 hr * 3.51 L/hr = 1,060 L of fuel
Electric: 302 hr * 10 KWH/hr = 3020 KWH
108
Figure 33. Estimated energy requirements for efficient, well-maintained

irrigation pumping units.
109
Chapter 7: Irrigation System Maintenance

A. Irrigation System Maintenance
The performance of a micro-irrigation system may rapidly deteriorate if it is

not routinely maintained. Items to consider include1:
o Checking for leaks.

o Backwashing and cleaning filters.
o Periodic line flushing.
o Chlorinating.
o Acidifying (if necessary).
o Cleaning or replacing plugged emitters.
o Evaluating and monitoring system performance.
1. Pumps
 Follow manufacturer's recommendations to maintain submersed

turbine or above-ground centrifugal pumps.
 Turbine pumps require little maintenance. If failure does occur, repair
requires the removal of the pump, which can be complicated and
expensive.
 During the irrigation season, check above-ground pumps at each site
visit for:
o Excessive or unusual noise or vibration.
o Water leakage.
o Proper flow rate and pressure.
o Intake screen obstructions.
2. Power units
a. Electric motor routine maintenance

Dirt and corrosion
o Wipe, brush, vacuum, or blow accumulated dirt from the frame and
air passages.
1
Adapted from: Obreza, T. A. 2004. Maintenance guide for Florida microirrigation
systems. UF-IFAS, Soil and Water Science Dept. Ext. Cir. 1449.
110
o Feel for air discharge from the cooling air ports. If the flow is
weak, internal passages are probably clogged and require cleaning.
o Check for signs of corrosion and repaint or repair if necessary.
o Open the conduit box and check for deteriorating insulation or
corroded terminals.
b. Lubrication
Lubricate bearings only when scheduled, if they are noisy, or if they
are running hot. Do not over-lubricate.
c. Heat, noise, and vibration

Feel the motor frame and bearings for excessive heat or vibration.
Listen for abnormal noise. Promptly identify and eliminate the source
of these problems.
d. Winding insulation
If records indicate a tendency toward periodic winding failures, check
the condition of the insulation with an insulation resistance test.
3. Diesel engines
a. During the irrigation season, visually check the engine at each site
visit for:
o Proper oil pressure and coolant temperature.
o Fluid (oil, fuel, coolant) leaks or stains.
o Excessive noise or vibration.
b. Regularly check the engine oil level with the system off.
o Change the following based on the manufacturer's
recommendation:
1. Engine oil.
2. Engine coolant.
3. Oil and fuel filters.
o Tune up the engine and take other preventative measures once a
year or as the manufacturer recommends.
4. Filters
Proper water filter performance is critical to minimize emitter plugging.

Filters must be periodically cleaned of accumulated particles and debris.
Backwashing is a typical cleaning method. A partially clogged filter may
111
reduce system pressure, resulting in reduced and non-uniform water

application. Clogged filters also increase pump pressure head and consume
extra energy.
 Schedule filter backwashing either manually based on a time interval

or automatically based on pressure differential.
o If possible, use automatic backwashing. Set the automatic
backwash to operate on a 0.4-0.5 bar pressure differential.
o If backwashing manually, determine cleaning frequency based on
the length of time it takes for particles to accumulate.
 During irrigation periods, inspect screen and disk filters monthly (or
more frequently if needed) by removing the cover and examining the
filter element:
 With screen filters, check for tears or extruded material in the screen.
 With disk filters, check for accumulated organic material on the
outside of the disks, and check for sand or other particles that may
have become wedged between disks.
 Check sand media filters at least twice a year:
o Check for appropriate sand level.
o Look for caked material in the media.
o Make sure media has not flushed out during backwash.
o Make sure cavities have not opened up.
 Routinely inspect all components related to automatic backwashing:
o Hydraulic tubing.
o Pressure regulators.
o Pressure gauges.
o Control valves.
5. Chemical Injection Equipment
• Visually inspect injection equipment components each time a chemical is

injected into the irrigation system. This includes hoses, valves, pumps, and
the injector.
Be sure to flush the injection system with water following each

