Research reviewer 2

Lesson 3: Ethical standards in research

- Process of applying moral standards

1. Respect confidentiality and privacy
 By not putting the name option
 Conversations via letters, etc.
 Respect comfort
2. Honesty
 Intellectual honesty must be upheld in the planning, execution and writing the
research report

Planning – design

 Private
 Technique

Execution – Sampling technique

Writing – Stick to results ~ take notes

3. Objectivity
 Research investigation must be free from any forms of bias
 Not biased and should not be judgmental
4. Openness
 Open to criticisms and results of the study

Lesson 4: Research sampling techniques

1. Sampling – refers to the process of systematically selecting individuals, unit or groups to be

analyzed during the conduct of the group
2. Population – The group(entire) or people within the area

4 ways to determine the sample size for your body:

a. Heuristics
b. Literature review
c. Formulas
d. Power analysis

Heuristics

- Refers to the rule of thumb for sample size. Based on the practice(trend) rather than theory
 Research Design No. of participants
Survey 800
Correlational 100 to 200
Ex Post Facto 30+
Experimental 30 or more
*kung ano trip mo, edi un gagamitin mo

Literature review

- Check for the studies same with yours and follow the samples size they used.

*Gagaya ka lang sa studies na kamukha nung sayo

Formula

Slovin’s Formula

- is used to calculate the sample size(n) given the population size(N) and a margin of error(e)

- It’s a random sampling technique formula to estimate sampling size

- It is computed as/ the formula is

n = N/1+N(e^2)

n = no, samples

N = total population

e = error margin/margin of error

Power analysis

- 90% of the entire population

Population and Sample

Sample – Group of individuals who will actually participate in the research

Sample size – The no. of individuals

2 types of sampling: Probability/Random and Non-probability sampling

Probability/random sampling – Systemized; you follow a pattern

 Simple random sampling

- Roleta; random number generators or other techniques that are based entirely on
chance
 - You assign no. to every member of the population and use a random number
generator to choose a participant

 Systemic sampling
- Every member of the population is numbered but instead of being picked randomly,
participants are chosen on intervals

 Stratified sampling
- Dividing the population into subpopulations
*Subgroups (called strata)
- Divide the people into stratas then randomly pick one sample from each

 Cluster sampling
- Divide the population into subgroups but instead only picking individuals like
stratified samples, you randomly select an entire subgroup.

Non-probability sampling – convenience; perception

 Convenience sampling
- Individuals who happen to be the most accessible to the researchers.

 Voluntary response sampling

- The respondents will volunteer respondents/participants.

 Purposive sampling
- You choose the most useful respondents for the research

 Snowball sampling
- Recruit other respondents from respondents

Lesson 5: Definitions, scope and limitations

Origin and growth of statistics

- “Statistics” – Latin”status” ; Italian”statisa” ; German”statistik” = ‘Political state’

- Sir Ronald A Fisher (1890-1962) ~ Father of statistics

Functions of statistics:

1. Summarizing 3. Forecasting
2. Comparison 4. Estimation

Limitations of statistics:

o Statistics is not suitable to the study of qualitative phenomenon

o Statistics does not study individuals
 o Statistic laws are not exact
o Statistic tables may be misused
o Statistics is only, one of the methods of studying a problem

Frequency distribution - is how often something occurs

Ex: Sam played football on;

*Saturday, Morning *Thursday, Afternoon

*Saturday, Afternoon

Frequency: 2 on Saturday, 1 on Thursday, and 3 for the whole week

Frequency distribution table:

Sam’s team has scored the following number of goals in the recent game:

2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 2, 2, 3,

Sam put the numbers in order then added up:

 how often 1 occurs (two times)

 how often 2 occurs (five times)
 etc…

and wrote them down:

Scores:

1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5

Score: Frequency:
1 2
2 5
3 4
4 2
5 1

Frequency distribution – is constructed for 3(three) main reasons

1. to facilitate the analysis of data

2. to estimate frequencies of the unknown population distribution from the distribution of sample
data
3. to facilitate the computation of various statistical measures

Types of data
Raw data – the statistical data collected are generally raw data or ungrouped data ~ discrete data –
informations that can only take certain values

80, 70, 55, 50, 60, 65, 40, 30, 80, 90, 75, 45, 35, 65, 70, 80, 82, 55, 65, 80, 60, 55, 38, 65, 75, 85, 90, 65,
45, 75,

Arrangement of data in ascending order:

30, 35, 38, 40, 45, 45, 50, 55, 55, 55, 60, 60, 65, 65, 65, 65, 65, 65, 70, 75, 75, 75, 80, 80, 80, 80, 85, 90,
90

Discrete (or) ungrouped frequency distribution:

Ex:

Frequency distribution of the no, of children

No. of children Tally marks Frequency

0 III 3
1 IIIII-II 7
2 IIIII-IIIII 10
3 IIIII-III 8
4 IIIII-I 6
5 IIII 4
6 II 2
Total : 40

Class limit

o the lowest and the highest values that can be included in the class
o Lower class limit(L) ; Upper class limit(U)

Lower class limit ; Upper class limit ~Table 1

Ratings: Frequency:
0-2 20
3-5 14
6-8 15
9-11 2
12-14 1

Lower class limit(L) – Smallest no. that can actually belong to different classes

Upper class limit(U) – Largest no. that can actually belong to different classes

Class Interval
 - Size of each grouping of data
Ex: 0-2, 3-5, 6-8, 9-11, 12-14 (Table1)
- Range into which data is divided

Range

- The difference between largest and smallest value of the observation

- Denoted by (R)

Formula: R = L-S

12, 25, 27, 36, 38, 40, 43, 50, 54, 62 Range = 62 – 12 = 50

Class width

- The difference between the lower- and upper-class limit

- Denoted by (C)

Class: Frequency:
1-4 ~ 4-1=3 4
5-8 ~ 8-4=3 5
9-12 ~ 12-9=3 3
13-16 ~ 16-13=3 4
17-20 ~ 20-12=3 2

Formula: C = R(Range)/1+3.3log(N)

C = Class width

Range = highest-lowest value

N- # of population

Lesson 6: Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)

- Study of population with respect to one in which we are interested

- The central value is called a measure of central tendency

Arithmetic mean or mean:

- A.K.A the mean of a variable

- For the ungrouped or raw data
- Defined as the sum of the observations divided by the number of observations

Formula for ungrouped data: (x̄=mean)

x̄ = Σx/N
Formula for grouped data: f = frequency

x̄ = Σfxm/N xm = midpoint

N = population

Σ = summation

Ungrouped data:

Ex: 80, 80, 81, 80, 85

x̄ = Σx/n = 80 + 80 + 81 + 80 + 85/5 = 81.2 = 81

Grouped data:

Steps to compute:

1. Calculate the class width (c) 3. Compute for the mean

2. Plot the frequency distribution table 4. Conclusion or inference