chemical injection so corrosive chemicals do not remain in the
equipment.
6. Automatic Valves
112
Automatic diaphragm valves are relatively reliable but require periodic

inspection to assure proper operation. If a valve failure goes undetected, the
pump or power unit could be damaged or water could be applied where it is
not needed.
 Inspect and clean diaphragm valves at least once a year. A valve can
usually be cleaned without removing it from the line.
o Clean deposits that have accumulated on the valve stem.
o Remove encrustation with a wire brush, a weak acid (like vinegar),
or very fine sand paper.
 When a valve is opened, inspect the diaphragm, seat, and o-ring seals.
Replace any components that are beginning to wear out.
 Periodically inspect adjustable pressure regulating valves to ensure
correct setting.
 If regulating valves are pre-set, check them with a pressure gauge
mounted at the regulator, or by attaching a portable pressure gauge to a
Schrader valve.
7. Pressure Gauges and Flow Meters
 Check pressure gauges occasionally to make sure they are working.

o Use high-quality liquid-filled gauges.
o Make sure the range of pressure measured by the gauge covers the
operating range of the system.
o Check gauge accuracy by comparing with a new gauge or a standard
test gauge.
 Occasionally observe flow meters while the irrigation system is
operating.
o Make sure the flow rate observed is reasonable for the system.
o Repair or replace a malfunctioning flow meter as soon as possible.
Field pipe, tubing, and emitters
Visually check irrigation system field components for leaks each time you
visit a running system. Leaks can develop in plastic system parts (often
resulting from animal chewing) and in hardware components like pipe
fittings, emitters, and hose adapters.
 Walk or ride the field, observing or listening for excessive water flow.
113
 When micro-sprinkler stakes are knocked over, the sprinkler pattern

becomes grossly distorted. Check for this problem by surveying emitters
as they operate.
8. Line Flushing
Particulate matter not removed by filters accumulates in irrigation pipes and

laterals. Chemical precipitation may occur inside pipelines after the
irrigation system shuts down. Suspended materials will be carried with the
irrigation water, but as the water velocity decreases near the end of lines,
particles will settle. If these sediments are allowed to build up, they will
eventually plug emitters.
 Periodically flush the entire irrigation pipe system (mainlines, submains,

headers, manifolds and lateral lines).
 Manually flush lateral lines by opening only a few at a time. Flushing
water velocity should be 0.3 m/sec or more to remove larger and denser
particles.
 Determine flushing velocity by measuring the volume of water flowing
from an open lateral for 1 minute. Use Table 15 to determine if minimum
flushing velocities are achieved.
Table 15. Pipe diameter vs. minimum water flow (L/s) needed to achieve an
effective flushing velocity of 0.3 m/s.
Pipe or tubing size Approximate flow
(mm) (L/s) required for
achieve 0.3 m/s
flushing velocity
13 0.06
19 0.11
25 0.17
32 0.30
38 0.40
50 0.75
75 1.60
100 2.70
114
 Examine the flushed material to get an idea of potential plugging

problems. Hold a plastic sheet, nylon sock, or jar at the end of the lateral
line to catch the first bit of debris as it leaves the pipe.
 Determine future flushing frequency based on the amount of material that
flushes out:
o Increase the flushing interval if only a small amount of suspended
particles are flushed from the pipe.
o Reduce the flushing interval if large amounts of material are flushed.
 After fertilizer is injected, run the system long enough to wash it out of
the irrigation system. If chlorine is injected, this extra run time is not
necessary.
 Occasionally irrigation pipes must be cut for maintenance or repairs.
Prevent plastic cuttings or shavings from plugging emitters:
o Use tube cutters rather than saws for repairs.
o If a saw must be used, clean and flush the repaired section before
reconnecting it to the irrigation system.
B. Water Treatment to Prevent Emitter Clogging
Microirrigation systems require a preventative maintenance plan based on

filtration, chlorination, acidification and flushing. Components of the
prevention-is-best-medicine maintenance plan for drip irrigation systems
include:
• Filtration: Removes solid particles from the water. Sand filters, disc
filters, screen filters or centrifugal sand separators are used to remove
precipitates and solid particles (200 mesh or equivalent for screen and
disk filters).
• Chlorination: Reacts with organic matter in the water and precipitates
ions in solution by injecting hypochlorous acid (HOCl) in the water. A 1
ppm residual Cl concentration at the end of the drip line indicates
complete reaction and is adequate.
• Acidification: Reduces pH approximately 6.5 to increase efficiency of

chlorination or to pH 3.0 to dissolve and oxidize materials in clogged
irrigation emitters.
115
• Flushing: Increasing water velocity, which forces solid particles and

precipitates to leave the drip lines and the emitters outside the irrigation
system.
C. Chlorination
Chlorine injection can prevent clogging of lines and emitters by algae and
bacterial slime. Chlorination is most effective when the pH is less than about
7.2. Due to pH sensitivity and variable chemical chlorine demand,
continuous low level chlorination is not usually a feasible method of water
treatment. In addition, sodium hypochlorite degrades over time, limiting
effective field storage periods to less than 2 months. Chlorinating during
fertigation cycles is ineffective. Whenever nitrogen is present in the water
the biocidal action of chlorine greatly diminishes. Chlorine reacts with
nitrogen sources in the water and forms chloramines which are about 1/150
as active disinfectants as chlorine alone.
Liquid sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI) is the easiest form of chlorine to

handle and is the type most often used for treatment of drip irrigation
systems. It is sold as common household bleach (5.25% chlorine) or as a
10% chlorine solution.
As chlorine is injected, some of it reacts with bacteria and other forms of

organic matter in the irrigation lines. This "reacted" chlorine is chemically
bound or "tied up" and is no longer antibacterial. Chlorine that has not
reacted remains as "free residual chlorine". Only this free chlorine is
available to destroy bacteria and to continue treatment of the system. For
chlorination to be effective, you should maintain 1 to 2 ppm free chlorine in
the system for 30 to 60 minutes. Usually, an initial concentration of 5 to 6
ppm is required in order to maintain 1 to 2 ppm free chlorine. Samples for
determining the initial chlorine concentration should be taken near the point
of injection.
116
1. Chlorine Injection Rate Calculation
Liquid: L/hr = (0.036 * ppm * L/s) / % Cl
L/s: flow rate of system
Ppm: ppm of Cl- to be injected
Conditions:
10 L/s system
15 ppm Cl2 injection rate
NaOCl - 10% Cl2 (liquid chlorine solution)
L/hr = (0.036 * ppm * L/s) / % Cl
L/hr = (0.036 * 15 * 150) / 10 = 8.1 L/hr
NaOCl - 5.25% Cl2 (household bleach)
L/hr = (0.036 * 15 * 150) / 5.25 = 15.4 L/hr
During chlorination, maintain 1 to 2 ppm free chlorine at the point in the

system where the concentration is lowest (usually at the point farthest from
injection). If the irrigation water has a pH of 7.5 or less, 1 ppm free chlorine
is sufficient. For water with a pH above 7.5, maintain 2 ppm.
It is often necessary to maintain a concentration of 5 to 6 ppm free chlorine

at the point of injection in order to maintain 1-2 ppm downstream. The
specific concentration required depends on water quality and the quantity of
bacteria, algae and other organic matter in the lines. Maintain the
recommended free chlorine concentration at the most distant emitter for 60
minutes. This requires frequent testing of the free chlorine concentration and
subsequent adjusting of the chlorine injection rate if needed.
For detailed and careful maintenance of the irrigation system, we refer you
to the Table 16.
117
Table 16. Checklist for microirrigation system maintenance
Compared to
What to Check How often What to Look For Possible Causes
What
Leaks in pipelines
High flow and/or Leaks in laterals
Design or low pressure Open flush valves
Pump flow rate
benchmark Open lateral ends
and pressures Weekly
flow rate and Closed zone valves
for each zone
pressures Low flow and/or Pipeline obstruction
high pressure Clogging
Pump malfunction
Well problems
Pressure across Every Manufacturer
Exceeds max
filter irrigation specifications Filter becoming clogged
allowable
Possible clogging
Operating Monthly or High pressure High system pressure
Benchmark
pressures at if possible Obstructions
pressures
ends of laterals clogging Low pressure Broken lateral
expected Leaks in lateral
Low pressure
Broken pipeline
Hole in filter screen
Water at lateral
Particles in water Tear in filter mesh
ends & flush Bi-weekly Water source
Other debris Filter problem
valves
Chemical/fertilizer precipitation
Algae growth
Bacterial growth
Leaks-breaks,
Pump station Weekly
engine reservoir
levels, tank levels
Calibrated
Injection pump Discoloration at Indicates possible build up of
Weekly setting at
settings outlets or ends of minerals, fertilizer, algae, and/or
startup
laterals bacterial slime
Pest or mechanical damage
Leaks in tubing Tubing blowout from high
System at start
Overall system Weekly pressure
up
Wilting crop Clogged, obstructed, emitters
Crop pests or disease
118
Index:
A Carbonate 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 59
Ability of water 50 Centrifugal pumps 92, 110
Acid 50, 56, 75, 113, 115 Centrifugal sand 115
acidification 57, 115 separator
Acidifying 110 Centrifugal volute pump 93
Acidity 50, 51, 63, 64 Chloride 49,50,51,54,56,64,64,65
Air bubbles 23 Chemical injection 112
equipment
Alkali (Sodic) 54 Chemical precipitation 50, 114
Alkalinity 49, 50, 51, 54, 56 Chloramines 116
Aluminum 18, 58, 81 Chlorinating 110, 116
Aluminum cation 50 Chlorination 54, 112-114
Ammonia 54 Chlorine 45, 48, 112, 113, 114
Ammonium 58 Chlorine is injected 112, 113
Ammonium nitrate 64, 65 Clay minerals 10, 13
(montmorilonite)
Atmosphere 16, 21, 47, 93 Clayey soil 11, 12, 13, 18, 24, 29
Atmospheric pressure 93, 94 Closed valve 59
Automatic Valves 112 Column of water 77
B Conductivity 16, 31, 50
Backwashing 110-112 Control valve 73, 96, 112
Basic infiltration rate 30 Copper 60, 61
Bicarbonate 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55 Crop coefficient 34, 36, 43, 72
Black plastic 12, 71 Crop evaporation 45
Block valve 75 Crop evapotranspiration 34, 46, 72
Borate 60 D
Boron 49, 55, 56, 60, 61 Decomposition rate 59
Bulk density 19, 20 Deep percolation 12, 16, 34, 45, 46
Bypass line 62, 63 Deficit irrigation 25, 42, 69, 70, 72
C Definition 21
Calcification 48, 75 Depth of the soil 17, 19, 29
Calcium 49-55, 59, 61, 68 Depth of water 19, 32, 44, 93
Calcium carbonate 13, 49, 50, 51, 52 Di-ammonium 65
phosphate
Calcium hardness 52 Diesel engines 99, 102, 105, 111
Calcium nitrate 64 Disc filter 115
Calcium phosphate 58 Discharge 16, 17, 76, 78, 79, 87,
Calcium 57,58 60, 61 92,95,96,98,100,102,111
sulfate(gypsum)
Capacity of water 50 Discharge gradient 83, 84
Capillary rise 45, 46 Dissolved solid 48, 50, 51
119
Carbon dioxide 21, 51 Drainage system 28

Drip irrigation 13, 16, 32, 57, 71, 100, Filter 13, 48-52, 54, 57, 62, 73,
115, 116 75,80, 84, 85, 95, 96,
Drip system 24, 42, 69, 73, 107 110-112 , 114, 115, 118
Dripper 12, 13, 16, 17, 32, 48, 71, Filtration 49, 73, 115
73, 75, 87
Drive efficiency 94, 97, 98 Flow Meter 73, 75, 84, 113
Driving force 93 Flow rate 63, 78-80, 83-86, 92, 96,
E 107, 110, 113, 117, 118
Effective Rainfall 25, 42, 70, 72 Fluid injected 66, 67
Efficiency 43, 69, 71, 92, 94, 97-99, Flushing 48,74,75,110,114-116
101, 103-106, 115
Efficiency of electric 102 Free Chlorine 116, 117
motor
Electric motors 99-102, 105 Friction 62, 77, 78, 80, 81, 83-86,
Electric power 92,93, 101, 102, 106, 107 93-96, 98, 104
Electric pump 100 Full-flowing pipe 78
Electrical conductivity 20, 48, 50 G
Electrical generator 103 Gasoline engines 99, 102, 103, 105
Elevation 77, 86, 100, 103, 104 Gradual 12, 85
Energy 12, 21, 34, 85, 92, 93, 98, Gravel filter 73
99, 102, 106, 107, 109
Energy cost 12, 105 Gravel layer 29, 30
Energy required by 97 Gravitational potential 27
pump
Energy source 106 Groundwater 45, 46, 47, 49, 53, 54,
Engine coolant 111 76, 93
Engine oil 111 H
Evaporation 13, 34, 44, 46, 71, 72 Hard pan layer 28, 29
Evapotranspiration 45, 47 Hardness 51, 52, 56
Extra energy 112 Horizontal flow 17, 71
F Horizontal Pipe 83
FAO 34, 36, 41, 43, 69, 70 Horizontal rate 32
Ferric iron 53 Humidity 41
Ferrous 53 Hydrochloric acid 50
Fertigation 12, 13, 62-64, 66, 116 Hydrogen ion 51
Fertilizer (closed) tank 62 Hydrologic cycle 46, 47, 75
Fertilizer fraction 66, 67 Hydroxide ion 51
Fertilizer injection 66, 67, 68 Hydraulic tubing 112
Fertilizer is injected 67, 115 Hydrogen sulfide 49, 54, 56
Fertilizers 13, 51, 57-60, 62-67, 73, Hypochlorous acid 115
115, 118
120
I Manganese oxide 53
Impeller 92, 93 Mechanical power 106
Infiltration depth 30 Meta-phosphate 55
Infiltration rate 30, 31 (polyphosphate)
Injection system 112 Meteorological station 43, 44
Inorganic nitrogen 54 Mg hardness 52
Inorganic particle 49 Microirrigation system 12, 47, 48, 52, 53, 67,
Inorganic phosphorus 55 77, 86, 92, 110, 115, 118
Inside diameter 78, 83 Microirrigation 48
Intercropping 25, 71 suitability analysis
Intercropping effect 72 Micro-sprayer 12, 16, 21, 18, 71, 73
Internal Combustion 102, 103, 105 Micro-sprinkler 12, 17, 66, 71, 73, 75,
Engines 87-89, 95, 96, 114
Iron 13, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 56, Moisture content 18-22, 24, 25
60, 61
Irrigation efficiency 24 Molybdenum 60, 61
Irrigation system 32, 47-49, 52, 54, 55, 57, Mulch 12, 13, 25, 42, 71, 72
62, 66, 67, 71, 74, 78, 80,
85,100, 102, 110, 112-117
Irrigation water 23, 42, 49, 50, 52-54, 57, Mulch area factor 72
60, 62, 64, 68, 69, 71, 72,
114, 117
L Muriatic acid 50
Large pores 16, 17 N
Leaching requirement 68, 69, 72, 76 Natural gas 99, 103, 106
Lead 68, 85 Natural water 52-55
Lime 49, 61 Nitrate 49-51 , 54, 55, 58, 63-65
Line Flushing 110, 114 Nitrification 58
Loamy soil 16, 27 Nitrite 54
Low cost 20, 62 Nitrogen 54, 58, 61, 62, 64,66,116
Low efficiency 98 non-carbonate hardness 51
Low pressure 12, 13, 93, 96, 118 Nutrients 12, 57, 58, 60, 75, 85
Low rate 13, 63 O
LP-gas Engines 102 Organic matter 13, 58, 59,68, 115-117
M Organic nitrogen 54
Macrosprinkler 12, 16 Organic particle 49
Magnesium 50, 51, 52, 54, 59, 61, 68 Organic phosphorus 55
Magnesium 53 Orthophosphate 55
bicarbonate
Magnesium carbonate 51, 54 Output pressure 75
Magnesium ion 55 Oven dry 18, 19
121
Manganese 49-51, 53, 56, 60, 61 Overall system efficiency 72

Oxygen 15-17, 21, 53 Pressure Head 94, 95
P Pressure Loss 78, 80, 81, 83-85
P Fertilizer 58, 59 Pressure Regulator 112, 113
Pan evaporation 41, 45, 69 Propane 103
equation
Pan evaporation factor 43 Pump efficiency 97, 98, 100, 102, 107,
Particle density 19 108
Penman Monteith 34, 41, 43, 45, 69 Pump Outlet 75
Permanent wilting 21, 22 Pump Pressure 74, 75, 112
pH 49-52, 54, 56-61, 64, 115- Pump Suction 93
117
Phosphate 55, 55, 58, 59, 65 Pump Valve 75
Phosphate anion 50 Pumping Rate 94, 107
Phosphate fertilizer 57 Pumping 93, 95-98, 101, 102, 104,
Phosphorus 51, 55, 58, 59, 61 106, 109
Phosphorous fertilizer 64 PVC 73, 80, 81, 83-85, 96
Pipe Area 81 R
Pipelines 62, 85, 114, 118 Rain fall 12,45-47,58,69,70,75,76
Piston pump 62, 63 Root respiration 21
Plant growth 52, 55, 58 Roughness coefficient 86
Plant roots 34, 60 Runoff 12, 13, 30, 45, 46, 59
Plastic Pipe 81 Rusty 49
Plugging emitters 115 S
Polyethylene 73 Saline water 68, 76
Pore size 16, 27 Salinity 12, 25, 42, 54-56, 64, 68,
Porous 23, 25 69, 76
Potassium 49, 52, 54, 59, 61, 62, 65 Salt 52, 53, 68
Potassium bicarbonate 53 Sand Filter 73, 112, 115
Potassium chloride 64, 65 Sand layer 29, 30
Potassium nitrate 63 Sandy soil 15-17, 20, 21, 27, 32, 60
Potassium sulfate 54
Potential 21, 25, 27, 49, 51, 96, 115 Saturated soil 25
Potential 34, 43, 72 Screen Filter 73, 112, 115
evapotranspiration
Power Requirement 94, 96, 98, 100, 103 Shaft energy 97
Power source 100, 101 Shaft pump power 97
Power Unit 92-94, 97-99, 102-107, Shaft Power 99
110, 113
Pressure 13,25,49, 53, 62, 63, 66, Sludge 49, 53, 63
73, 77,78, 80, 83-87, 100,
110-112, 118
122
Pressure Gauges 77, 112, 113 Small pores 16, 17

Sodium 49, 50, 52-55, 68 Valve Stem 113
Sodium Adsorption 55, 56 Velocity 77-81, 83, 85, 114
Ratio
Sodium bicarbonate 53 Velocity Head 84
Sodium hypochlorite 116 Venturi type 62, 63
Soil compaction 68 Vertical Distance 32, 95
Soil gas 13 Vertical Elevation 77
Soil humus 58, 59 Vertical Movement 15, 27
Soil hydraulic 31 Vertical flow 17
Soil moisture 17-20, 23-27, 46 Volute Pumps 92
Soil particles 13, 19 Volume of water 19, 25, 78, 80, 114
Soil phosphate 58 W
Soil solution 57, 58 Water cycle 46
Soil surface 12, 60, 67, 75 Water depletion 22
Soil texture 17, 27 Water energy 97, 99, 100
Soil water movement 27 Water Flowing 28, 73, 78- 80, 83, 85,
solid salts 53 92, 95, 113, 114
Sorptivity 30 Water Hammer 85
Submersible pumps 93, 94, 106 Water movement 20, 27, 77
Sucking Water 93 Water potential 21
Suction Pipe 63, 92, 93 Water Power 96, 97, 107
Sulfide/Sulfate 49, 50, 54, 56, 57, 60 Water quality 48, 50, 56, 69, 117
Sulfur 49, 51, 54, 57, 59-61 Water requirement 23, 34, 41, 42, 68, 69,
Surface irrigation 21 71, 72
Surface water 30, 46-49, 76, 93 Water Treatment 115, 116
Suspended Materials 114 Water Velocity 77-79, 81,83-85,113,116
Static Head 94, 95 Weak Acid 113
System Component 53, 73, 74, 80 Wetting front 12, 28-30, 32, 33
System efficiency 71, 72 Wetting front 32
T horizontally
Tensiometer 22, 23, 24 Wetting front vertically 32
Tension 21, 22 Winding insulation 111
Time Domain 20 Z
Reflectometer
Turbine (diffuser) pump 92, 110 Zinc 60, 61
Total porosity 19
Total Dissolved solid 48, 51
Total Dynamic Head 94-96, 102
(TDH)
Treated wastewater 47, 48
Transpiration 21, 34, 46
123
124

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Soils, Water, and Micro-Irrigation Systems

Soils, Water, and Micro-Irrigation

Prof. Anwar M. Battikhi Prof. Brian J. Boman

Faculty of Agriculture College of Engineering

University of Jordan University of Florida

Amman – Jordan Fort Pierce –Florida - USA

Description Page No.

b. Ceramic Plate 25 Figure 7

3. Crop Water Requirement (ETc), Using 41 Figure 15+16

1. Water Quality Parameters 50

d. Calcium and Magnesium (Ca, Mg) 59

D. Irrigation Scheduling 75 Figure 21

Chapter 7 Irrigation System Maintenance 110

A. Irrigation system maintenance 110

c. Heat, noise, and vibration 111

Soil Water Relations:

θw: Soil Moisture Content by Weight (Gravimetric Method) (%)

θd: Depth of water in soils (cm/cm)

ρb : Bulk Density (gm/cm3)

I: Infiltration depth (cm)

S: Sorptivity (cm min -1/2)

A: a constant that depends on soil hydraulic conductivity, (cm/min)

i: infiltration rate (cm/min)

x: distance traveled (cm)

y : vertical distance advance (cm)

Plant Water Relations:

ETo: Potential Evapotranspiration (mm)

ETc: crop Evapotranspiration (mm)

Kc: Crop Coefficient

Ep : Evaporation from a class A pan (mm)

Kp : Pan evaporation factor

Ev: Evaporation (mm)

Tp: Transpiration (mm)

DP: Deep percolation (mm)

+RO: Run off in or out of the area under study (mm)

CA: Capillary rise from groundwater (mm)

EC: Electric Conductivity (μS/cm)

TDS: Total Solids (mg/Mg)

SAR: Sodium Adsorption Ratio

Rate: fertilizer injection rate (L/h)

A: area to be irrigated (ha)

P: fertilizer fraction, percent of fertilizer per liter of fluid injected (%)

H: fertilizer injection time (hr)

W: weight of fertilizer solution (kg/L)

Fp: amount of fertilizer to be applied per pant (kg/plant)

NP: number of plants per hectare

LR: Leaching Requirement, (amount/100)

AW: water to be applied (mm) or (m)

ECe: the soil salinity (dS/m)

ECw: The water salinity (dS/m)

D: Deficit Irrigation (mm) or (m)

ER: Effective Rainfall (mm) or (m)

M: Mulch (mm) or (m)

Eff: System Efficiency (mm) or (m)

IC: Intercropping (mm) or (m)

TIR: Total irrigation water requirement (mm) or (m)

Ht: elevation (m)

P: pressure (bar) or (atmos)

Ht: elevation (m)

Q: flow rate (L/min) or (m3/sec)

D: inside diameter of pipe or hose (cm) or (mm)

A: cross-sectional area of flow (m2) (A = π * D2/4, π = 3.1416)